ma 


PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY. 


THE  subject  of  Physical  Geography  is  one  of  which  so  little  is 
generally  known,  that  the  publishers,  in  presenting  a  new  and  improved 
edition  of  Mrs.  SOMERVILLE'S  excellent  work,  have  thought  it  not  inap- 
propriate to  introduce  the  following  extracts  from  an  article  on  its 
uses  and  applications,  from  the  "  Canada  Journal  of  Education" :  — 

"  There  is  probably  no  study  which,  in  comparison  with  its  importance,  has 
received  so  little  attention  as  this.  The  school-boy  soon  wearies  of  learning  the 
names  and  locations  of  continents,  peninsulas,  islands,  capes,  mountains,  oceans, 
seas,  lakes,  rivers,  Ac.,  Ac. ;  together  with  their  comparative  size,  length,  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  their  population,  navigation,  character  of  inhabitants, 
varieties  of  animals,  various  productions,  adding,  it  may  be,  the  accompanying 
history  of  events  connected  with  the  different  countries ;  and  to  what  purpose  ? 
To  be  forgotten  nearly  as  soon,  and  much  more  easily,  than  learned. 

"  We  think  that  the  judicious  introduction  of  physical  geography,  in  connec- 
tion with  topography,  will  very  much  increase  the  interest  of  the  latter,  while 
the  knowledge  it  will  afford,  in  and  of  itself,  will  exceed  by  far,  in  importance, 
what  is  usually  obtained,  at  the  present  time,  even  in  our  best  schools. 

"  Of  what  use  is  it  that  we  know  that  there  are  certain  mountains,  seas,  or 
rivers,  in  Europe  or  Asia,  if  we  are  totally  ignorant  of  their  effects  upon  vegeta- 
tion, upon  civilization,  and  the  condition  of  mankind?  or  that  the  different  con- 
tinents are  so  many  miles  in  length,  and  so  many  in  breadth,  if  we  are  unac- 
quainted with  the  corresponding  oceanic  influences  and  the  resulting  facts. 

"  How  many  scholars  know  why  all  the  great  deserts  of  the  world  are  situated 
where  they  are,  and  that  the  physical  laws  are  such  that  it  is  not  possible  that 
there  could  be  anything  but  deserts  in  those  places  ?  How  many  know  why  the 
northern  part  of  the  Andes  is  almost  wholly  desert  upon  their  western  slope, 
and  the  southern  part  upon  their  eastern  ?  or  that,  were  this  chain  removed  to 
the  eastern  side  of  South  America,  nearly  the  whole  division  would  be  one  con- 
tinuous  desert? 

"  These  things  are  seldom  spoken  of  as  having  any  connection  with  the  study  of 
geography,  and  yet  it  would  seem  that  they  should  constitute  its  very  foundation. 

"  Probably  the  difference  in  the  civilization  of  Europe  and  Africa,  is  to  be 
attributed  more  to  the  inland  seas  and  gulfs,  and  the  numerous  rivers  of  the 
former,  and  their  effects ;  and  the  absence  of  the  same  in  the  latter,  together 
with  other  physical  characteristics,  than  to  any^ther  causes  whatever ;  but  these 
things  are  seldom  learned  in  the  schools. 

"  The  scholar  learns  the  results  of  these  causes  as  merely  abstract  facts,  and 
remembers  them  about  as  well  as  he  would  the  conclusion  to  a  proposition  in 
Euclid,  without  having  been  through  with  the  demonstration. 

"  These  things  are  not  too  difficult  to  be  understood  by  the  scholars  in  our 
grammar  and  high  schools,  and  many  of  them  come  within  the  range  of  th« 
lower  classes. 

(ii) 


^, 


LPHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY/ 


BY 


MARY    SOMERVILLE, 

/; 

AUTHOR   OF   THE    "CONNEXION    OP   THE    PHYSICAL    SCIENCES/' 
"MECHANISM    OF   THE   HEAVENS,"    ETC.   ETC. 


A   NEW   AMERICAN, 

FROM    THE     THIRD     AND     REVISED     LONDON     EDITION. 

WITH  NOTES,  AND  A  GLOSSARY, 

BY 

W.   S.   W.   RUSCHENBERGER,   M.D., 


PHILADELPHIA: 
BLANC  HARD    AND    LEA, 

1854. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1853,  by 
BLANCHARD  AND   LEA, 

in  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  in  and  for 
the  Eastern  District  of  Pennsylvania. 

I.  X.  AND  P.  0.  COLLINS,   PKINTEE8. 


(iv) 


TO 

.   SIR  JOHN  F.  W.  HERSCHEL,  BART.,  K.H. 

&c.        &c.        &c. 

DEAR  SIR  JOHN, 

I  avail  myself  with  pleasure  of  your  permission  to  dedicate 
my  book  to  you,  as  it  gives  me  an  opportunity  of  expressing  my 
admiration  of  your  talents,  and  my  sincere  estimation  of  your 

friendship. 

I  remain,  with  great  regard, 

Yours  truly, 

MARY  SOMERVILLE 

LONDON,  29<A  February,  1848. 


1*  (v) 


PUBLISHERS'  ADVERTISEMENT. 


THE  improvements  and  additions  embodied  in  the  third 
London  edition  are  enumerated  in  the  Author's  Preface. 
The  additions  to  the  last  American  edition  have  been 
considerably  extended  in  this ;  and  the  Glossary  of  scientific 
and  technical  terms  has  been  carefully  revised.  It  is  be- 
lieved the  volume  is  very  much  improved,  and  superior  to 
the  last  London  edition. 

The  additions  which  are  distributed  through  the  volume 
are  enclosed  in  brackets  [  ].  These,  with  the  Glossary,  add 
considerably  to  the  number  of  pages.  The  American  Pub- 
lishers therefore  believe,  that  it  will  be  found  well  suited 
to  the  wants  of  the  general  reader,  and  in  every  particular 
adapted  to  the  use  of  the  more  advanced  pupils  in  schools. 

PHILADELPHIA,  May,  1853. 


(vi) 


INTRODUCTION. 


THE  daily  accumulating  knowledge  in  every  branch  of 
science  has  rendered  it  necessary  to  make  many  additions 
and  corrections  in  the  third  edition  of  this  work.  In  doing 
this,  the  Author  acknowledges  her  obligations  to  Baron 
Humboldt's  invaluable  '  Cosmos,'  with  Colonel  Sabine's 
excellent  notes  —  and  to  the  works  of  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont, 
Sir  Charles  Lyell,  and  Sir  Henry  De  la  Beche ; *  to  the 
researches  of  Messrs.  Campbell,  Thomson,  Strachey,  and 
Dr.  Hooker  in  the  Himalaya ;  and  to  papers  in  the  periodical 
journals  of  Europe,  India,  and  America. 

The  Author  has  to  express  her  thanks  to  her  friend  Mr. 
Pentland  for  his  kindness  in  again  superintending  the  passage 
through  the  press  of  this  work  during  her  residence  abroad, 
and  for  matter  hitherto  unpublished,  on  the  countries  visited 
by  him  during  his  diplomatic  missions  to  Bolivia  and  Peru ; 
and  also  to  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  the  Prince  of  Canino,  and 
Dr.  Weddell,  for  valuable  information  on  the  subjects  of 
Geology,  Ornithology,  and  Botanical  Geography. 

1  'Principles  of  Geology,  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell/  8vo.,  1850;  'Manual 
of  Elementary  Geology,'  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  8vo.,  1851 ;  « The  Geo- 
logical Observer,'  by  Sir  Henry  T.  De  la  Beche,  C.B.,  8vo.,  1851. 
(Republished  by  Blanchard  &  Lea.) 

(vii) 


VU1  INTRODUCTION. 

It  was  the  Author's  wish  and  her  publisher's  intention 
that  this  work  should  be  accompanied  by  maps  to  illustrate 
the  most  important  questions  of  Physical  Geography ;  but 
since  Mr.  Alex.  Keith  Johnston  has  published  an  edition  of 
his  splendid  l  Physical  Atlas'  on  a  reduced  scale,1  which 
affords  all  the  information  required,  that  plan  has  been 
abandoned. 

The  Author  must  also  acknowledge  the  assistance  she  has 
received  from  another  work  recently  published  by  the  same 
author,  his  '  Geographical  Dictionary,' 2  the  most  complete 
General  Gazetteer  that  has  appeared  in  our  own  or  in  any 
other  language. 

TURIN,  March  4,  1851. 


1 '  The  Physical  Atlas  of  Natural  Phenomena/  1  vol.  fol.,  1847 ; 
'  The  Physical  Atlas,  reduced  for  the  Use  of  Colleges,  Families,  &c.' 
1  vol.  4to.,  1850.  (Republished  by  Blanchard  &  Lea.) 

2  '  A  Dictionary  of  Geography,  forming  a  complete  General  Gazetteer 
tf  the  World,'  by  Alex.  Keith  Johnston.  1  vol.  8vo.,  London,  1850. 


CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  I. 

GEOLOGY. 

Of  Physical  Geography — Position  of  the  Earth  in  the  Solar  System — 
Distance  from  the  Sun  —  Civil  Year  —  Inclination  of  Terrestrial  Orbit — 
Mass  of  the  Sun  —  Distance  of  the  Moon  —  Figure  and  Density  of  the 
Earth  from  the  Motions  of  the  Moon  —  Figure  of  the  Earth  from  the 
Arcs  of  the  Meridian  —  from  Oscillations  of  Pendulum  —  Local  Disturb- 
ances —  Mean  Density  of  the  Earth  —  Known  Depth  below  its  Surface 
Outline  of  Geology Page  13 

CHAPTER  II. 

Direction  of  the  Forces  that  raised  the  Continents  —  Proportion  of  Land 
and  Water  —  Size  of  the  Continents  and  Islands  —  Outline  of  the  Land 
—  Extent  of  Coasts,  and  proportion  they  bear  to  the  Areas  of  the  Con- 
tinents—  Elevation  of  the  Continents  —  Forms  of  Mountains — Forms 
of  Rocks  —  Connexion  between  Physical  Geography  of  Countries  and 
their  Geological  Structure  —  Contemporaneous  Upheaval  of  parallel 
Mountain  Chains  —  Parallelism  of  Mineral  Veins  or  Fissures  —  Mr. 
Hopkins's  Theory  of  Fissures  —  Parallel  Chains  similar  in  Structure  — 
Interruptions  in  Continents  and  Mountain  Chains  —  Form  of  the  Great 
Continent  —  The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent  —  The  Atlas,  Span- 
ish, French,  and  German  Mountains  —  The  Alps,  Balkan,  and  Apennines 
— Glaciers  —  Geological  Notice 38 

CHAPTER  III. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  continued — The  Caucasus  —  The 
Western  Asiatic  Table-Land  and  its  Mountains 56 

CHAPTER  IV. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  continued — The  Oriental  Table- 
Land  and  its  Mountains 60 

CHAPTER  V. 

Secondary  Mountain  Systems  of  the  Great  Continent  —  That  of  Scandi- 
navia —  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  —  The  Ural  Mountains  —  The  Great 
Northern  Plain 71 

CHAPTER  VI. 

The  Southern  Low  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  with  their  Secondary 
Table-Lands  and  Mountains , 78 

CHAPTER  VII. 

Africa  —  Table-Land  —  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Eastern  Coast  —  Western 
Coast  —  Abyssinia  —  Senegambia  —  Low  Lands  and  Deserts 86 

CHAPTER  VIII. 

American  Continent  —  The  Mountains  of  South  America  —  The  Andes  — 

.     The  Mountains  of  the  Parima  and  Brazil 94 

(ix) 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Low  Lands  of  South  America  —  Desert  of  Patagonia  —  The  Pampas 
of  Buenos  Ayres  —  The  Silvas  of  the  Amazons  —  The  Llanos  of  the  Ori- 
noco and  Venezuela  —  Geological  Notice 106 

CHAPTER  X. 

Central  America — West  Indian  Islands — Geological  Notice .115 

CHAPTER  XL 

North  America  —  Table-Land  and  Mountains  of  Mexico  —  The  Rocky 
Mountains  —  The  Maritime  Chain  and  Mountains  of  Russian  Ame- 
rica   120 

CHAPTER  XII. 

North  America,  continued — The  Great  Central  Plains,  or  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi  —  The  Alleghany  Mountains  —  The  Atlantic  Slope  —  The  At- 
lantic Plain — Geological  Notice  —  The  Mean  Height  of  the  Conti- 
nents   124 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Continent  of  Australia — Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land  —  Islands  — 
Continental  Islands  —  Pelasgic  Islands  —  New  Zealand  —  New  Guinea 

—  Borneo  —  Atolls  —  Encircling  Reefs  —  Coral  Reefs  —  Barrier  Reefs 

—  Volcanic  Islands  —  Areas  of  Subsidence  and  Elevation  in  the  Bed  of 
the  Pacific — Active  Volcanoes  —  Earthquakes  —  Secular  Changes  in  the 
Level  of  the  Land.. 137 

CHAPTER  XIV. 

Arctic  Lands  —  Greenland  —  Spitzbergen  —  Iceland  —  Its  Volcanic  Pheno- 
mena and  Geysers  —  Jan  Mayen's  Land  —  New  Siberian  Islands  —  Ant- 
arctic Lands  —  Victoria  Continent 161 

CHAPTER  XV. 

Nature  and  Character  of  Mineral  Veins  —  Metalliferous  Deposits  —  Mines 

—  Their   Drainage   and  Ventilation  —  Their  Depth  —  Diffusion  of  the 
Metals  —  Gold  —  Silver  —  Lead  —  British  Mines  —  Quicksilver — Copper 

—  Tin  —  Cornish  Mines  —  Coal — Iron — Most  abundant  in  the  Tempe- 
rate Zones,  especially  in  the  Northern  —  European  and  British  Iron  and 
Coal — American  Iron  and  Coal  —  Arsenic  and  other  Metals  —  Salt  — 
Sulphur  —  Diffusion  of  the  Gems 171 

CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Ocean — Its  Size,  Colour,  Pressure,  and  Saltness  —  Tides — Waves — • 
their  Height  and  Force  —  Currents  —  their  Effect  on  Voyages  —  Tem- 
perature—  The  Stratum  of  Constant  Temperature  —  Line  of  Maximum 
Temperature  —  North  and  South  Polar  Ice  —  Inland  Seas 197 

CHAPTER  XVII. 

Springs — Basins  of  the  Ocean  —  Origin,  Course,  and  Heads  of  Rivers  — 
Hydraulic  Systems  of  Europe  —  African  Rivers  —  the  Nile,  Niger, 
&c 221 

CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Asiatic  Rivers  —  Euphrates  and  Tigris  —  River  Systems  South  of  the  Hi- 
malaya—  Chinese  Rivers  —  Siberian  Rivers 236 


CONTENTS.  XI 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

River  Systems  of  North  America  —  Rivers  of  Central  America  —  Rivers 
of  South  America  and  of  Australia 246 

CHAPTER  XX. 

Lakes  in  general  —  European  Lakes — Northern  Europe  —  Of  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  Italy  —  Lake  of  Tiberias  and  Dead  Sea  —  Asiatic  Lakes  — 
Caspian  —  Lakes  of  Aral,  Baikal,  and  of  the  Himalaya  —  Sacred  Lakes 
of  Manasarowar  —  African  Lakes  —  Bahr  Assal  —  Zambeze  —  Ngami  — 
American  Lakes  in  Canada  —  Nicaragua  —  Titicaca 257 

CHAPTER  XXI. 

Temperature  of  the  Earth — Temperature  of  the  Air — Radiation  —  Foci 
of  Maximum  Cold  —  Thermal  Equator  —  Its  Temperature,  mean  and 
absolute  —  Isothermal  Lines  —  Continental  and  Insular  Climates  —  Ex- 
treme Climates  —  Stability  of  Climate  —  Decrease  of  Heat  in  Altitude 

—  Line  of  Perpetual  Snow — Density  of  the  Atmosphere  —  The  Baro- 
meter—  Measurement  of   Heights  —  Variations  in   Density  and  their 
Causes  —  Horary  Variations  —  Independent  Effect  of  the  dry  and  aque- 
ous Atmospheres  —  Mean  Height  of  Barometer  in  different  Latitudes  — 
Depression  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  in  Eastern  Siberia  —  Barometric 
Storms  —  Polar  and  Equatorial  Currents  of  Air  —  Trade  Winds  —  Mon- 
soons —  Land  and  Sea  Breezes  —  Gyration  of  the  Winds  in  the  Extra- 
Tropical  Zones  —  Winds  in  Middle  European  Latitudes  —  Hurricanes  — 
The  Laws  of  their  Motion  —  Their  Effect  on  the  Barometer  —  How  to 
steer   clear   of  them  —  The    Storm- Wave  —  Storm-Currents  —  Arched 
Squalls  —  Tornadoes  —  Whirlwinds  —  Water  Spouts 266 

CHAPTER  XXII. 

Evaporation  —  Distribution  of  Vapour  —  Dew  —  Hoar  Frost  —  Fog  — 
Region  of  Clouds  —  Forms  of  Clouds  —  Rain  —  Distribution  of  Rain  — 
Quantity  —  Number  of  rainy  Days  in  different  Latitudes  —  Rainless  Dis- 
tricts—  Snow  Crystals  —  Line  of  Perpetual  Snow — Limit  of  Winter 
Snow  on  the  Plains  —  Sleet  —  Hail  —  Minuteness  of  the  Ultimate  Parti- 
cles of  Matter  —  Their  Densities  and  Forms  —  Their  Action  on  Light  — 
Colour  of  bodies  —  Colour  of  the  Atmosphere  —  Its  Absorption  and  Re- 
flection of  Light  —  Mirage  —  Fog  Images  —  Coronae  and  Halos  —  The 
Rainbow  —  Iris  in  Dewdrops  —  The  Polarization  of  the  Atmosphere  — 
Atmospheric  Electricity  —  Its  Variations  —  Electricity  of  Fogs  and  Rain 

—  Inductive  Action  of  the  Earth  —  Lightning — Thunder — Distribution 
of  Thunder-Storms  —  Back  Stroke — St.  Elmo's  Fire  —  Phosphorescence 

—  Aurora  —  Magnetism  —  Terrestrial    Magnetism  —  The   Dip  —  Mag- 
netic Poles  and  Equator  —  Magnetic  Intensity — Dynamic  Equator  — 
Declination — Magnetic  Meridian  —  Lines  of  Equal  Variation  —  Horary 
Variations  —  Line  of  Alternate  Horary  Phenomena  —  Magnetic  Storms 

.  —  Coincidence  of  the  Lines  of  Equal  Magnetic  Intensity  with  Mountain 
Chains  —  Diamagnetism 289 

CHAPTER  XXIH. 

Vegetation  —  Nourishment  and  Growth  of  Plants  —  Effects  of  the  different 
Rays  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  —  Classes  —  Botanical  Districts 819 


Xii  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Vegetation  of  the  Great  Continent  —  Of  the  Arctic  Islands  —  And  of  the 
Arctic  and  North  Temperate  Regions  of  Europe  and  Asia 333 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Flora  of  Tropical  Asia — Of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  India,  and  Ara- 
bia   344 

CHAPTER  XXVI. 

African  Flora  —  Flora  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Norfolk  Island,  and  of 
Polynesia 363 

CHAPTER  XXVII. 

American  Vegetation  —  Flora  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America  — 
Antarctic  Flora  —  Origin  and  Distribution  of  the  Cerealia  —  Ages  of 
Trees — Marine  Vegetation 363 

CHAPTER  XXVIII. 

Distribution  of  Insects  —  Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals 386 

CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Distribution  of  Marine  Animals  in  general  —  Fishes  —  the  Marine  Mamma- 
lia—  Phocse,  Dolphins,  and  Whales 403 

CHAPTER  XXX. 

Distribution  of  Reptiles  —  Frogs  and  Toads  —  Snakes,  Saurians,  and 
Tortoises 417 

CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Distribution  of  Birds  in  the  Arctic  Regions  —  In  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
America,  and  the  Antarctic  Regions , 427 

CHAPTER  XXXII. 
Distribution  of  Mammalia 446 

CHAPTER  XXXIII. 
The  Distribution,  Condition,  and  future  Prospects  of  the  Human  Race...  470 


APPENDIX. 

Table  of  Heights  above  the   Sea  of  some  Remarkable  Points  of  the 
Globe 609 

GLOSSARY 621 

656 


PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 
GEOLOGY. 

Of  Physical  Geography  —  Position  of  the  Earth  in  the  Solar  System  —  Dis- 
tance from  the  Sun — Civil  Year — Inclination  of  Terrestrial  Orbit — Mass 
of  the  Sun  —  Distance  of  the  Moon  —  Figure  and  Density  of  the  Earth 
from  the  Motions  of  the  Moon  —  Figure  of  the  Earth  from  Arcs  of  the 
Meridian  —  from  Oscillations  of  Pendulum  —  Local  Disturbances  —  Mean 
Density  of  the  Earth  —  Known  Depth  below  its  Surface  —  Outline  of 
Geology. 

PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY  is  a  description  of  the  earth,  the  sea, 
and  the  air,  with  their  inhabitants  animal  and  vegetable,  of  the 
distribution  of  these  organized  beings,  and  the  causes  of  that  distri- 
bution. Political  and  arbitrary  divisions  are  disregarded,  the  sea 
and  the  land  are  considered  only  with  respect  to  those  great  features 
that  have  been  stamped  upon  them  by  the  hand  of  the  Almighty, 
and  man  himself  is  viewed  but  as  a  fellow-inhabitant  of  the  globe 
with  other  created  things,  yet  influencing  them  to  a  certain  extent 
by  his  actions,  and  influenced  in  return.  The  effects  of  his  intel- 
lectual superiority  on  the  inferior  animals,  and  even  on  his  own  con- 
dition, by  the  subjection  of  some  of  the  most  powerful  agents  iu 
nature  to  his  will,  together  with  the  other  causes  which  have  had 
the  greatest  influence  on  his  physical  and  moral  state,  are  among 
the  most  important  subjects  of  this  science. 

The  former  state  of  our  terrestrial  habitation,  the  successive  con 
vulsions   which   have   ultimately  led   to   its   present   geographical 
arrangement,  and  to  the  actual  distribution  of  land  and  water,  so 
powerfully  influential  on  the  destinies  of  mankind,  are  circumstances 
of  primary  importance. 

The  position  of  the  earth  with  regard  to  the  sun,  and  its  connexion 
with  the  bodies  of  the  solar  system,  have  been  noticed  by  the  author 
elsewhere.  It  was  there  shown  that  our  globe  forms  but  an  atom  in 
the  immensity  of  space,  utterly  invisible  from  the  nearest  fixed  star, 
and  scarcely  a  telescopic  object  to  the  remote  planets  of  our  system. 
The  increase  of  temperature  with  the  depth  below  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  the  tremendous  desolation  hurled  over  wide  regions  by 
2  (13) 


14  PHYSICALGEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

numerous  fire-breathing  mountains,  show  that  man  is  removed  but  a 
few  miles  from  immense  lakes  or  seas  of  liquid  fire.  The  very  shell 
on  which  he  stands  is  unstable  under  his  feet,  not  only  from  those 
temporary  convulsions  that  seem  to  shake  the  globe  to  its  centre,  but 
from  a  slow  almost  imperceptible  elevation  in  some  places,  and  an 
equally  gentle  subsidence  in  others,  as  if  the  internal  molten  matter 
were  subject  to  secular  tides,  now  heaving  and  now  ebbing,  or  that 
the  subjacent  rocks  were  in  one  place  expanded  and  in  another  con- 
tracted by  changes  of  temperature. 

The  earthquake  and  the  torrent,  the  august  and  terrible  ministers 
of  Almighty  Power,  have  torn  the  solid  earth  and  opened  the  seals 
of  the  most  ancient  records  of  creation,  written  in  indelible  characters 
on  the  "  perpetual  hills  and  the  everlasting  mountains."  There  we 
read  of  the  changes  that  have  brought  the  rude  mass  to  its  present 
fair  state,  and  of  the  myriads  of  beings  that  have  appeared  on  this 
mortal  stage,  have  fulfilled  their  destinies,  and  have  been  swept  from 
existence  to  make  way  for  new  races,  which,  in  their  turn,  have 
vanished  from  the  scene,  till  the  creation  of  man  completed  the  glo- 
rious work.  Who  shall  define  the  periods  of  those  mornings  and 
evenings  when  God  saw  that  his  work  was  good  ?  and  who  shall  de- 
clare the  time  allotted  to  the  human  race,  when  the  generations  of 
the  most  insignificant  insect  existed  for  unnumbered  ages  ?  Yet  man 
is  also  to  vanish  in  the  ever-changing  course  of  events.  The  earth 
is  to  be  burnt  up,  and  the  elements  are  to  melt  with  fervent  heat  — 
to  be  again  reduced  to  chaos  —  possibly  to  be  renovated  and  adorned 
for  other  races  of  beings.  These  stupendous  changes  may  be  but 
cycles  in  those  great  laws  of  the  universe  where  all  is  variable  but 
the  laws  themselves,  and  He  who  has  ordained  them. 

The  earth  is  one  of  thirty-two  planets  which  revolve  about  the 
sun  in  elliptical  orbits  :  of  these,  twenty-five  have  been  discovered 
since  the  year  1781. J  Mercury  and  Venus  are  nearer  the  sun  than 

1  [The  solar  system  consists  exclusively  of  the  sun  and  all  the  planets, 
satellites,  and  comets,  "whose  motions  are  dependent  upon  its  gravitation. 
It  does  not  include  the  fixed  stars.  The  following  is  believed  to  be  a  com- 
plete catalogue  of  the  solar  system : — 

Name.  Date  of  Discovery.  Discoverer.  Place  of  Discovery. 

Mercury known  to  the  ancients. 

Venus  

The  earth,   (with  one  satellite) 

Mars  

Jupiter  (with  four  satellites)... 
Saturn  (with  seven  satellites).. 
Uranus  (with  two  or  more 

satellites) 1781 Sir  Wm.  Herschel. 

Ceres  June  1,  1801 Piazzi Palermo. 

Pallas  March  28,  1802 Olbers Bremen. 

Juno  Sept.  1,  1804 Harding  Lilienthal. 


CHAP.  I.  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  15 

the  earth,  the  others  are  more  remote.  The  earth  revolves  at  a  mean 
distance  of  95,298,260  miles  from  the  sun's  centre,  in  a  civil  year 
of  365  days  5  hours  48  minutes  49-7  seconds,  at  the  same  time  that 

Name.  Date  of  Discovery.  Discoverer.  Place  of  Discovery. 

Vesta  March  29,  1807 Gibers Bremen. 

Astrea Dec.  8,  1845 Hencke  Drissen. 

Neptune  1846 Le  Verrier  &  Mr. 

Adams  

Hebe July  1,  1847 Hencke  Drissen. 

Iris Aug.  13,  1847 Hind London. 

Flora  Oct.  18,  1847 Hind London. 

Metis April  25,  1848  Graham Sligo. 

Hygea April  12,  1849  Gasparis Naples. 

Parthenope  May  11,  1850  Gasparis Naples. 

Clio  Sept.  13,  1850 Hind London. 

Egeria Nov.  2,  1850 Gasparis Naples. 

Victoria 1850 Hind London. 

Irene  May  19,  1851  Hind London. 

Eunomia July  19,  1851 Gasparis Naples. 

Psyche March  17,  1852 Gasparis Naples. 

Thetis April  17,  1852  Luther  Berlin. 

Melpomene June  24,  1852 Hind London. 

Fortuna Aug.  22,  1852 Hind London. 

Massilia  Sept.  19,  1852  Gasparis Naples. 

Calliope Nov.  16,  1852 Hind London. 

Lutitia  Nov.  18,  1852 Goldschmidt Paris. 

Thalia Dec.  15,  1852  Hind London. 

Comets  observed  since  January  1,  1847. 

1847—1.  Feb.  6  Hind London. 

ii.  May  7  Colla Parma. 

in.  Aug.  31  Schweizer Moscow. 

iv.  July  4  Mauvais  Paris. 

v.  July  20 Brorsen  Scuftenberg. 

vi.  Oct.  1 Miss  Mitchell Nantucket. 

1848 — i.  Aug.  7 Petersen Altona. 

ii.  (Encke's  comet)  Sept.  13 Hind London. 

in.  Oct.  26 Petersen Altona. 

1849 — i.  April  15 Goujon Paris. 

ii.  April  11 Schweizer Moscow. 

in.  Nov.  28  Jenkins  At  sea. 

1850 — i.  May  1  Petersen Altona. 

ii.  Aug.  29  Bond Cambridge. 

in.  (Fay's  comet)  Nov.  28 Challis  Cambridge,  E. 

1851 — i.  June  27   D'Arrest Leipsic. 

ii.  Aug.  1 Brorsen ......Scuftenberg. 

in.  Oct.  22  Brorsen Scuftenberg. 

1852 — i.  May  15  Chacornac Marseilles. 

ii.  July  24 Westphal  Gottingen. 

in.  (Biela's  comet)  Aug.  25 Leechi Rome.] 

From  the  elements  and  position  of  the  orbits  of  the  thirteen  small  bodies, 
[namely,  Flora,  Vesta,  Iris,  Metis,  Hebe,  Astraea,  Hygea,  Parthenope,  Vic- 
toria, Egeria,  Juno,  Ceres,  and  Pallas,]  which  revolve  between  Mars  and 


16  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

it  rotates  in  24  hours  about  an  axis  which  always  remains  parallel  to 
itself,  and  inclined  at  an  angle  of  23°  27'  34-69"  to  the  plane  of  the 
ecliptic ;  consequently  the  days  and  nights  are  of  equal  length  at 
the  equator,  from  whence  their  length  progressively  differs  more  and 
more  as  the  latitude  increases,  till  at  each  pole  alternately  there  is 
perpetual  day  for  six  months,  and  a  night  of  the  same  duration : 
thus  the  light  and  heat  are  very  unequally  distributed,  and  both  are 
modified  by  the  atmosphere  by  •which  the  earth  is  encompassed  to 
the  height  of  about  forty  miles. 

With  regard  to  magnitude,  Mars,  Jupiter,  Saturn,  Uranus  and 
Neptune  are  larger  than  the  earth,  the  rest  are  smaller,  but  even  the 
largest  is  incomparably  inferior  to  the  sun  in  size;  hia  mass  is 
354,936  times  greater  than  that  of  the  earth,  but  the  earth  is  nearly 
four  times  as  dense. 

Though  the  planets  disturb  the  earth  in  its  motion,  their  form  has 
no  effect  on  account  of  their  great  distance ;  but  it  is  otherwise  with 
regard  to  the  moon,  which  revolves  about  the  earth  at  a  mean  dis- 
tance of  240,000  miles,  and  is  therefore  so  near,  that  the  form  of 
both  bodies  causes  mutual  disturbances  in  their  respective  motions. 
The  perturbations  in  the  moon's  motions  from  that  cause,  compared 
with  the  same  computed  from  theory,  show  that  the  earth  is  not  a 
perfect  sphere,  but  that  it  bulges  at  the  equator,  and  is  flattened  at 
the  poles :  it  even  gives  a  value  of  the  compression !  or  flattening. 
Again,  theory  shows  that,  if  the  earth  were  throughout  of  the  same 

Jupiter,  it  has  been  conjectured,  with  much  probability,  that  they  once 
formed  the  mass  of  a  large  planet  which  had  exploded :  upon  this  hypo- 
thesis seyeral  have  actually  been  looked  for,  and  found.  The  shooting  stars 
•which  have  appeared  in  such  remarkable  showers  in  the  months  of  August 
and  November,  may  possibly  have  had  a  similar  origin,  as  they  are  believed 
to  form  a  group  which  revolves  about  the  sun  in  182  days,  in  an  elliptical 
orbit,  and  that  in  passing  through  the  aphelion  in  August  and  November, 
they  come  in  contact  with  the  earth's  atmosphere,  on  entering  which  with 
great  velocity  they  become  ignited  and  are  consumed.  An  event  so  tre- 
mendous as  the  explosion  of  a  world,  is  by  no  means  beyond  the  unlimited 
power  of  steam  under  intense  pressure. 

1  The  compression  of  the  earth  is  the  flattening  at  the  poles.  Its  nume- 
rical value  is  equal  to  the  difference  between  the  equatorial  and  polar 
diameters,  expressed  in  feet  or  miles,  divided  by  the  equatorial  diameter. 

[The  extent  of  compression  at  the  poles  is  measured  by  the  ratio  of  the 
difference  between  the  equatorial  and  polar  diameters  to  the  equatorial 
diameter,  which  is  technically  termed  the  oblateness.  The  dimensions  of 
the  earth  in  miles,  are  as  follows  : 

Miles.  Diameter. 

Radius  at  the  equator 3962-6    =  7925-2 

Radius  at  the  pole 3949-6    =  7899-2 

Difference  of  equatorial  and  polar  radii 13-0    =      26-0 

Mean  radius,  or  at  45°  latitude 3956-1    =  7912-2 

Mean  length  of  a  degree 69-05    ' 

The  fourth  part  of  a  meridian 6214-2        ] 


CHAP.   I.  THE    EARTH'S    FIGURE.  17 

density,  it  would  be  much  less  flat  at  the  poles  than  the  moon's 
motions  show  it  to  be,  but  that  it  would  be  very  nearly  the  same 
were  the  earth  to  increase  regularly  in  density  from  the  surface  to  its 
centre ;  and  thus  the  lunar  motions  not  only  make  known  the  form, 
but  reveal  the  internal  structure  of  the  globe.  Actual  measurement 
has  proved  the  truth  of  these  results. 

The  courses  of  the  great  rivers,  which  are  generally  navigable  to 
a  considerable  extent,  show  that  the  curvature  of  the  land  differs  but 
little  from  that  of  the  ocean ;  and  as  the  heights  of  the  mountains 
and  continents  are  inconsiderable  when  compared  with  the  magnitude 
of  the  earth,  its  figure  is  understood  to  be  determined  by  a  surface 
at  every  point  perpendicular  to  the  direction  of  gravitation,  or  of  the 
plumb-line,  and  is  the  same  which  the  sea  would  have  if  it  were 
continued  all  round  the  earth  beneath  the  continents.  Such  is  the 
figure  that  has  been  measured  in  various  parts  of  the  globe. 

A  terrestrial  meridian  is  a  line  passing  through  both  poles,  all  the 
points  of  which  have  their  noon  contemporaneously,  and  a  degree  of 
a  meridian  is  its  360th  part.  Now,  if  the  earth  were  a  sphere,  all 
degrees  would  be  of  the  same  length ;  but,  as  it  is  flattened  at  the 
poles,  the  degrees  are  longest  there,  and  decrease  in  length  to  the 
equator,  where  they  are  least.  The  form  and  size  of  the  earth  may 
therefore  be  determined  by  comparing  the  length  of  degrees  in  dif- 
ferent latitudes.1  Eleven  arcs  have  been  measured  in  Europe,  one. 
in  the  Andes  of  equatorial  America,  and  two  in  the  East  Indies; 
but  a  comparison  of  no  two  gives  the  same  result,  which  shows  that 
the  earth  has  a  slightly  irregular  form.  From  a  mean  of  ten  of  these 
arcs  M.  Bessel  found  that  the  equatorial  radius  of  the  earth  is 
3963-025  miles,  and  the  polar  radius  3949-8  miles  nearly.  Whence, 
assuming  the  earth  to  be  a  sphere,  the  length  of  a  mean  degree  of 
the  meridian  is  69-05  British  statute  miles ;  therefore  360  degrees, 
or  the  whole  circumference  of  the  globe,  is  24,858  miles;  the 
diameter,  which  is  something  less  than  a  third  of  the  cirumference, 
is  about  8286  statute  miles;  and  the  length  of  a  geographical  mile 
of  60  to  a  degree  is  6086-76  feet.  The  breadth  of  the  torrid  zone 
is  2815  geographical  miles,  the  breadth  of  each  of  the  temperate 
zones  is  2854  miles,  and  that  of  each  of  the  spaces  within  the  arctic 
and  antartic  circles  1140  miles  nearly.  The  Astronomer  Royal  Mr. 
Airy's  results,  obtained  ten  years  afterwards,  only  differ  from  those 
of  M.  Bessel  by  127  feet  in  the  equatorial,  and  138  feet  in  the  polar 
radius,  quantities  not  greater  than  the  length  of  a  good  sized  ball- 
room. In  consequence  of  the  round  form  of  the  earth,  the  dip  or 
depression  of  the  horizon  is  a  fathom  for  every  three  miles  of  dis- 

1  The  theoretical  investigation  of  the  figure  of  the  earth,  the  method  em- 
ployed for  measuring  arcs  of  the  meridian,  and  that  of  finding  the  form  of 
the  earth  from  the  oscillations  of  the  pendulum,  are  given  in  the  '  Connexion 
of  the  Physical  Sciences,'  by  Mary  Somerville,  7th  Section,  7th  edition 

2* 


18  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   I. 

tance ;  that  is  to  say,  an  object  a  fathom  or  six  feet  high  would  be 
hid  by  the  curvature  of  the  earth  at  the  distance  of  three  miles. 
Since  the  dip  increases  as  the  square,  a  hill  100  fathoms  high  would 
be  hid  at  the  distance  of  ten  miles,  and  the  top  of  Kunchinjunga, 
the  most  elevated  point  of  the  Himalaya,  hitherto  measured  28,178 
feet  high,  would  be  seen  to  sink  beneath  the  horizon  by  a  person 
about  167  miles  off;  thus,  when  the  height  is  known,  an  estimate  can 
be  formed  of  the  distance  of  a  mountain. 

The  oscillations  of  the  pendulum  have  afforded  another  method  of 
ascertaining  the  form  of  the  earth.  Like  all  heavy  bodies,  its  descent 
and  consequently  its  oscillations  are  accelerated  in  proportion  to  the 
force  of  gravitation,  which  increases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles. 
In  order,  therefore,  that  the  oscillations  may  be  everywhere  performed 
"in  the  same  time,  the  length  of  the  pendulum  must  be  increased  pro- 
gressively in  going  from  the  equator  to  the  poles,  according  to  a 
known  law,1  from  whence  the  compression  or  flattening  at  the  poles 
may  be  deduced.  Experiments  for  that  purpose  have  been  made  in 
a  great  number  of  places,  but,  as  in  the  measurement  of  the  arcs,  no 
two  sets  give  exactly  the  same  results ;  the  mean  of  the  whole,  how- 
ever, differs  very  little  from  that  given  by  the  degrees  of  the  meridian 
and  the  perturbations  of  the  moon ;  and  as  the  three  methods  are  so 
entirely  independent  of  each  other,  the  figure  and  dimensions  of  the 
earth  may  be  considered  to  be  known.  The  sea  has  little  effect  on 
these  experiments,  both  because  its  mean  density  is  less  than  that  of 
the  earth,  and  that  its  mean  depth  of  perhaps  foui  miles  is  incon- 
siderable when  compared  with  3956  miles,  the  mean  terrestrial 
radius.2 

1  A  pendulum  which  oscillates  86,400  times  in  a  mean  day  at  the  equator, 
will  do  the  same  at  every  point  of  the  earth's  surface  if  its  length  be  in- 
creased progressively  to  the  pole  as  the  square  of  the  sine  of  the  latitude. 
The  sine  of  the  latitude  is  a  perpendicular  line  drawn  from  any  point  of  a 
terrestrial  meridian  to  the  equatorial  radius  of  the  earth.  That  line  ex- 
pressed in  feet  or  miles,  and  multiplied  by  itself,  is  the  square  of  the  sine 
of  the  latitude.  Gravitation  increases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles  accord- 
ing to  that  law,  and  the  length  of  the  degrees  augments  very  nearly  in  the 
same  ratio. 

a  The  compression  deduced  by  M.  Bessel  from  arcs  of  the  meridian  is 
1 

;  that  deduced  by  Colonel  Sabine  from  his  experiments  with  the  pen- 

299 

1 

dulum  is .     Other  pendulum  experiments  have  also  given  a  compres- 

288-7 

1  1 

sion  of and .     The  protuberant  matter  at  the  earth's   equator 

298-2        266-4 

produces  inequalities  in  the  moon's  motions,  from  whence  the  compression 
1 

of  the  earth  is  found  to  be ;    and  although  the  reciprocal  action  of  the 

305-05 


CHAP.    I.  LOCAL    DISTURBANCES.  19 

The  discrepancies  in  the  results,  from  the  comparison  of  the  dif- 
ferent sets  of  pendulum  experiments,  and  also  of  degrees  of  the  me- 
ridian, arise  from  local  attraction,  as  well  as  from  irregularities  in  the 
form  of  the  earth.  These  attractions,  arising  from  dense  masses  of 
rock  in  mountains,  cause  the  plumb-line  to  deviate  from  the  vertical, 
and  when  under  ground  they  alter  the  oscillations  of  the  pendulum. 
Colonel  Sabine,  who  made  experiments  with  the  pendulum  from  the 
equator  to  within  ten  degrees  of  the  north  pole,  discovered  that  the 
intensity  is  greatly  augmented  by  volcanic  islands.  A  variation  to 
the  amount  of  a  tenth  of  a  second  in  twenty-four  hours  can  be  per- 
fectly ascertained  in  the  rate  of  the  pendulum ;  but  from  some  of 
these  local  attractions  a  variation  of  nearly  ten  seconds  has  occurred 
during  the  same  period.  The  islands  of  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  St. 
Thomas,  the  Isle  of  France,  are  some  of  those  noted  by  Colonel  Sa- 
bine. 

There  are  other  remarkable  instances  of  local  disturbance,  arising 
from  the  geological  nature  of  the  soil ;  for  example,  the  intensity  of 
gravitation  is  very  small  at  Bordeaux,  from  whence  it  increases  ra- 
pidly to  Clermont-Ferrand,  Milan,  and  Padua,  where  it  attains  a 
maximum  (owing,  probably,  to  dense  masses  of  rock  under  ground), 
and  from  thence  it  extends  to  Parma.  In  consequence  of  this  local 
attraction,  the  degrees  of  the  meridian  in  that  part  of  ItaJy  seem  to 
increase  towards  the  equator  through  a  small  space,  instead  of  de- 
creasing, as  if  the  earth  were  drawn  out  instead  of  flattened  at  the 
poles. 

It  appears  from  this,  that  the  effect  of  the  whole  earth  on  a  pen- 
dulum or  torsion  balance  may  be  compared  with  the  effect  of  a  small 
part  of  it,  and  thus  a  comparison  may  be  instituted  between  the  mass 
of  the  earth  and  the  mass  of  that  part  of  it.  Now  a  leaden  ball  was 
weighed  against  the  earth  by  comparing  the  effects  of  each  upon  a 
balance  of  torsion ;  the  nearness  of  the  smaller  mass  making  it  pro- 
duce a  sensible  effect  as  compared  with  that  of  the  larger,  for  by  the 
laws  of  attraction  the  whole  earth  must  be  considered  as  collected  in 
its  centre ;  in  this  manner  a  value  of  the  mass  of  the  earth  was  ob- 
tained, and,  as  its  volume  was  known,  its  mean  density  was  found  to 
be  5-675  times  greater  than  that  of  water  at  the  temperature  of  62° 
of  Farenheit's  thermometer.  Now,  as  that  mean  density  is  double 
that  of  basalt,  and  more  than  double  that  of  granite,  rocks  which 
undoubtedly  emanate  from  very  great  depths  beneath  the  surface  of 

moon  on  the  protuberant  matter  at  the  earth's  equator  does  not  actually 

1  1 

give  the  compression,  it  proves  that  it  must  be  between and .    Coin- 

279        573 

cidences  so  near  and  so  remarkable,  arising  from  such  different  methods, 
show  how  nearly  the  irregular  figure  of  the  earth  has  been  determined. 
The  inequalities  in  the  motions  of  the  moon  and  earth  alluded  to  are  ex- 
plained in  Sections  5  and  11,  '  Connexion  of  Physical  Sciences.' 


20  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

the  earth,  it  affords  another  proof  of  the  increase  in  density  towards 
the  earth's  centre.  These  experiments  were  first  made  by  Cavendish 
and  Mitchell,  and  latterly  with  much  greater  accuracy  by  the  late 
Mr.  Baily,  who  devoted  four  years  of  unremitted  attention  to  the 
accomplishment  of  this  important  and  difficult  object.1 

Although,  the  earth  increases  in  density  regularly  from  the  surface 
to  the  centre,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  from  the  increasing 
pressure,  yet  the  surface  consists  of  a  great  variety  of  substances  of 
different  densities,  some  of  which  occur  in  amorphous  masses  ;  others 
are  disposed  in  regular  layers  or  strata,  either  horizontal  or  inclined 
at  all  angles  to  the  horizon.  By  mining,  man  has  penetrated  only 
a  very  little  way ;  but  by  reasoning  from  the  dip  or  inclination  of 
the  strata  at  or  near  the  surface,  and  from  other  circumstances,  he 
has  obtained  a  pretty  accurate  idea  of  the  structure  of  our  globe  to 
the  depth  of  about  ten  miles.  All  the  substances  of  which  we  have 
any  information  are  divided  into  four  classes,  distinguished  by  the 
manner  in  which  they  have  been  formed:  namely, —  plutonic  and 
volcanic  rocks,  both  of  igneous  origin,  though  produced  under  dif- 
ferent circumstances ;  aqueous  or  stratified  rocks,  entirely  due  to  the 
action  of  water,  as  the  name  implies ;  and  metamorphic  rocks,  depo- 
sited by  water,  according  to  the  opinion  of  many  eminent  geologists, 
and  consequently  stratified,  but  subsequently  altered  and  crystallized 
by  heat.  The  aqueous  and  volcanic  rocks  are  formed  at  or  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  the  plutonic  and  metamorphic  at  great  depths ; 
but  all  of  them  have  originated  simultaneously  during  every  geolo- 
gical period,  and  are  now  in  a  state  of  slow  and  constant  progress. 
The  antagonist  principles  of  fire  and  water  have  ever  been  and  still 
are  the  cause  of  the  perpetual  vicissitudes  to  which  the  crust  of  the 
earth  is  liable. 

It  has  been  ascertained  by  observation  that  the  plutonic  rocks,  con- 
sisting of  the  granites  and  some  of  the  porphyries,  were  formed  in 
the  deep  and  fiery  caverns  of  the  earth,  of  melted  matter,  which 
crystallized  as  it  slowly  cooled  under  enormous  pressure,  and  was 
then  heaved  up  in  unstratified  masses,  by  the  elastic  force  of  the 
internal  heat,  even  to  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains,  or  forced 
in  a  semi-fluid  state  into  fissures  of  the  superincumbent  strata,  some- 
times into  the  cracks  of  the  previously  formed  granite;  for  that 
rock,  which  constitutes  the  base  of  so  large  a  portion  of  the  earth's 
crust,  has  not  been  all  formed  at  once ;  some  portions  had  been  solid, 
while  others  were  yet  in  a  liquid  state.  This  class  of  rocks  is  com- 
pletely destitute  of  fossil  remains. 

1  It  is  clear  that  the  mean  density  of  the  earth  may  be  found  from  the 
attraction  of  the  plumb-line  by  mountains,  or  by  the  irregularity  in  the 
oscillations  of  the  pendulum,  but  the  torsion  balance  is  a  much  more  sensi- 
ble instrument  than  either.  The  density  determined  by  M.  Reich  differs 
from  that  found  by  Mr.  Baily  by  only  one  twenty-eighth  part. 


CHAP.  I. 


OUTLINE    OF    GEOLOGY.  21 


Although  granite  and  the  volcanic  rocks  are  both  due  to  the  action 
of  fire,  their  nature  and  position  are  very  different ;  granite,  fused 
in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  has  been  cooled  and  consolidated  before 
coming  to  the  surface  :  besides,  it  generally  consists  of  few  ingredi- 
ents, so  that  it  has  nearly  the  same  character  in  all  countries.  But 
as  the  volcanic  fire  rises  to  the  very  surface  of  the  earth,  fusing 
whatever  it  meets  with,  volcanic  rocks  take  various  forms,  not  only 
from  the  different  kinds  of  strata  which  are  melted,  but  from  the  dif- 
ferent conditions  under  which  the  liquid  matter  has  been  cooled, 
though  most  frequently  on  the  surface  —  a  circumstance  that  seems 
to  have  had  the  greatest  effect  on  its  appearance  and  structure. 
Sometimes  it  assumes  a  crystalline  granitic  structure,  at  other  times 
it  becomes  glass ;  in  short,  all  those  massive,  unstratified,  and  occa- 
sionally columnar  rocks,  as  basalt,  greenstone,  porphyry,  and  serpen- 
tine, are  due  to  volcanic  fires,  and  are  devoid  of  fossil  remains. 

There  seems  scarcely  to  have  been  any  age  of  the  world  in  which 
volcanic  eruptions  have  not  taken  place  in  some  part  of  the  globe. 
Lava  has  pierced  through  every  description  of  rocks,  spread  over  the 
surface  of  those  existing  at  the  time,  filled  their  crevices,  and  flowed 
between  their  strata.  Ever  changing  its  place  of  action,  it  has  burst 
out  at  the  bottom  of  the  sea  as  well  as  on  dry  laud.  Enormous 
quantities  of  scoriae  and  ashes  have  been  ejected  from  numberless 
craters,  and  have  formed  extensive  deposits  in  the  sea,  in  lakes,  and 
on  the  land,  in  which  are  embedded  the  remains  of  the  animals  and 
vegetables  of  the  epoch.  Some  of  these  deposits  have  become  hard 
rock,  others  remain  in  a  crumbling  state ;  and  as  they  alternate  with 
the  aqueous  strata  of  almost  every  period,  they  contain  the  fossils  of 
all  the  geological  epochs,  chiefly  fresh  and  salt-water  testaceae.1 

According  to  a  theory  now  generally  adopted,  which  originated 
with  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  whose  works  are  models  of  philosophical  in- 
vestigation, the  metamorphic  rocks',  which  consist  of  gneiss,  mica- 
schist,  clay-slate,  statuary  marble,  &c.,  were  formed  of  the  sediment 
of  water  in  regular  layers,  differing  in  kind  and  colour,  but,  having 
been  deposited  near  the  place  where  plutonic  rocks  were  generated, 
they  have  been  changed  by  the  heat  transmitted  from  the  fused  mat- 
ter, and,  in  cooling  under  heavy  pressure  and  at  great  depths,  they 
have  become  as  highly  crystallized  as  the  granite  itself,  without  los- 
ing their  stratified  form.  An  earthy  stratum  has  sometimes  been 
changed  into  a  highly  crystallized  rock,  to  the  distance  of  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  from  the  point  of  contact,  by  transmitted  heat;  and  there 
are  instances  of  dark-coloured  limestone,  full  of  fossil  shells,  that 
has  been  changed  into  statuary  marble  from  that  cause.  Such  alter- 
ations may  frequently  be  seen  to  a  small  extent  on  rocks  adjacent  to 
a  stream  of  lava.  There  is  seldom  a  trace  of  organic  remains  in  the 

1  Testaceae  are  shell-fish. 


22  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

metamorphic  rocks ;  their  strata  are  sometimes  horizontal,  but  they 
are  usually  tilted  at  all  angles  to  the  horizon,  and  form  some  of  the 
highest  mountains  and  most  extensive  table-lands  on  the  face  of  the 
globe.  Although  there  is  the  greatest  similarity  in  the  plutonic 
rocks  in  all  parts  of  the  world,  they  are  by  no  means  identical ;  they 
differ  in  colour,  and  even  in  ingredients,  though  these  are  few. 

Aqueous  rocks  are  all  stratified,  being  the  sedimentary  deposits  of 
water.  They  originate  in  the  wear  of  the  land  by  rain,  streams,  or 
the  ocean.  The  debris  carried  by  running  water  is  deposited  at  the 
bottom  of  the  seas  and  lakes,  where  it  is  consolidated,  and  then 
raised  up  by  subterraneous  forces,  again  to  undergo  the  same  process 
after  a  lapse  of  time.  By  the  wasting  away  of  the  land  the  lower 
rocks  are  laid  bare,  and,  as  the  materials  are  deposited  in  different 
places  according  to  their  weight,  the  strata  are  exceedingly  varied, 
but  consist  chiefly  of  arenaceous  or  sandstone  rocks,  composed  of  sand, 
clay,  and  carbonate  of  lime.  They  constitute  three  great  classes, 
which,  in  an  ascending  order,  are  the  primary  and  secondary  fossili- 
ferous  strata  and  the  tertiary  formations. 

The  primary  fossiliferous  or  palaeozoic  strata,  the  most  ancient  of 
all  the  sedimentary  rocks,  consisting  of  limestone,  sandstones,  and 
shales,  are  entirely  of  marine  origin,  having  been  formed  far  from 
land  at  the  bottom  of  a  very  deep  ocean ;  consequently  they  contain 
the  exaviaB  of  marine  animals  only,  and  after  the  lapse  of  unnum- 
bered ages  the  ripple-marks  of  the  waves  are  still  distinctly  visible 
on  some  of  their  strata.  This  series  of  rocks  is  subdivided  into  the 
Cambrian  and  the  upper  and  lower  Silurian  and  Carboniferous  sys- 
tems, each  distinguished  by  the  differences  in  their  fossil  remains. 

In  the  Cambrian  rocks,  sometimes  many  thousand  yards  thick, 
organic  remains  are  of  comparatively  rare  occurrence,  but  the  Silu- 
rian rocks  abound  in  them  more  and  more  as  the  strata  lie  higher  in 
the  series.  In  the  lower  Silurian  group  are  the  remains  of  shell- 
fish, almost  all  of  extinct  genera,  and  the  few  that  have  any  affinity 
to  those  alive  are  of  extinct  species ;  crinoidea,  or  stone  lilies,  which 
had  been  fixed  to  the  rocks  like  tulips  on  their  stems,  are  coeval  with 
the  earliest  inhabitants  of  the  deep;  and  the  trilobite,  a  jointed 
creature  of  the  crab  kind,  with  prominent  eyes,  are  almost  exclu- 
sively confined  to  the  Silurian  strata,  but  the  last  traces  of  them  are 
found  in  the  coal-measures  above.  In  the  upper  Silurian  group  are 
abundance  of  marine  shells  of  almost  every  order,  together  with  cri- 
noidea, vast  quantities  of  corals,  and  some  sea-weeds  :  several  sauroid 
fishes,1  of  extinct  genera,  but  of  a  high  organization,  have  been  found 
in  the  highest  beds — the  only  vertebrated  animals  that  have  yet  been 
discovered  among  the  countless  profusion  of  the  lower  orders  of  ani- 
mals that  are  entombed  in  the  primary  fossiliferous  strata.  The  re- 

1  Sauroi  i  fish  have  somewhat  of  the  form  and  organization  of  the  lizard 
tri* 


CHAP.    I.  OUTLINE    OP    GEOLOGY.  23 

mains  of  one  or  more  land  plants,  in  a  very  imperfect  state,  have 
been  found  in  the  Silurian  rocks  of  North  America,  which  shows 
that  there  had  been  land  with  vegetation  at  that  early  period.  The 
type  of  these  plants,  as  well  as  the  size  of  the  shells  and  the  quan- 
tity of  the  coral,  indicate  that  a  uniformly  warm  temperature  had 
then  prevailed  over  the  globe.  During  the  Silurian  period  an  ocean 
covered  the  northern  hemisphere,  islands  and  lands  of  moderate  size 
had  just  begun  to  rise,  and  earthquakes,  with  volcanic  eruptions  from 
insular  and  submarine  volcanoes,  were  frequent  towards  its  close. 

The  secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  which  comprise  a  great  geolo- 
gical period,  and  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the  high  land  of 
Europe,  were  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  an  ocean,  like  the  primary, 
from  the  debris  of  all  the  others,  carried  down  by  water,  and  still 
bear  innumerable  tokens  of  their  marine  origin,  although  they  have 
for  ages  formed  a  part  of  the  dry  land.  Calcareous  rocks^are  more 
abundant  in  these  strata  than  in  the  crystalline,  probably  because  the 
carbonic  acid  was  then,  as  it  still  is,  driven  off  from  the  lower  strata 
by  the  internal  heat,  and  came  to  the  surface  as  gas  or  in  calcareous 
springs,  which  either  rose  in  the  sea  and  furnished  materials  for 
shell-fish  and  coral  insects  to  build  their  habitations  and  form  coral 
reefs,  or  deposited  their  calcareous  matter  on  the  land  in  the  form  of 
rocks. 

The  Devonian  or  old  Red  Sandstone  group,  in  many  places  10,000 
feet  thick,  consisting  of  strata  of  dark  red  and  other  sandstones, 
marls,  coralline  limestones,  conglomerates,  &c.,  is  the  lowest  of  the 
secondary  fossiliferous  strata,  and  forms  a  link  between  them  and 
the  Silurian  rocks,  by  an  analogy  in  their  fossil  remains.  It  has 
fossils  peculiarly  its  own,  but  it  has  also  some  shells  and  corals  com- 
mon to  the  strata  both  above  and  below  it.  There  are  various 
families  of  extinct  sauroid  fishes  in  this  group,  some  of  which  were 
gigantic,  others  had  strong  bony  shields  on  their  heads,  and  one 
genus,  covered  with  enamelled  scales,  had  appendages  like  wings. 
The  shark  approaches  nearer  to  some  of  these  ancient  fish  than  any 
other  now  living.1 

During  the  long  period  of  tranquillity  that  prevailed  after  the 
Devonian  group  was  deposited,  a  very  warm,  moist,  and  extremely 
equable  climate,  which  extended  all  over  the  globe,  had  clothed  the 
islands  and  lands  in  the  ocean  then  covering  the  northern  hemisphere 
with  exuberant  tropical  forests  and  jungles.  Subsequent  inroads  of 
fresh  water,  or  of  the  sea,  or  rather  partial  sinkings  of  the  land,  had 
submerged  these  forests  and  jungles,  which  being  mixed  with  layers 

1  The  old  red  sandstone  of  Scotland-,  -where  it  is  remarkably  well  de- 
veloped, has  been  admirably  illustrated  in  two  recent  works,  by  one  of  our 
most  industrious  and  talented  northern  geologists,  Mr.  Hugh  Millar.  See 
'  Old  Red  Sandstone,'  and  the  recently  published  work,  '  Footprints  of  the 
Creator,'  1  vol.  12mo.,  1850. 


24  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   I. 

of  sand  and  mud,  had  in  time  been  consolidated  into  one  mass,  and 
were  then  either  left  dry  by  the  retreat  of  the  waters  or  gently  raised 
above  the  surface. 

These  constitute  the  remarkable  group  of  the  carboniferous  strata, 
which  consist  of  numberless  layers  of  various  substances  filled  with 
a  prodigious  quantity  of  the  remains  of  fossil  land-plants  intermixed 
with  beds  of  coal,  which  is  entirely  composed  of  vegetable  matter. 
In  some  cases  the  plants  appear  to  have  been  carried  down  by  floods, 
and  deposited  in  estuaries ;  but  in  most  instances  the  beauty,  deli- 
cacy, and  sharpness  of  the  impressions  show  that  they  had  grown  on 
to  the  spot  where  the  coal  was  formed.  More  than  300  fossil  plants 
have  been  collected  from  the  strata  where  they  abound,  frequently 
with  their  seeds  and  fruits,  so  that  enough  remains  to  show  the  pecu- 
liar nature  of  this  flora,  whose  distinguishing  feature  is  the  prepon- 
derance of  ferns ;  among  these  there  were  tree-ferns  which  must 
have  been  40  or  50  feet  high.  There  were  also  plants  resembling 
the  fox-fail  tribe,  of  gigan'tic  size,  others  like  the  tropical  club 
mosses ;  an  aquatic  plant  of  an  extinct  family  was  very  abundant, 
besides  many  others,  to  which  we  have  nothing  analogous.  Forest- 
trees  of  great  magnitude,  of  the  pine  and  fir  tribes,  flourished  at  that 
period.  The  remains  of  an  extinct  araucaria,  one  of  the  largest 
of  the  pine  family,  have  been  found  in  the  British  coal-fields ;  the 
existing  species  now  grow  in  countries  in  the  southern  hemisphere ; 
a  few  rare  instances  occur  of  grasses,  palms,  and  liliaceous  plants. 
The  botanical  districts  were  very  extensive  when  the  coal-plants  were 
growing,  for  some  species  are  nearly  identical  throughout  the  coal- 
fields of  Europe  and  America.  From  the  extent  of  the  ocean,  the 
insular  structure  of  the  land,  the  profusion  of  ferns  and  fir-trees,  and 
the  warm,  moist,  and  equable  climate,  the  northern  hemisphere, 
during  the  formation  of  the  coal  strata,  is  thought  to  have  borne  a 
strong  resemblance  to  the  South  Pacific,  with  its  fern  and  fir-clothed 
lands  of  New  Zealand,  Kerguelen-land,  and  others. 

The  animal  remains  of  this  period  are  in  the  mountain  limestone, 
a  rock  occasionally  900  feet  thick,  which  lies  beneath  the  coal- 
measures,  or  sometimes  alternates  with  the  shale  and  sandstone. 
They  consist  of  crinoidea  and  marine  testacese,  among  which  the  size 
of  the  chambered  shells,  as  well  as  that  of  the  coral,  shows  that  the 
ocean  was  very  warm  at  that  time,  even  in  the  high  northern  lati- 
tudes. The  footsteps  of  a  very  large  reptile  of  the  frog  tribe  have 
been  found  on  some  of  the  carboniferous  strata  of  North  America. 

The  coal  strata  have  been  very  much  broken  and  deranged  in 
many  places  by  earthquakes  and  igneous  eruptions,  giving  rise  to 
faults  or  dykes,  basaltic  veins,  which  frequently  occurred  during  the 
secondary  fossiliferous  period,  and  from  time  to  time  raised  islands 
and  land  from  the  deep.  However,  these  and  all  other  changes  that 
have  taken  place  on  the  earth  have  been  gradual  and  partial,  whether 


CHAP.    I.  OUTLINE    OP    GEOLOGY.  25 

brought  about  by  fire  or  water.  The  older  rocks  are  more  shattered 
by  the  earthquakes  than  the  newer,  because  the  movement  came 
from  below ;  but  these  convulsions  have  never  extended  all  over  the 
earth  at  the  same  time — they  have  always  been  local :  for  example, 
the  Silurian  strata  have  been  dislocated  and  tossed  in  Britain,  while 
a  vast  area  in  the  south  of  Sweden  and  Russia  still  retains  a  hori- 
zontal position.  There  is  no  proof  that  any  mountain-chain  has  ever 
been  raised  at  once ;  on  the  contrary,  the  elevation  has  always  beeik 
produced  by  a  long-continued  and  reiterated  succession  of  internal 
convulsions  with  intervals  of  repose.  In  many  instances  the  land 
lias  risen  up  or  sunk  down  by  an  imperceptible  equable  motion  con- 
tinued for  ages,  while  in  other  places  the  surface  of  the  earth  has 
remained  stationary  for  long  geological  periods. 

The  magnesian  limestone,  or  permian  formation,  comes  immediately 
above  the  coal-measures,  and  consists  of  breccias  or  conglomerates, 
gypsum,  sandstone,  marl,  &c. ;  but  its  distinguishing  feature  in 
England  is  a  yellow  limestone  rock,  containing  carbonate  of  mag- 
nesia, which  often  takes  a  granular  texture,  and  is  then  known  as 
dolomite.  The  permian  formation  has  a  fossil  flora  and  fauna  pecu- 
liar to  itself,  mingled  with  those  of  the  coal  strata.  Here  the  rem- 
nant of  an  earlier  creation  gradually  tends  to  its  final  extinction,  and 
a  new  one  begins  to  appear.  The  flora  is,  in  many  instances,  spe- 
cifically the  same  with  that  in  the  coal  strata  below.  Certain  fish 
are  also  common  to  the  two,  which  never  appear  again.  They  be- 
long to  a  race  universal  in  the  early  geological  periods,  forming  a 
kind  of  passage  from  the  first  tribe  to  saurian  reptiles,  and  therefore 
called  Sauroid.  A  small  number  of  existing  genera  only,  such  as 
the  shark  and  sturgeon,  make  some  approach  to  the  structure  of 
these  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  waters.  The  new  creation  is  marked 
by  the  introduction  of  two  species  of  saurian  reptiles;1  the  fossil 
remains  of  one  have  been  found  in  the  magnesian  limestone  in 
England,  and  those  erf  the  other  in  a  corresponding  formation  in 
Germany.  They  are  the  earliest  members  of  a  family  which  was  to 
have  dominion  on  the  land  and  in  the  water  for  ages. 

A  series  of  red  marls,  rock-salt,  and  sandstones,  which  have  arisen 
from  the  disintegration  of  metamorphic  slates  and  porphyritic  trap, 
containing  oxide  of  iron,  and  known  as  the  trias  or  new  red  sand- 
stone system,  lies  above  the  magnesian  limestone.  In  England  this 
formation  is  particularly  rich  in  rock-salt,  which,  with  layers  of 
gypsum  and  marl,  is  sometimes  600  feet  thick ;  but  in  this  country 
the  muschelkalk,  a  peculiar  kind  of  shelly  limestone,  is  wanting, 
which  in  Germany  and  on  the  southern  declivity  of  the  Alps,  is  so 
remarkable  for  the  quantity  of  organic  remains.  At  this  time  crea- 
tures like  frogs,  of  enormous  dimensions,  had  been  frequent,  as  they 
have  left  their  footsteps  on  what  must  then  have  been  a  soft  shoro. 

'  Saurian  reptiles  are  crocodiles,  lizards,  iguanas,  &c. 

3 


26  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

Forty-seven  genera  of  fossil  remains  have  been  found  in  the  trias  in 
Germany,  consisting  of  shells,  cartilaginous  fish,  encrinites,  &c.,  all 
distinct  in  species,  and  many  distinct  in  genera,  from  the  organic 
fossils  of  the  magnesian  limestone  below,  and  also  from  those  en- 
tombed in  the  strata  above. 

During  a  long  period  of  tranquillity  the  oolite  or  Jurassic  group 
was  next  deposited  in  a  sea  of  variable  depth,  and  consists  of  sands, 
sandstones,  marls,  clays,  and  limestone.  At  this  time  there  was  a 
complete  change  in  the  aqueous  deposits  all  orer  Europe.  The  red 
iron-stained  arenaceous  rocks,  the  black  coal,  and  dark  strata,  were 
succeeded  by  light-blue  clays,  pale-yellow  limestones,  and,  lastly, 
white  chalk.  The  water  that  deposited  the  strata  must  have  been 
highly  charged  with  carbonate  of  lime,  since  few  of  the  formations 
of  that  period  are  without  calcareous  matter,  and  calcareous  rocks 
were  formed  to  a  prodigious  extent  throughout  Europe :  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  Apennines,  and  Balkan  abound  in  them ;  and  the  Jura  moun- 
tains, which  have  given  their  name  to  the  series,  are  formed  of  them. 
The  European  ocean  then  teemed  with  animal  life ;  whole  beds  con- 
sist almost  entirely  of  marine  shells  and  corals.  Belemuites  and 
ammonites,  from  an  inch  in  diameter  to  the  size  of  a  cart-wheel,  are 
entombed  by  myriads  in  the  strata;  whole  forests  of  that  beautiful 
encrinite  the  stone-lily  flourished  on  the  surface  of  the  oolite,  then 
under  the  waters ;  and  the  Pentacrinite,  one  of  the  same  family,  is 
embedded  in  millions  in  the  enchorial  shell- marble,  which  occupies 
such  extensive  tracts  in  Europe.  Fossil  fish  are  numerous  in  these 
strata,  but  different  from  those  of  the  coal  series,  the  permian  for- 
mation, and  trias ;  not  one  genus  of  the  fish  of  this  period  is  now  in 
existence.  The  newly-raised  islands  and  lands  were  clothed  with 
vegetation  like  that  of  the  large  islands  of  the  intertropical  archi- 
pelagoes of  the  present  day,  which,  no  less  rich  than  during  the  car- 
boniferous period,  still  indicate  a  very  moist  and  warm  climate. 
Ferns  were  less  abundant,  as  they  were  Associated  with  various 
genera  and  species  of  the  cycadeae,  which  had  grown  on  the  southern 
coast  of  England,  and  in  other  parts  of  northern  Europe,  congeners 
of  the  present  cycas  and  zamia  of  the  tropics.  These  plants  had 
been  very  numerous,  and  the  pandanus,  or  screw-pine,  the  first  tenant 
of  the  new  lands  in  ancient  and  modern  times,  is  a  family  found  in 
a  fossil  state  in  the  inferior  oolite  of  England,  which  was  but  just 
rising  from  the  deep  at  that  time.  The  species  now  flourishing 
grows  only  on  the  coasts  of  such  coral  islands  in  the  Pacific  as  have 
recently  emerged  from  the  waves.  In  the  upper  strata  of  this  group, 
however,  the  confervas  and  monocotyledonous  plants l  become  more 
rare  —  an  indication  of  a  change  of  climate. 

1  Confervae  are  plants  with  nearly  imperceptible  fructification,  found  in 
ponds,  damp  places,  and  in  the  sea. 

Monocotyledonous  plants  are  grasses,  palms,  and  others,  having  onlv 
one  seed-lobe. 


CHAP.    I.  OUT  LIN  EOF     GEOLOGY.  27 

The  new  lands  that  were  scattered  on  the  ocean  of  the  oolitic 
period  were  drained  by  rivers,  and  inhabited  by  huge  crocodiles  and 
saurian  reptiles  of  gigantic  size,  mostly  of  extinct  genera.  The  cro- 
codiles come  nearest  to  modern  reptiles ;  but  the  others,  though  bear- 
ing a  remote  similitude  in  general  structure  to  living  forms,  were 
quite  anomalous,  combining  in  one  the  structure  of  various  distinct 
creatures,  and  so  monstrous  that  they  must  have  been  more  like  the 
visions  of  a  troubled  dream  than  things  of  real  existence;  yet  in 
organization  a  few  of  them  came  nearer  to  the  type  of  living  mam- 
malia than  any  existing  reptiles  do.  Some  of  these  had  lived  in 
rivers,  others  in  the  ocean — some  were  inhabitants  of  the  land,  others 
were  amphibious;  and  the  various  species  of  one  genus  even  had 
wings  like  a  bat,  and  fed  on  insects.  They  were  both  herbivorous 
and  predacious  saurians ;  and  from  their  size  and  strength  they  must 
have  been  formidable  enemies.  Besides,  the  numbers  deposited  are 
so  great,  especially  in  the  lias,  a  marine  stratum  of  clay  and  lime- 
stone, the  lowest  of  the  oolite  series,  that  they  must  have  swarmed 
for  ages  in  the  estuaries  and  shallow  seas  of  the  period.  They  gra- 
dually declined  towards  the  end  of  the  secondary  fossiliferous  epoch ; 
but  as  a  class  they  lived  in  all  subsequent  eras,  and  still  exist  in 
tropical  countries,  although  the  species  are  very  different  from  their 
ancient  congeners.  Tortoises  of  various  kinds  were  contemporary 
with  the  saurians,  also  a  family  that  still  exists.  In  the  Stonefield 
slate,  a  stratum  of  the  oolitic  group,  there  are  the  remains  of  in- 
sects, and  the  bones  of  two  small  quadrupeds  have  been  found  there 
belonging  to  the  marsupial  tribe,1  such  as  the  opossum  —  a  very  re- 
markable circumstance,  not  only  as  the  most  ancient  animal  of  the 
class  of  mammalia,  but  because  that  family  of  animals  at  the  present 
time  is  confined  to  Australia,  South  America,  and  North  America, 
as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania  at  least.  The  great  changes  in  animal 
life  during  this  period  were  indications  of  the  successive  alterations 
that  had  taken  place  on  the  earth's  surface. 

The  cretaceous  strata  follow  the  oolite  in  ascending  order,  consist- 
ing of  clay,  green  and  iron  sands,  blue  limestone,  and  chalk,  pro- 
bably formed  of  the  decay  of  coral  and  shells,  which  predominates 
so  much  in  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe,  that  it  has  given 
the  name  and  its  peculiar  feature  to  the  whole  group.  It  is,  how- 
ever, by  no  means  universal ;  the  chalk  is  wanting  in  many  parts  of 
the  world  where  the  other  strata  of  this  series  prevail,  and  then  their 
connexion  with  the  group  can  only  be  ascertained  by  the  identity 
of  their  fossil  remains.  With  the  exception  of  some  beds  of  coal 
nmong  the  oolitic  series,  the  Wealden  clay,  the  lowest  of  the  creta- 
ceous group  in  England,  is  the  only  fresh-water  formation,  and  the 

1  Marsupial  animals  have  pouches  in  •which  their  young  take  refuge  and 
are  nourished  till  they  are  matured.  The  opossum  and  kangaroo  are  mar- 
supials. 


28  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   I. 

tropical  character  of  its  flora  shows  that  the  climate  was  still  very 
warm.  Plants  allied  to  the  zamias  and  cycadese  of  our  tropical 
regions,  many  ferns  and  pines  of  the  genus  araucaria,  characterized 
its  vegetation,  and  the  upright  stem  of  a  fossil  forest  at  Portland 
show  that  it  had  been  covered  with  trees.  It  was  inhabited  by  tor- 
toises approaching  to  families  now  living  in  warm  countries,  and 
saurian  reptiles  of  five  different  genera  swarmed  in  the  lakes  and 
estuaries.  This  clay  contains  fresh-water  shells  and  fish  of  the  carp 
kind.  The  Wealden  clay  is  one  of  the  various  instances  of  the  sub- 
sidence of  land  which  took  place  during  this  period. 

The  cretaceous  strata  above  our  Wealden  clay  are  full  of  marine 
exuviae.  There  are  vast  tracts  of  sand  in  Northern  Europe,  and 
many  very  extensive  tracts  of  chalk ;  but  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  Continent  the  cretaceous  rocks  assume  a  different  character. 
There  and  elsewhere  extensive  limestone  rocks,  filled  with  very  pecu- 
liar shells,  show  that,  when  the  cretaceous  strata  were  forming,  an 
ocean  extended  from  the  Atlantic  into  Asia,  which  covered  the  south 
of  France,  all  Southern  Europe,  part  of  Syria,  the  isles  of  the  ^Egean 
Sea,  the  coasts  of  Thrace  and  the  Troad.  The  remains  of  turtles 
have  been  found  in  the  cretaceous  group,  quantities  of  coral,  and 
abundance  of  shells  of  extinct  species ;  some  of  the  older  kinds  still 
existed,  new  ones  were  introduced,  and  some  of  the  most  minute 
species  of  microscopic  shells,  which  constitute  a  large  portion  of  the 
chalk,  are  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  creatures  now  alive,  the  first 
instances  of  identity  of  species  in  the  ancient  and  modern  creation. 
An  approximation  to  recent  times  is  to  be  observed  also  in  the  ar- 
rangement of  organized  nature,  since  at  this  early  period,  and  even 
in  the  Silurian  and  oolitic  epochs,  the  marine  fauna  was  divided,  as 
now,  into  distinct  geographical  provinces.  The  great  saurians  were 
on  the  decline,  and  many  of  them  were  found  no  more,  but  a  gigantic 
creature,  allied  to  the  monitor  and  iguana,1  lived  at  this  period. 
From  the  permian  group  to  the  chalk  inclusive  only  two  instances 
of  fossil  birds  recur,  one  in  a  chalk  deposit  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  and 
the  other  a  kind  of  albatross  in  the  chalk  in  England ;  in  North 
America,  however,  the  foot-marks  of  a  variety  of  birds  have  been 
found  in  the  strata  between  the  coal  and  lias,  some  of  which  are 
larger  than  those  of  the  ostrich. 

An  immense  geological  cycle  elapsed  between  the  termination  of 
the  secondary  fossiliferous  strata  and  the  beginning  of  the  tertiary. 
With  the  latter  a  new  order  of  things  commenced,  approaching  more 
closely  to  the  actual  state  of  the  globe.  During  the  tertiary  forma- 
tion the  same  causes  under  new  circumstances  produced  an  infinite 
variety  in  the  order  and  kind  of  the  strata,  accompanied  by  a  cor- 
responding change  in  animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  old  creation, 

1  The  monitor  and  iguana,  creatures  of  the  lizard  tribe,  still  existing. 

* 


CHAP.    I.  OUT  I,  I  N  K     0  F     O  E  O  L  O  G  Y .  29 

which  had  nothing  in  common  with  the  existing  order  of  things,  had 
passed  away,  and  given  place  to  one  more  nearly  approaching  to  that 
which  now  prevails.  Among  the  myriads  of  beings  that  inhabited 
the  earth  and  the  ocean  during  the  secondary  fossiliferous  epoch 
scarcely  one  species  is  to  be  found  in  the  tertiary.  Two  planets 
could  hardly  differ  more  in  their  natural  productions.  This  break 
in  the  law  of  continuity  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  hitherto  some 
of  the  newly-created  animals  were  always  introduced  before  the  older 
were  extinguished.  The  circumstances  and  climate  suited  to  the  one 
became  more  and  more  unfit  for  the  other,  which  consequently 
perished  gradually,  while  their  successors  increased.  It  is  possible 
that,  as  observations  become  more  extended,  this  hiatus  may  be 
filled  up. 

The  series  of  rocks,  from  the  granite  to  the  end  of  the  secondary 
fossiliferous  strata,  taken  as  a  whole,  constitute  the  solid  crust  of  the 
globe,  and  in  that  sense  are  universally  diffused  over  the  earth's  sur- 
face. The  tertiary  strata  occupy  the  hollows  formed  in  this  crust, 
whether  by  subterraneous  movements,  by  lakes,  or  denudation  by 
water  as  in  the  estuaries  of  rivers,  and  consequently  occur  in  irregu- 
lar tracts,  often,  however,  of  prodigious  thickness  and  extent.  In- 
deed, they  seem  to  have  been  as  widely  developed  as  any  other  for- 
mation, though  time  has  been  wanting  to  bring  them  into  view. 

The  innumerable  basins^and  hollows  with  which  the  continents 
and  larger  islands  had  been  indented  for  ages  after  the  termination 
of  the  secondary  fossiliferou^  series  had  sometimes  been  fresh-water 
lakes,  and  at  other  times  inundated  by  the  sea;  consequently,  the 
deposits  which  took  place  during  these  changes  alternately  contain 
the  spoils  of  terrestrial  and  marine  animals.  The  frequent  intrusion 
of  volcanic  strata  among  the  tertiary  formations  show  that,  in  Europe, 
the  earth  had  been  in  a  very  disturbed  state,  and  that  these  repeated 
vicissitudes  had  been  occasioned  by  elevations  and  depressions  of 
the  soil,  as  well  as  by  the  action  of  water. 

There  are  three  distinct  groups  in  these  strata  :  the  lowest  tertiary 
or  Eocene  group,  so  called  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  because,  among 
the  myriads  of  fossil  shell-fish  which  it  contains,  very  few  are  iden- 
tical with  those  now  living;  the  Miocene,  or  middle  group,  has  a 
greater  number  of  the  exuviae  of  existing  species  of  shells;  and 
the  Pliocene,  or  upper  tertiary  group,  still  more.  Though  frequently 
heaved  up  to  great  elevations  on  the  flanks  of  the  mountain-chains, 
as,  for  example,  on  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  by  far  the  greater  part 
of  the  tertiary  strata  maintain  their  original  horizontal  position  in 
the  very  places  where  they  are  formed,  immense  insulated  deposits 
of  this  kind  are  to  be  met  with  all  over  the  world ;  Europe  abounds 
with  them,  London,  Paris,  and  Vienna  stand  on  such  basins,  and 
they  cover  immense  tracts  both  in  North  and  South  America. 

The  monstrous  reptiles  had  mostly  disappeared,  and  the  mam. 
3* 


30  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  I. 

malia  now  took  possession  of  the  earth,  of  forms  scarcely  less  anom- 
alous than  their  predecessors,  though  approaching  more  nearly  to 
those  now  living. 

Numerous  species  of  extinct  animals  that  lived  during  the  earliest 
or  Eocene  period  have  been  found  in  various  parts  of  the  world, 
especially  in  the  Paris  basin,  of  the  order  of  Pachydermata,1  to  the 
greater  number  of  which  we  have  nothing  analogous;  they  were 
mostly  herbivorous  quadrupeds,  which  had  frequented  the  borders 
of  the  rivers  and  lakes  that  covered  the  greater  part  of  Europe  at 
that  time.  This  is  the  more  extraordinary,  as  existing  animals  most 
similar  to  these,  the  tapirs  for  instance,  are  confined  to  the  torrid 
zone.  These  creatures  were  widely  diffused,  and  some  of  them  were 
associated  with  genera  still  existing,  though  of  totally  different  spe- 
cies; such  as  animals  allied  to  the  "racoon  and  dormouse,  the  ox, 
bear,  deer,  the  fox,  the  dog,  and  others.  Although  these  quadrupeds 
differ  so  widely  from  those  of  the  present  day,  the  .same  proportion 
existed  then  as  now  between  the  carnivorous  and  herbivorous  genera. 
The  spoils  of  marine  mammalia2  of  this  period  have  also  been 
found,  sometimes  at  great  elevations  above  the  sea,  all  of  extinct 
species,  and  some  of  these  eetaeea  were  of  huge  size.  This  marvel- 
lous change  of  the  creative  power  was  not  confined  to  the  earth  and 
the  ocean ;  the  air  was  now  occupied  by  many  extinct  races  of  birds 
allied  to  the  owl,  buzzard,  quail,  curlew,  &c.  The  climate  must  still 
have  been  warmer  than  at  present,  from  the  remains  of  land  and 
sea  plants  found  in  high  latitudes.  Even  in  England  bones  of  the 
opossum,  monkey,  and  boa  have  been  discovered,  all  animals  of  warm 
countries,  besides  fossil  sword  and  saw  fish,  both  of  genera  foreign 
to  the  British  seas. 

During  the  Miocene  period  new  amphibious  quadrupeds  were 
associated  with  the  old,  of  which  the  deinotherium  is  the  most  char- 
acteristic and  much  the  largest  of  the  mammalia  yet  found,  surpass- 
ing the  largest  elephant  in  size,  and  of  a  singular  form. 

The  palaeotherium  was  of  this  period,  and  also  the  mastodon, 
both  of  large  dimensions.  Various  families,  and  even  genera,  of 
quadrupeds  now  existing  were  associated  with  these  extraordinary 
creatures,  though  of  extinct  species,  such  as  the  elephant,  rhinoce- 
ros, hippopotamus,  tapir,  horse,  bear,  wolf,  hyaena,  weasel,  beaver, 
ox,  buffalo,  deer,  &c. ;  and  also  marine  mammalia,  as  dolphins, 
walruses,  and  lamantins.  Indeed,  in  the  constant  increase  of  animal 
life  manifested  throughout  the  whole  of  the  tertiary  strata,  the 
forms  approach  nearer  to  the  living  species  as  their  remains  lie 
high  in  the  series. 

*  Pachydermata,  thick-skinned  animals,  as  the  rhinoceros,  elephant,  and 
hippopotamus. 

a  Marine  mammalia,  which  suckle  their  young  b'ke  land  animals,  are 
seals,  whales,  porpoises,  &c. 


CHAP,   I.  OUTLINE    OF    GEOLOGY.  31 

In  the  older  Pliocene  period  some  of  the  large  amphibious  quad- 
rupeds, and  other  genera  of  mammalia  of  the  earlier  tertiary  periods, 
appear  no  more;  but  there  were  the  mastodon,  and  the  Elephas 
primigenius  or  mammoth,  some  species  of  which,  of  prodigious  size, 
were  associated  with  numerous  quadrupeds  of  existing  genera,  but 
lost  species.  Extinct  species  of  almost  all  the  quadrupeds  now 
alive  seem  to  have  inhabited  the  earth  at  that  time ;  their  bones 
have  been  discovered  in  caverns ;  they  were  embedded  in  the  brec- 
cias and  in  most  of  the  strata  of  that  epoch  —  as  the  hippopotamus, 
rhinoceros,  elephant,  horse,  bear,  wolf,  water-rat,  hyaena,  tiger,  and 
various  birds.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  the  caverns  of  Australia 
the  fossil  bones  all  belong  to  extinct  species  of  gigantic  kangaroos 
and  wombats,  animals  belonging  to  the  marsupial  family,  which  are 
so  peculiarly  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  at  the  present  day,  but 
of  diminished  size.  The  newer  Pliocene  strata  show  that  the  same 
analogy  existed  between  the  extinct  and  recent  mammalia  of  South 
America,  which,  like  their  living  congeners,  as  far  as  we  know, 
belonged  to  that  continent  alone ;  for  the  fossil  remains,  quite  diffe- 
rent from  those  in  the  old  world,  are  of  animals  of  the  same  families 
with  the  sloths,  ant-eaters,  and  armadilloes  which  now  inhabit  that 
country,  but  of  vastly  superior  size  and  different  species.  In  fact, 
there  were  giants  in  the  land  in  those  days.  Were  change  of  species 
possible,  one  might  almost  fancy  that  these  countries  had  escaped 
the  wreck  of  time,  and  that  their  inhabitants  had  pined  and  dwindled 
under  the  change  of  circumstances.  The  megatherium  and  Equus 
curvidens,  or  extinct  horse,  had  so  vast  a  range  in  America,  that, 
while  Sir  Charles  Lyell  collected  their  bones  in  Georgia  in  33°  N. 
latitude,  Mr.  Darwin  brought  them  from  the  corresponding  latitude 
in  South  America.  The  Eqnus  curvidens  differed  as  much  from 
the  living  horse  as  the  quagga  or  zebra  does,  and  the  European 
fossil  horse  is  also  probably  a  distinct  and  lost  species. 

A  comparison  of  the  fossil  remains  with  the  living  forms  has 
shown  the  analogy  between  these  beings  of  the  ancient  world  and 
those  that  now  people  the  earth ;  and  the  greatest  triumph  of  the 
geologist  is  the  certainty  with  which  he  can  decide  upon  the  nature 
of  animals  that  have  been  extinct  for  thousands  of  years,  from  a 
few  bones  entombed  on  the  earth's  surface.  Baron  Cuvier  will  ever 
be  celebrated  as  the  founder  of  this  branch  of  comparative  anatomy, 
which  Professor  Owen,  following  in  his  steps,  has  brought  to  the 
highest  perfection.  Among  many  discoveries,  the  latter  has  found, 
by  the  most  minute  microscopic  observation,  that  the  structure  of 
the  tissue  of  which  teeth  are  formed  is  different  in  different  classes 
of  animals,  and  that  the  species  can  in  many  instances  be  deter- 
mined from  the  fragment  of  a  tooth.  A  small  portion  of  a  bone 
enabled  him  to  decide  on  the  nature  of  an  extinct  race  of  birds,  and 


32  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   T. 

the  subsequent  discovery  of  the  whole  skeleton  confirmed  the  accu- 
racy of  this  determination. 

The  greater  part  of  the  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  was  ele- 
vated above  the  deep  during  the  tertiary  period,  and  such  lands  as 
already  existed  acquired  additional  height;  consequently  the  climate, 
which  had  previously  been  tropical,  became  gradually  colder,  for  an 
increase  of  land,  which  raises  the  temperature  between  the  tropics, 
has  exactly  the  contrary  effect  in  higher  latitudes.  Hence  excessive 
cold  prevailed  during  the  latter  part  of  the  Pliocene  period,  and  a 
great  part  of  the  European  continent  was  discovered  by  an  ocean 
full  of  floating  ice,  not  unlike  that  seen  at  this  day  off  the  north- 
eastern coast  of  America.1 

During  the  latter  part  of  the  Pliocene  period,  however,  the  bed 
of  that  glacial  ocean  rose  partially,  and  after  many  vicissitudes  the 
European  continent  assumed  nearly  the  form  it  now  bears.  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  glacial  sea  extended  also  over" 
great  portions  of  the  arctic  lands  of  Asia  and  America.  Old  forms 
of  animal  and  vegetable  life  were  destroyed  by  these  alterations  in 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  the  consequent  change  of  temperature  ; 
and  when,  in  the  progress  of  the  Pliocene  period,  the  mountain- 
tops  appeared  as  islands  above  the  water,  they  were  clothed  with  the 
flora  and  peopled  by  the  animals  they  still  retain ;  and  new  forms 
were  added  as  the  land  rose  and  became  dry  and  fitted  to  receive 
and  maintain  the  races  of  animals  now  alive,  all  of  which  had  pos- 
session of  the  earth  for  ages  prior  to  the  historical  or  human  period. 
Some  of  the  extinct  animals  had  long  resisted  the  great  vicissitudes 
of  the  times ;  of  these  the  mammoth,  or  Elephas  primigenius,  whose 
fossil  remains  are  found  all  over  Europe,  Asia,  and  America,  but 
especially  in  the  gelid  soil  of  Siberia,  alone  outlived  its  associates, 
the  last  remnant  of  a  former  world.  In  two  or  three  instances  this 
animal  has  been  discovered  entire,  entombed  in  frozen  mud,  with  its 
hair  and  flesh  so  fresh  that  wolves  and  dogs  feed  upon  it.  The  globe 
of  the  eye  of  one  found  by  M.  Middendorf  at  Tas,  between  the 
rivers  Oby  and  Jenesei,  was  so  perfect  that  it  is  now  preserved  in 
the  museum  at  Moscow.  It  has  been  supposed  that,  as  the  Siberian 
rivers  flow  for  hundreds  of  miles  from  the  southern  part  of  the 
country  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  these  elephants  might  have  been 
drowned  by  floods  while  browsing  in  the  milder  regions,  and  that 
their  bodies  were  carried  down  by  the  rivers  and  embedded  in  mud, 

1  If  a  line  be  drawn  from  the  north-eastern  coast  of  North  America  within 
the  limit  of  floating  ice,  and  if  it  be  continued  across  the  southern  half  of 
Ireland  and  England,  and  prolonged  eastward  so  as  to  strike  against  the 
Ural  mountains,  it  will  mark  the  boundary  of  the  European  portion  of  the 
Glacial  Sea.  It  submerged  part  of  Russia  to  the  depth  of  1000  feet. — 
Essay  on  the  British  Fauna  and  Flora,  by  Professor  E.  Forbes,  in  the 
1  Memoirs  of  the  Geological  Survey  of  Great  Britain,'  vol.  i. 


CHAP.  I.  OUTLINE     OP      GEOLOGY.  33 

and  frozen  before  they  had  time  to  decay.  Mr.  Darwin  has  sug- 
gested that,  if  the  climate  of  Siberia  has  at  any  time  been  similar 
to  that  of  the  high  latitudes  of  South  America,  where  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow  in  the  Andes,  and  its  sudden  flexure  in  Southern 
Chile,  come  close  to  a  nearly  tropical  vegetation,  such  a  vegetation 
may  have  prevailed  south  of  the  frozen  regions  in  Siberia.  On  the 
other  hand,  although  the  congeners  of  this  animal  are  now  in- 
habitants of  the  torrid  zone,  they  may  have  been  able  to  endure  the 
cold  of  a  Siberian  winter ;  for  Baron  Cuvier  found  that  this  animal 
differed  as  much  from  the  living  elephant  as  the  horse  docs  from  the 
ass.  Mr.  Darwin  has  shown  that  the  supply  of  food  in  summer  was 
probably  sufficient,  since  the  quantity  requisite  for  the  maintenance 
of  the  larger  animals  is  by  no  means  in  proportion  to  their  bulk ;  or 
these  elephants  may  have  migrated  to  a  more  genial  climate  in  the 
colder  months. 

Shell-fish  seem  to  have  been  more  able  to  endure  all  the  great 
geological  changes  than  any  of  their  organic  associates,  but  they 
show  a  constant  approximation  to  modern  species  during  the  pro- 
gress of  the  tertiary  period.  The  whole  of  these  strata  contain 
enormous  quantities  of  shells  of  extinct  species ;  in  the  oldest,  three 
and  a  half  per  cent,  of  the  shells  are  identical  with  species  now 
existing,  while  in  the  uppermost  strata  of  this  geological  period  there 
are  not  less  than  from  ninety  to  ninety-five  in  a  hundred  identical 
with  those  now  alive. 

Of  all  the  fossil  fishes,  from  the  Silurian  strata  to  the  end  of  the 
tertiary,  scarcely  one  is  specifically  the  same  with  living  forms :  the 
Mallotus  villosus,  or  caplan,  of  the  salmon  family,  is  an  exception, 
and  perhaps  a  few  others  of  the  most  recent  of  these  periods.  In 
the  Eiocene  strata  one-third  belong  to  extinct  genera. 

Under  the  vegetable  mould  in  every  country  there  is  a  stratum 
of  loose  sand,  gravel,  and  mud,  lying  upon  the  subjacent  rocks, 
often  of  great  thickness,  called  alluvium,  which  in  the  high  latitudes 
of  North  America  and  Europe  is  mixed  with  enormous  fragments 
of  rock,  sometimes  angular,  and  sometimes  rounded  and  water-worn, 
which  have  been  transported  hundreds  of  miles  from  their  origin. 
It  is  there  known  as  the  Boulder  formation,  or  Northern  Drift,  be- 
cause, from  the  identity  of  the  boulders  with  the  rocks  of  the  north- 
ern mountains,  they  evidently  have  come  from  them,  and  their  size 
becomes  less  as  the  distance  increases.  In  Russia  there  are  blocks 
of  great  magnitude  that  have  been  carried  800  and  even  1000  miles 
south-east  from  their  origin  in  the  Scandinavian  range.  There  is 
much  reason  to  believe  that  such  masses,  enormous  as  they  are,  have 
been  transported  by  ice-bergs,  and  deposited  when  the  northern 
parts  of  the  continents  were  covered  by  the  glacial  sea,  by  which 
part  of  Russia  was  submerged  to  the  depth  of  at  least  1000  feet 
The  same  process  is  now  in  progress  in  the  high  southern  latitudes, 


34  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    I. 

where  icebergs  have  been  met  with  covered  with  fragments  of  rock 
and  boulders.1 

The  last  manifestation  of  creative  power,  with  few  exceptions, 
differs  specifically  from  all  that  preceded  it;  the  recent  strata  con- 
tain only  the  exuviae  of  animals  now  living,  often  mixed  with  the 
works  of  man. 

The  solid  earth  thus  tells  us  of  mountains  washed  down  into  the 
sea  with  their  forests  and  inhabitants ;  of  lands  raised  from  the 
bottom  of  the  ocean,  loaded  with  the  accumulated  spoils  of  centu- 
ries ;  of  torrents  of  water  and  torrents  of  fire.  In  the  ordinances 
of  the  heavens  no  voice  declares  a  beginning,  no  sign  points  to  an 
end ;  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  however,  the  dawn  of  life  appears, 
the  time  is  obscurely  marked  when  first  living  things  moved  in  the 
waters,  when  the  first  plants  clothed  the  land.  There  we  see  that 
during  ages  of  tranquillity  the  solid  rock  was  forming  at  the  bottom 
of  the  ocean;  that  during  ages  it  was  tossed  and  riven  by  fire  and 
earthquake.  What  years  must  have  gone  by  since  that  ocean  flowed 
which  has  left  its  ripple-marks  on  the  sand,  now  a  solid  mass  on  the 
mountain  —  since  those  unknown  creatures  left  their  foot-prints  on 
the  shore,  now  fixed  by  time  on  the  rock  for  ever  !  time,  which  man 
measures  by  days  and  years,  nature  measures  by  thousands  of  cen- 
turies. 

The  thickness  of  the  fossiliferous  strata  up  to  the  end  of  the  ter- 
tiary formation  has  been  estimated  at  about  seven  or  eight  miles ;  so 
that  the  time  requisite  for  their  deposition  must  have  been  immense. 
Every  river  carries  down  mud,  sand,  or  gravel,  to  the  sea :  the 
Ganges  brings  more  than  700,000  cubic  feet  of  mud  every  hour, 
the  Yellow  Kiver  in  China  2,000,000,2  and  the  Mississippi  still 
more;  yet,  notwithstanding  these  great  deposits,  the  Italian  hydro- 
grapher  Manfredi  has  estimated  that,  if  the  sediment  of  all  the 
rivers  on  the  globe  were  spread  equally  over  the  bottom  of  the  ocean, 
it  would  require  1000  years  to  raise  its  bed  one  foot;  so  that  at  that 
rate  it  would  require  3,960,000  years  to  raise  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
alone  to  a  height  nearly  equal  to  the  thickness  of  the  fossiliferous 
strata,  or  seven  miles  and  a  half,  not  taking  account  of  the  waste  of  the 
coasts  by  the  sea  itself:  but  if  the  whole  globe  be  considered,  in- 
Btead  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea  only,  the  time  would  be  nearly  four 

1  Sir  James  Ross  and  Captain  Wilkes  met  with  icebergs  covered  with 
raud  and  stones  in  the  antarctic  seas,  and  even  in  C6°  5/  lat.  One  block 
seen  by  Sir  James  Ross  was  estimated  to  weigh  many  tons.  —  Antarctic 
Voyages.  —  [Narrative  of  the  United  States'  Exploring  Expedition.  By 
Charles  Wilkes,  U.  S.  Navy.] 

3 Account  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  by  Major  Rennell.  —  'Phil. 
Trans.,'  1781.  Sir  George  Stounton's  '  Embassy  to  China.'  '  Elie  de  Beau- 
mont, Le9ons  de  Geologic,'  1  vol.  8vo.  The  latter  work  contains  a  very 
elaborate  essay  on  alluvial  deposits  by  rivers,  £c. 


CHAP.    I.  OUTLINE    OF    GEOLOGY.  o5 

times  as  great,  even  supposing  as  much  alluvium  to  be  deposited 
uniformly  both  with  regard  to  time  and  place,  which  it  never  is. 
Besides,  in  various  places  the  strata  have  been  more  than  once 
carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  again  raised  above  its  surface 
by  subterranean  fires  after  many  ages,  so  that  the  whole  period  from 
the  beginning  of  these  primary  fossiliferous  strata  to  the  present  day 
must  be  great  beyond  calculation,  and  only  bears  comparison  with 
the  astronomical  cycles,  as  might  naturally  be  expected,  the  oarth 
being  without  doubt  of  the  same  antiquity  with  the  other  bodies  of 
the  solar  system.  What  then  shall  we  say  if  the  time  be  included 
which  the  granitic,  metamorphic,  and  recent  series  occupied  in 
forming  ?  These  great  periods  of  time  correspond  wonderfully  with 
the  gradual  increase  of  animal  life  and  the  successive  creation  and 
extinction  of  numberless  orders  of  being,  and  with  the  incredible 
quantity  of  organic  remains  buried  in  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  every 
country  on  the  face  of  the  globe. 

Every  great  geological  change  in  the  nature  of  the  strata  was  ac- 
companied by  the  introduction  of  a  new  race  of  beings,  and  the 
gradual  extinction  of  those  that  had  previously  existed,  their  struc- 
ture and  habits  being  no  longer  fitted  for  the  new  circumstances  in 
which  these  changes  had  placed  them.  The  change,  however,  was 
never  abrupt ;  and  it  may  be  observed  that  there  is  no  proof  of  pro- 
gressive development  of  species  by  generation  from  a  low  to  a  high 
organization,  for  animals  and  plants  of  high  organization  appeared 
among  the  earliest  of  their  kind,  yet  throughout  the  whole  the 
gradual  approach  to  living  and  more  perfect  forms  is  undoubted,  not 
by  change  of  species,  but  by  increasing  similarity  of  type. 

The  geographical  distribution  of  animated  beings  was  much  more 
extensive  in  the  ancient  seas  and  land  than  in  later  times.  In  very 
remote  ages  the  same  animal  inhabited  the  most  distant  parts  of  the 
sea;  the  corallines  built  from  the  equator  to  within  ten  or  fifteen 
degrees  of  the  pole;  and  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  carboni- 
ferous strata  there  appears  to  have  been  even  a  greater  uniformity  in 
the  vegetable  than  in  the  animal  world,  though  New  Holland  had 
formed  even  then  a  peculiar  district,  supposing  the  coal  in  that 
country  to  be  of  the  same  age  as  in  Europe  and  America;  but  as 
the  strata  became  more  varied,  species  were  less  widely  diffused. 
Some  of  the  saurians  were  inhabitants  of  both  the  Old  and  New 
World,  while  others  lived  in  the  latter  only.  During  the  tertiary 
period  the  animals  of  Australia  and  America  differed  nearly  as  much 
from  those  of  Europe  as  they  do  at  the  present  day.  The  world 
was  then,  as  now,  divided  into  great  physical  regions,  each  inhabited 
by  a  peculiar  race  of  animals ;  and  even  the  different  species  of  mol- 
lusca  of  the  same  sea  were  confined  to  certain  shores.  Of  405 
species  of  the  latter  which  inhabited  the  Atlantic  Ocean  during  the 


36  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    I. 

early  and  middle  parts  of  the  tertiary  period,  only  12  were  common 
to  the  American  and  European  coasts.  In  fact,  the  divisions  of  the 
animal  and  vegetable  creation  into  geographical  districts  had  been 
in  the  latter  periods  contemporaneous  with  the  rise  of  the  land,  each 
portion  of  which,  as  it  rose  above  the  deep,  had  been  clothed  with  a 
vegetation  and  peopled  with  creatures  suited  to  its  position  with 
regard  to  the  equator,  and  to  the  existing  circumstances  of  the  globe; 
and  the  marine  creatures  had,  no  doubt,  been  divided  into  districts 
at  the  same  periods,  because  the  bed  of  the  ocean  had  been  subject 
to  similar  changes. 

The  quantity  of  fossil  remains  is  so  great  that,  with  the  exception 
of  the  metals  and  some  of  the  primary  rocks,  probably  not  a  particle 
of  matter  exists  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  that  has  not  at  some 
time  formed  part  of  a  living  creature.  Since  the  commencement  of 
animated  existence,  zoophytes  have  built  coral  reefs  extending  hun- 
dreds of  miles,  and  mountains  of  limestone  are  full  of  their  remains 
all  over  the  globe.  Mines  of  shells  are  worked  to  make  lime; 
ranges  of  hills  and  rocks,  many  hundred  feet  thick,  are  almost  en- 
tirely composed  of  them,  and  they  abound  in  every  mountain-chain 
throughout  the  earth.  The  prodigious  quantity  of  microscopic  shells 
discovered  by  M.  Ehrenberg  is  still  more  astonishing ;  shells  not 
larger  than  a  grain  of  sand  form  entire  mountains ;  a  great  portion 
of  the  hills  of  San  Casciano,  in  Tuscany,  consist  of  chambered  shells 
so  minute  that  Padre  Soldani  collected  10,454  of  them  from  one 
ounce  of  stone.  Chalk  is  often  almost  entirely  composed  of  them. 
Tripoli,  a  fine  powder  long  in  use  for  polishing  metals,  is  also  almost 
wholly  composed  of  shells  which  owe  their  polishing  property  to 
their  silicious  coats;  and  there  are  even  hills  of  great  extent  con- 
sisting of  this  substance,  the  debris  of  an  infinite  variety  of  micro- 
scopic insects. 

The  facility  with  which  many  clays  and  slates  are  split  is  owing, 
in  some  instances,  to  layers  of  minute  shells.  Fossil  fish  are  found 
in  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  in  all  the  fossiliferous  strata  with  the 
exception  of  some  of  the  lowest,  but  each  great  geological  period 
had  species  peculiar  to  itself. 

The  remains  of  the  great  saurians  are  innumerable ;  those  of  ex- 
tinct quadrupeds  are  very  numerous ;  but  there  is  no  circumstance 
in  the  whole  science  of  fossil  geology  more  remarkable  than  the  in- 
exhaustible multitudes  of  fossil  elephants  that  are  found  in  Siberia. 
Their  tusks  have  been  an  object  of  traffic  in  ivory  fo»  centuries,  and 
in  some  places  they  have  been  in  suffh  prodigious  quantities,  that  the 
ground  is  tainted  with  the  smell  of  animal  matter.  Their  huge 
skeletons  are  found  from  the  frontier  of  Europe  through  all  Northern 
Asia  to  its  extreme  eastern  point,  and  from  the  foot  of  the  Altai 
Mountain?  to  the  shores  of  the  Frozen  Ocean,  a  surface  equal  in  ex- 


CHAP.    I.  OUTLINE    OF    GEOLOGY.  37 

tent  to  the  whole  of  Europe.  Some  islands  in  the  Arctic  Sea,  as, 
for  instance,  the  first  of  the  Lachow  group,  are  chiefly  composed  of 
their  remains,  mixed  with  the  bones  of  various  other  animals  of 
living  genera,  but  extinct  species.1 

Equally  wonderful  is  the  quantity  of  fossil  plants  that  still  remain, 
if  it  be  considered  that,  from  the  frail  nature  of  many  vegetable 
substances,  multitudes  must  have  perished  without  leaving  a  trace 
behind.  The  vegetation  that  covered  the  terrestrial  part  of  the 
globe  previous  to  the  formation  of  the  carboniferous  strata  had  far 
surpassed  in  exuberance  the  rankest  tropical  jungles.  There  are 
many  coal-fields  of  great  extent  in  various  parts  of  the  earth,  espe- 
cially in  North  America,  where  that  of  Pittsburg  occupies  an  area 
of  about  14,000  square  miles,  and  that  in  the  Illinois  is  not  much 
inferior  to  the  area  of  all  England.2 

As  coal  is  entirely  a  vegetable  substance,  some  idea  may  be  formed 
of  the  richness  of  the  ancient  flora;  in  later  times  it  was  less  exu- 
berant, and  never  has  again  been  so  luxuriant,  probably  on  account 
of  the  decrease  of  temperature  during  the  deposition  of  the  tertiary 
strata,  and  in  the  glacial  period  which  immediately  preceded  the 
creation  of  the  present  tribes  of  plants  and  animals.  Even  after 
their  introduction  the  temperature  must  have  been  very  low,  but  by 
subsequent  changes  in  the  distribution  of  the  sea  and  land  the  cold 
was  gradually  mitigated,  till  at  last  the  climate  of  the  northern 
hemisphere  became  what  it  now  is. 

Such  is  the  marvellous  history  laid  open  to  us  on  the  earth's  sur- 
face. Surely  it  is  not  the  heavens  only  that  declare  the  glory  of 
God — the  earth  also  proclaims  His  handiwork  ! s 

1  Lieut.  Anjou's  Polar  Voyage. 

5  [See  '  Statistics  of  Coal,'  by  Richard  Cowling  Taylor,  Philadelphia, 
1848.]  j  -i/. 

3  The  author's  geological  information  rests  on  the  authority  of  those 
distinguished  authors  whose  works  are  in  the  hands  of  every  one,  namely, 
Baron  Cuvier,  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  Sir  Henry  de  la 
Beche,  Professor  Owen,  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  and  the  Memoirs  of  the 
Geological  Society. 


38  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  II. 


CHAPTER  II. 

Direction  of  the  Forces  that  raised  the  Continents  —  Proportion  of  Land 
arid  Water — Size  of  the  Continents  and  Islands — Outline  of  the  Land — 
Extent  of  Coasts,  and  proportion  they  bear  to  the  Areas  of  the  Conti- 
nents —  Elevation  of  the  Continents  —  Forms  of  Mountains  —  Forms  of 
Hocks  —  Connexion  between  Physical  Geography  of  Countries  and  their 
Geological  Structure  —  Contemporaneous  Upheaval  of  parallel  Mountain 
Chains  —  Parallelism  of  Mineral  Veins  or  Fissures  —  Mr.  Hopkins's 
Theory  of  Fissures  —  Parallel  Chains  similar  in  Structure  —  Interrup- 
tions in  Continents  and  Mountain  Chains — Form  of  the  Great  Continent 
— The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent — The  Atlas,  Spanish,  French, 
and  German  Mountains — The  Alps,  Balkan,  and  Apennines — Glaciers — 
Geological  Notice. 

AT  the  end  of  the  tertiary  period  the  earth  was  much  in  the  same 
state  as  it  is  at  present  with  regard  to  the  distribution  of  land  and 
water.  The  preponderance  of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  in- 
dicates a  prodigious  accumulation  of  internal  energy  under  these 
latitudes  at  a  very  remote  geological  period.  The  forces  that  raised 
the  two  great  continents  above  the  deep,  when  viewed  on  a  wide 
scale,  must  evidently  have  acted  at  right  angles  to  one  another, 
nearly  parallel  to  the  equator  in  the  old  continent,  and  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  meridian  in  the  new ;  yet  the  structure  of  the  opposite 
coasts  of  the  Atlantic  points  at  some  connexion  between  the  two. 

The  mountains,  from  their  rude  and  shattered  condition,  bear 
testimony  to  repeated  violent  convulsions  similar  to  modern  earth- 
quakes ;  while  the  high  table-lands,  and  that  succession  of  terraces 
by  which  the  continents  sink  down  from  their  mountain-ranges  to 
the  plains,  to  the  ocean,  and  even  below  it,  show  also  that  the  land 
must  have  been  heaved  up  occasionally  by  slow  and  gentle  pressure, 
such  as  appears  now  to  be  gradually  elevating  the  coast  of  Scandi- 
navia and  many  other  parts  of  the  earth.  The  periods  in  which 
these  majestic  operations  were  effected  must  have  been  incalculable., 
since  the  dry  land  occupies  an  area  of  nearly  38,000,000  of  square 
miles. 

The  ocean  covers  nearly  three-fourths  of  the  surface  of  the  globej 
but  the  distribution  is  very  unequal,  whether  it  be  considered  with 
regard  to  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  or  the  eastern  and 
western.  Independently  of  Victoria  Land,  whose  extent  is  unknown, 
the  quantity  of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere  is  three  times 
greater  than  in  the  southern.  In  the  latter  it  occupies  only  one- 


CHAP.   II.  SIZE    OP    CONTINENTS.  39 

sixteenth  of  the  space  between  the  Antarctic  Circle  and  the  thir- 
teenth parallel  of  south  latitude,  while  between  the  corresponding 
parallels  in  the  northern  hemisphere  the  extent  of  land  and  water 
is  nearly  equal.  If  the  globe  be  divided  into  two  hemispheres  by  a 
meridian  passing  through  the  island  of  Tenerifle,  the  land  will  be 
found  to  predominate  greatly  on  the  eastern  side  of  that  line,  and 
the  water  on  the  western.  In  consequence  of  the  very  unequal  ar- 
rangement of  the  solid  and  liquid  portions  of  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  England  is  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  greatest  mass  of  land, 
and  its  antipode,  the  island  of  New  Zealand,  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
greatest  mass  of  water;  so  that  a  person  raised  above  Falmouth, 
which  is  almost  the  central  point,  till  he  could  perceive  a  complete 
hemisphere,  would  see  the  greatest  possible  expanse  of  land,  while, 
were  he  elevated  to  the  same  height  above  New  Zealand,  he  would 
see  the  greatest  possible  extent  of  ocean.1  In  fact,  only  one-twenty- 
seventh  of  the  land  has  land  directly  opposite  to  it  in  the  opposite 
hemisphere,  and  under  the  equator  five-sixths  of  the  circumference 
of  the  globe  is  water.  It  must  however  be  observed  that  there  is 
still  an  unexplored  region  within  the  Antarctic  Circle  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Europe,  and  of  the  north  polar  basin  we  know  no- 
thing. With  regard  to  the  land  alone,  the  great  continent  has  an 
area  of  about  24,000,000  square  miles,  while  the  extent  of  America 
is  11,000,000,  and  that  of  Australia  with  its  islands  scarcely 
3,000,000.  Africa  is  more  than  three  times  the  size  of  Europe, 
and  Asia  is  more  than  four  times  as  large.  The  extent  of  the  con- 
tinents is  twenty-three  times  greater  than  that  of  all  the  islands 
taken  together.2 

Of  the  polar  lands  little  is  known.  Greenland  probably  is  part 
of  a  continent,  the  domain  of  perpetual  snow ;  and  the  recent  dis- 
covery of  so  extensive  a  mass  of  high  volcanic  land  near  the  south 
pole  is  an  important  event  in  the  history  of  physical  science,  though 
the  stern  severity  of  the  climate  must  for  ever  render  it  unfit  for  the 
abode  of  animated  beings,  or  even  for  the  support  of  vegetable  life. 
It  seems  to  form  a  counterpoise  to  the  preponderance  of  dry  land  in 
the  northern  hemisphere.  There  is  something  sublime  in  the  con- 
templation of  these  lofty  and  unapproachable  regions  —  the  awful 
realm  of  ever-during  ice  and  perpetual  fire,  whose  year  consists  of 

1  M.  Gay  Lussac,  at  the  height  of  four  miles  and  a  quarter,  must  have 
seen  10,857  square  miles  of  the  earth's  surface  from  his  balloon.  Mr. 
Green,  who  ascended  to  the  height  of  five  miles,  must  have  seen  13,154 
square  miles  of  the  globe,  the  greatest  extent  viewed  by  man. 

a  The  proportion  of  land  to  water  referred  to  in  the  text  was  estimated 
by  Mr.  Gardner.  According  to  his  computation,  the  extent  of  land  is  about 
37,673,000  square  British  miles,  independently  of  Victoria  Continent  [dis- 
covered by  Charles  Wilkes,  TJ.  S.  N.]  and  the  sea  occupies  110,849,000. 
Hence  the  land  is  to  the  sea  as  1  to  4  nearly.  The  unexplored  region 
within  the  Arctic  Circle  is  about  7,620,000  square  miles. 


40  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    II. 

one  day  and  one  night.  The  strange  and  terrible  symmetry  in  the 
nature  of  the  lands  within  the  polar  circles,  whose  limits  are  to  us  a 
blank,  where  the  antagonist  principles  of  cold  and  heat  meet  in  their 
utmost  intensity,  fills  the  mind  with  that  awe  which  arises  from  the 
idea  of  the  unknown  and  the  indefinite. 

The  tendency  of  the  land  to  assume  a  peninsular  form  is  very 
remarkable,  and  it  is  still  more  so  that  almost  all  the  peninsulas  tend 
to  the  south  —  circumstances  that  depend  on  some  unknown  cause 
which  seems  to  have  acted  very  extensively.  The  continents  of . 
South  America,  Africa,  and  Greenland  are  peninsulas  on  a  gigantic 
scale,  all  tending  to  the  south ;  the  Asiatic  peninsula  of  India,  the 
Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  those  of  Corea,  Kamtschatka,  of  Florida, 
California,  and  Aliaska,  in  North  America,  as  well  as  the  European 
peninsulas  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  Spain  and  Portugal,  Italy  and 
Greece,  take  the  same  direction.  All  the  latter  have  a  rounded  form 
except  Italy,  whereas  most  of  the  others  terminate  sharply,  espe- 
cially the  continents  of  South  America  and  Africa,  India  and  Green- 
land, which  have  the  pointed  form  of  wedges ;  while  some  are  long 
and  narrow,  as  California,  Aliaska,  and  Malacca.  Many  of  the 
peninsulas  have  an  island  or  group  of  islands  at  their  extremity,  as 
South  America  which  terminates  with  the  group  of  Tierra  del  Fuego  : 
India  has  Ceylon ;  Malacca  has  Sumatra  and  Banca ;  the  southern 
extremity  of  Australia  ends  in  Van  Diemen's  Land;  a  chain  of 
islands  run  from  the  end  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska;  Greenland 
has  a  group  of  islands  at  its  extremity ;  and  Sicily  lies  close  to  the 
termination  of  Italy.  It  has  been  observed,  as  another  peculiarity 
in  the  structure  of  peninsulas,  that  they  generally  terminate  boldly, 
in  bluffs,  promontories,  or  mountains,  which  are  often  the  last  por- 
tions of  the  continental  chains.  South  America  terminates  in  Cape 
Horn,  a  high  promontory,  which  is  the  visible  termination  of  the 
Andes ;  Africa  with  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  India  with  Cape 
Comorin,  the  last  of  the  Ghauts ;  New  Holland  ends  with  South- 
East  Cape  in  Van  Diemen's  Land :  and  Greenland's  farthest  point 
is  the  elevated  bluff  of  Cape  Farewell. ' 

There  is  a  strong  analogy  between  South  America  and  Africa  in 
form  and  the  unbroken  mass  which  their  surface  presents,  while 
North  America  resembles  Europe,  in  being  much  indented  by  inland 
seas,  gulfs,  and  bays.  Eastern  Asia  is  evidently  continued  in  a 
subaqueous  continent  from  the  Indian  Ocean  across  the  Pacific  nearly 
to  the  west  coast  of  America,  of  which  New  Holland,  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  the  islands  of  the  Asiatic  coast  and  of  Oceanica  are 

1  This  very  general  view  of  the  structure  of  the  globe  originated  chiefly 
•with  the  celebrated  German  geologist  Von  Buch,  and  has  been  much  ex- 
tended and  developed  by  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  one  of  the  most  philoso- 
phical of  modern  geologists. 


CHAP.    II.  OUTLINE    OF    THE    LAND.  41 

the  great  table-lands  and  summits  of  its  mountain-chains.  With 
the  exception  of  a  vast  peninsula  in  Siberia  between  the  mouths  of 
the  rivers  Yenesei  and  Khatanga  and  the  unknown  regions  of  Green- 
land, the  two  great  continents  terminate  in  a  very  broken  line  to  the 
north ;  and  as  they  sink  beneath  the  Icy  Ocean,  the  tops  of  their 
high  lands  and  mountains  rise  above  the  waves  and  stud  the  coast 
with  innumerable  snow-clad  rocks  and  islands.  The  70th  parallel 
is  the  average  latitude  of  these  northern  shores,  which  have  a  great 
similarity  on  each  side  of  Behring's  Straits  in  form,  direction,  and 
in  the  adjacent  islands. 

The  peninsular  form  of  the  continents  adds  greatly  to  the  extent 
of  their  coasts,  of  such  importance  to  civilization  and  commerce. 
All  the  shores  of  Europe  are  deeply  indented  and  penetrated  by  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  which  has  formed  a  number  of  inland  seas  of  great 
magnitude,  so  that  it  has  a  greater  line  of  maritime  coast,  compared 
with  its  size,  than  any  other  quarter  of  the  world.  The  extent  of 
coast  from  the  Straits  of  Waigatz,  in  the  Polar  Ocean,  to  the  Strait 
of  Caffa,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Sea  of  Azoff,  is  about  17,000  miles. 
The  coast  of  Asia  has  been  much  worn  by  currents,  and  possibly 
also  by  the  action  of  the  ocean  occasioned  by  the  rotation  of  the 
earth  from  west  to  east.  On  the  south  and  east  especially  it  is  in- 
dented by  large  seas,  bays,  and  gulfs ;  and  the  eastern  shores  are 
rugged  and  encompassed  by  chains  of  islands  which  render  naviga- 
tion dangerous.  Its  maritime  coast  is  about  33,000  miles  in 
length. 

The  coast  of  Africa,  16,000  miles  long,  is  very  entire,  except 
perhaps  at  the  Gulf  of  Guinea  and  in  the  Mediterranean.  The 
shores  of  North  America  have  probably  been  much  altered  by  the 
equatorial  current  and  the  Gulf-stream.  There  is  little  doubt  that 
these  currents,  combined  with  volcanic  action,  have  hollowed  out 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  separated  the  Antilles  and  Bahama  Islands 
from  the  continent.  The  coast  is  less  broken  on  the  west,  but  in 
the  Icy  Ocean  there  is  a  labyrinth  of  gulfs,  bays,  and  creeks.  The 
shores  of  South  America  on  both  sides  are  very  entire,  except 
towards  Southern  Chile  and  Cape  Horn,  where  the  tremendous 
surge  and  currents  of  the  Ocean  in  those  high  latitudes  have  eaten 
into  the  mountains,  and  produced  endless  sounds  and  fiords  which 
run  far  into  the  land.  The  whole  continent  of  America  has  a  sea- 
coast  of  31,000  miles.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  ratio  of  the  number 
of  linear  miles  in  the  coast-line  to  the  number  of  square  miles  in 
the  extent  of  surface,  in  each  of  these  great  portions  of  the  globe, 
is  164  for  Europe,  376  for  Asia,  530  for  Africa,  and  359  for 
America.  Hence  the  proportion  is  most  favourable  to  Europe,  with 
regard  to  civilization  and  commerce ;  America  comes  next,  then 
Asia,  and  last  of  all  Africa,  which  has  every  natural  obstacle  to 

contend  with,  from  the  extent  and  nature  of  its  coasts,  the  desert 
4* 


42  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   II. 

character  of  the  country,  and  the  insalubrity  of  its  climate,  on  the 
Atlantic  coast  at  least. 

The  continents  had  been  raised  from  the  deep  by  a  powerful  effort 
of  the  internal  forces  acting  under  widely  extended  regions,  and  the 
stratified  crust  of  the  earth  either  remained  level,  rose  in  undula- 
tions, or  sank  into  cavities,  according  to  its  intensity.  Some  thin- 
ner portion  of  the  earth's  surface,  giving  way  to  the  internal  forces, 
had  been  rent  into  deep  fissures,  and  the  mountain  masses  had  been 
raised  by  violent  concussions,  perceptible  in  the  convulsed  state  of 
their  strata.  The  centres  of  maximum  energy  are  marked  by  the 
plutonic  rocks.1  which  generally  form  the  nucleus  or  axis  of  the 
mountain  masses,  on  whose  flanks  the  stratified  rocks  are  tilted  at 
all  angles  to  the  horizon,  whence,  declining  on  every  side,  they  sink 
to  various  depths,  or  stretch  to  various  distances  in  the  plains. 
Enormous  as  the  mountain-chains  and  table-lands  are,  and  prodi- 
gious as  the  forces  that  elevated  them,  they  bear  a  very  small  pro- 
portion to  the  mass  of  the  level  continents  and  to  the  vast  power 
which  raised  them  even  to  their  inferior  altitude.  Both  the  high 
and  the  low  lands  have  been  elevated  at  successive  periods;  some 
of  the  very  highest  mountain-chains  are  but  of  recent  geological 
date,  and  some  chains  that  are  now  far  inland  once  stood  up  as 
islands  above  the  ocean,  while  marine  strata  filled  their  cavities  and 
formed  round  their  bases.  The  influence  of  mountain-chains  on  the 
extent  and  form  of  the  continents  is  beyond  a  doubt. 

Notwithstanding  the  various  circumstances  of  their  elevation, 
there  is  everywhere  a  certain  regularity  of  form  in  mountain  masses, 
however  unsymmetrical  they  may  appear  at  first,  and  rocks  of  the 
same  kind  have  identical  characters  in  every  quarter  of  the  globe. 
Plants  and  animals  vary  with  climate,  but  a  granite  mountain  has 
the  same  peculiarities  in  the  southern  as  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
— at  the  equator  as  near  the  poles.  Single  mountains,  insulated  on 
plains  are  rare,  except  when  they  are  volcanic;  they  generally  appear 
in  groups  intersected  by  valleys  in  every  direction,  and  more  fre- 
quently in  extensive  chains  symmetrically  arranged  in  a  series  of 
parallel  ridges,  separated  by  narrow  longitudinal  valleys,  the  high- 
est and  most  rugged  of  which  occupy  the  centre  : 2  when  the  chain 

1  Plutonic  rocks  are  granite  and  others  owing  their  origin  to  fire. 

3  According  to  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  every  system  of  mountains  occupies 
a  portion  of  a  great  circle  of  the  globe,  the  cleft  being  more  easily  made  in 
that,  than  in  any  other  direction,  and  he  shows  that  the  mountain  chains 
are  parallel  to  one  another,  even  when  in  opposite  hemispheres ;  thus  the 
Central  Alps  and  Carpathians,  the  Caucasus  and  Himalaya,  lie  nearly  in  the 
same  direction.  The  great  circle  of  the  sphere,  that  would  pass  through 
that  part  of  the  Apennines  lying  between  Genoa  and  the  sources  of  the 
Tiber,  is  parallel  to  the  mountains  in  Achaia,  to  the  Pyrenees,  to  the  Alle- 
ghanies  in  North  America,  and  to  the  Ghauts  in  Malabar.  The  Western 
Alps  are  parallel  to  the  Spanish  mountains  from  Cape  San  Maritime  to 


CHAP.  n.  FORMS    OF    ROCKS,     ETC.  -     43 

is  broad  and  of  the  first  order  in  point  of  magnitude,  peak  after  peak 
arises  in  endless  succession.  The  lateral  ridges  and  valleys  are  con- 
stantly of  less  elevation,  and  are  less  bold,  in  proportion  to  their 
distance  from  the  central  mass,  till  at  last  the  most  remote  ridges 
sink  down  into  gentle  undulations.  Extensive  and  lofty  branches 
diverge  from  the  principal  chains  at  various  angles,  and  stretch  far 
into  the  plains.  They  are  often  as  high  as  the  chains  from  which 
~they  spring,  and  it  happens  not  unfrequently  that  these  branches 
are  united  by  transverse  ridges,  so  that  the  country  is  often  widely 
covered  by  a  net-work  of  mountains,  and,  at  the  point  where  these 
offsets  diverge,  there  is  frequently  a  knot  of  mountains  spreading 
over  hundreds  of  square  miles. 

One  side  of  a  mountain-range  is  usually  more  precipitous  than  the 
other,  but  there  is  nothing  in  which  the  imagination  misleads  the 
judgment  more  than  in  estimating  the  steepness  of  a  declivity.  In 
the  whole  range  of  the  Alps  there  is  not  a  single  rock  which  has 
1600  feet  of  perpendicular  height,  or  a  vertical  slope  of  90°.  The 
declivity  of  Mont  Blanc  towards  the  Alice  Blanche,  precipitous  as 
it  seems,  does  not  amount  to  45° ;  and  the  mean  inclination  of  the 
Peak  of  Teneriffe,  according  to  Baron  Humboldt,  is  only  12°  38'. 
The  Silla  of  Caraccas,  which  rises  precipitously  from  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  at  an  angle  of  53°  28',  to  the  height  of  between  6000  and 
7000  feet,  is  a  majestic  instance  of  perhaps  the  nearest  approach  to 
perpendicularity  of  any  great  height  yet  known. 

The  circumstances  of  elevation  are  not  the  only  causes  of  that 
variety  observed  in  the  summits  of  mountains.  A  difference  in  the 
composition  and  internal  structure  of  a  rock  has  a  great  influence 
upon  its  general  form,  and  on  the  degree  and  manner  in  which  it  is 
worn  by  the  weather.  Thus  dolomite  [magnesian  limestone}  assumes 
generally  the  form  of  high  insulated  peaks ;  crystalline  schists  and 
gneiss  assume  the  form  of  needles,  as  in  the  Alps;  slates  and  quartzif- 
erous  schists  take  the  form  of  triangular  pyramids;  calcareous  rocks 
a  rounded  shape ;  serpentine  and  trachyte  are  often  of  a  dome  form ; 
phonolites  assume  a  pyramidal  form ;  dark  walls,  like  those  in  Green- 
land, are  of  trap  and  basalt ;  and  volcanoes  are  indicated  by  blunt 

Cape  de  Gatte;  they  are  parallel  to  the  African  mountains  along  the  coast 
of  the  Atlantic,  to  the  chain  of  Brazil  between  St.  Roque  and  Monte  Video, 
and  to  the  Scandinavian  chain ;  the  range  of  Monte  Viso  in  the  Piedmon- 
tese  Alps  is  parallel  to  the  Apennines  of  the  Roman  and  Neapolitan  States, 
to  Pindus,  and  to  the  chain  of  Taigetus  as  far  ns  Cape  Matapan.  —  The 
Southern  part  of  the  Ural  is  parallel  to  the  system  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia  ; 
another  part  is  parallel  to  the  Tanare.  Monte  Laputa,  on  the  coast  of 
South  Africa,  is  parallel  to  the  mountains  of  Madagascar,  those  of  Egypt 
and  the  Red  Sea  are  parallel  to  the  Thuringerwald ;  and  many  of  the 
Chinese  chains  observe  a  parallelism  with  the  Andes,  in  running  from  East 
.  to  West. 


44  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  II. 

cones  and  craters.  Thus  the  mountain-peaks  often  indicate  by  their 
form  their  geological  nature. 

Viewing  things  on  a  broad  scale,  it  appears  that  there  is  also  a 
very  striking  connexion  between  the  physical  geography  or  external 
aspect  of  different  countries  and  their  geological  structure.  By  a 
minute  comparison  of  the  different  parts  of  the  land,  M.  Boue  has 
shown  that  similarity  of  outward  forms,  while  indicating  similarity 
in  the  producing  causes,  must  also  to  a  large  extent  indicate  identity 
of  structure,  and  therefore  from  the  external  appearance  of  an  un- 
explored country  its  geological  structure  may  be  inferred,  at  least  to 
a  certain  extent.  This  he  illustrates  by  pointing  out  a  correspond- 
ence, even  in  their  most  minute  details,  between  the  leading  features 
of  Asia  and  Europe,  and  the  identity  of  their  geological  structure. 
It  has  been  justly  observed,  that  when  the  windings  of  our  continents 
and  seas  are  narrowly  examined,  and  the  more  essential  peculiarities 
of  their  contours  contemplated,  it  is  evident  that  Nature  has  not 
wrought  after  an  indefinite  number  of  types  or  models,  but  that,  on 
the  contrary,  her  fundamental  types  are  very  few,  and  derived  from 
the  action  of  definite  constructive  forces  on  a  primary  base.1  The 
whole  of  our  land  and  sea,  in  fact,  may  be  decomposed  into  a  less 
or  greater  number  of  masses,  either  exhibiting  all  these  fundamental 
forms  or  merely  a  portion  of  them.  The  peninsular  structure  of  the 
continents  with  their  accompanying  islands  is  a  striking  illustration 
of  the  truth  of  this  remark,  and  many  more  might  be  adduced.  It 
follows,  as  a  consequence  of  that  law  in  Nature's  operations,  that 
analogy  of  form  and  contour  throws  the  greatest  light  on  the  con- 
stitution of  countries  far  removed  from  each  other.  Even  the  pic- 
turesque descriptions  of  a  traveller  often  afford  information  of  which 
he  may  be  little  aware.2 

The  determination  of  the  contemporaneous  upheaval  of  parallel 
mountain-chains,  by  a  comparison  of  the  ages  of  the  inclined  and 
horizontal  strata  resting  on  them,  is  one  of  the  highest  steps  of  gene- 
ralization which  has  been  attempted  by  geologists,  and  is  due  to  M. 
Elie  do  Beaumont.  It  was  first  observed  by  the  miners  of  the  Frey- 
berg  school,  and  established  as  a  law  by  Werner,  that  veins  of  the 
same  nature  in  mines  occur  in  parallel  fissures  opened  at  the  same 
time,  and  probably  filled  with  metal,  also  simultaneously  at  a  subse- 

1  M.  Bou<$. 

3  The  author  avails  herself  •with  much  pleasure  of  an  opportunity  of 
expressing  her  admiration  of  the  accuracy,  extent,  and  execution  of  Mr. 
Keith  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas,  and  of  the  valuable  information  contained 
in  the  letterpress  which  accompanies  it,  -which  has  afforded  her  the  greatest 
assistance.  As  Mr.  Johnston  has  published  a  smaller  and  cheap  edition 
of  his  Atlas,  well  fitted  to  illustrate  these  volumes,  the  necessity  of  insert- 
ing in  them  any  similar  maps,  which  was  at  one  time  contemplated,  is  no 
longer  necessary.  —  Physical  Atlas,  1  vol.,  folio  edition,  1848;  Physical 
Atlas,  1  vol.,  quarto  edition,  1850. 


CHAP.  II.     PARALLELISM    OF    MINERAL    VEINS.  45 

quent  period ;  and  that  fissures  differing  in  direction  differ  also  in 
age.  As  these  veins  and  fissures  are  rents  through  the  solid  strata, 
often  of  unfathomable  depth  and  immense  length,  there  is  the 
strongest  analogy  between  them  and  those  enormous  fissures  in  the 
solid  mass  of  the  globe  through  which  the  mountain-chains  have 
been  heaved  up.  Were  the  analogy  perfect,  it  ought  to  follow  that 
parallel  mountain-chains  have  been  raised  simultaneously,  that  is, 
by  forces  acting  during  the  same  geological  periods.  By  a  careful 
examination  of  the  relative  ages  of  the  strata  resting  on  the  flanks 
of  many  of  the  mountain  systems,  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont  has  shown 
that  all  strata  elevated  simultaneously  assume  a  parallel  direction, 
or,  that  parallel  chains  of  mountains  are  contemporaneous.  Should 
this  be  confirmed,  parallel  chains  in  the  most  distant  regions  will  no 
longer  be  regarded  as  insulated  masses.  They  will  indicate  the 
course  of  enormous  fissures  that  have  simultaneously  rent  the  solid 
globe  and  passed  through  the  bed  of  the  ocean  from  continent  to 
continent,  from  island  to  island.  M.  Von  Buch  has  found  that  four 
systems  of  mountains  in  Germany  accord  with  this  theory,  and  Mr. 
Sedgwick  has  observed  the  same  in  the  Westmoreland  system  of  moun- 
tains, believed  to  be  the  most  ancient  of  which  the  globe  can  now 
furnish  any  traces.  This  theory  of  elevation  of  mountain-chains, 
which  originated  with  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont,  has  already  led  to  the 
discovery  of  twenty  different  periods  of  fracture  and  elevation  in  the 
European  continent  alone.1 

Mr.  Hopkins,  of  Cambridge,  has  taken  a  purely  mathematical 

1  Mountain  Systems  of  Europe,  according  to  M.  Elie  de  Beaumont : — 

1.  System  of  the  Hundsruck,  and  of  the  Eifel  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  and 

of  Westmoreland  in  England  —  direction E.  25°  N, 

2.  .     .     of  the  Vosges,  and  of  the  Bocages  in  Western  France.. E.  15°  S. 

3.  .     .     of  the  N.  of  England N.  6°  W. 

4.  .     .     of  the  Low  Countries E.  5°  S. 

5.  .     .     of  the  Rhine N.  21°  E. 

6.  .     .     of  the  Morvan,  and  of  the  Mountains  of  Central  Ger- 

many  E.  40°.  S. 

7.  .     .     of  Mount  Pilat,  and  of  the  Cote  d'Or E.  40°  N. 

8.  .     .     of  Monte  Viso N.  22°  W. 

9.  .     .     of  the  Pyrenees  and  Northern  Apennines E.  8°  S. 

10.  .  .  of  Corsica  and  Sardinia N.  &  S. 

11.  .  .  of  the  Western  Alps N.  26°  E. 

12.  .  .  of  the  principal  chain  of  the  Alps E.  16°  N. 

13.  .  .  from  Cape  Tenare  to  the  S.  extremity  of  the  Morea..N.  10°  W. 

14.  .  .  of  La  Vended  N.  22°  30'  W. 

15.  .  .  of  the  Finisterre E.  21°  45'  N. 

16.  .  .  of  Longrnynd,  25°  E.  at  Church  Stretton,  and  N.  31°  15'  E.  at 

Bingenloch,  owing  to  the  difference  of  longitude. 

17.  .     .     of  Morbithan W.  38°  15'  N 

18.  .     .     of  the  Forez N.  15°  3/ W 

19.  .     .     of  Mount  Tatra W.  4°  50'  N. 

20.  .     .     of  the  Sancerrois E.  26°  0' N, 


46  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  II. 

view  of  the  subject,  and  has  proved  that,  when  an  internal  expan- 
sive force  acts  upwards  upon  a  single  point  in  the  earth's  crust,  the 
splits  or  cracks  must  all  diverge  from  that  point  like  radii  in  a  circle, 
which  is  exactly  the  case  in  many  volcanic  districts ;  that  when  the 
expansive  force  acts  uniformly  from  below  on  a  wide  surface  or  area, 
it  tends  to  stretch  the  surface,  so  that  it  would  split  or  crack  where 
the  tension  is  greatest,  that  is,  either  in  the  direction  of  the  length 
or  breadth ;  and  if  the  area  yields  in  more  places  than  one,  he  found 
that  the  fissures  would  necessarily  be  parallel  to  one  another,  which 
agrees  with  the  law  of  arrangement  of  veins  in  mines.  These 
results  are  greatly  modified  by  the  shape  of  the  area,  but  the  modi- 
fication is  according  to  a  fixed  law,  which,  instead  of  interfering  with 
that  of  the  parallelism  of  the  fissures,  actually  arises  from  the  same 
action  which  produces  it.  This  investigation  agrees  in  all  its  details 
with  the  fractures  in  the  districts  in  England  to  which  they  were 
applied,  so  that  theory  comes  to  the  aid  of  observation  in  this  still 
unsettled  question.1 

It  seems  to  bear  on  the  subject,  that  parallel  mountain-chains  are 
similar  in  geological  age,  even  when  separated  by  seas.  For  instance, 
the  mountains  of  Sweden  and  Finland  are  of  the  same  structure, 
though  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia  is  between  them ;  those  of  Cornwall, 
Brittany,  and  the  north-west  of  Spain  are  similar;  the  Atlas  and 
the  Spanish  mountains,  the  chains  in  California  and  those  on  the 
adjacent  coast  of  America,  and,  lastly,  those  of  New  Guinea  and 
the  north-east  of  Australia,  furnish  examples.  The  same  corres- 
pondence in  geological  epoch  prevails  in  chains  that  are  not  parallel, 
but  that  are  convergent  from  the  form  of  the  earth.  This  observa- 
tion is  also  extensively  exemplified  in  those  that  run  east  and  west, 
as  the  Alps,  the  Balkan,  Taurus,  Paropamisus  with  its  prolongation, 
the  Hindoo  Coosh,  the  Himalaya,  and  in  America  the  mountains 
of  Parima  and  the  great  chain  of  Venezuela. 

Continents  and  mountain  chains  are  often  interrupted  by  poste- 
rior geological  changes,  such  as  clefts  and  cavities  formed  by  erosion, 
as  evidently  appears  from  the  correspondence  of  the  strata.  The 
chalk  cliffs  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  British  Channel  show  that 
Britain  once  formed  part  of  the  continent;  the  formation  of  the 
Orkney  Islands  and  Ireland  is  the  same  with  that  of  the  Highlands 
of  Scotland;  the  formation  is  the  same  on  each  side  of  the  Straits 
of  Gibraltar :  that  of  Turkey  in  Europe  passes  into  Asia  Minor, 
the  Crimea  into  the  Caucasus,  a  volcanic  region  bounds  the  Straits 
of  Babelmandel,  and  Behring's  Straits  divide  the  ancient  strata  of 
a  similar  age.  This  is  particularly  the  ca#e  with  coast  islands.2 

Immediately  connected  with  the  mountains  are  the  high  table- 

1  '  On  the  Parallel  Lines  of  Simultaneous  Elevation  in  the  Weald  of  Kent 

and  Sussex,'  by Hopkins,  Esq. 

•  M.  Boue". 


CHAP.  II.       I'ORM   OF  THE   GREAT    CONTINENT. 

lands  which  form  so  conspicuous  a  feature  in  the  Asiatic  and 
ican  continents.  These  perpetual  storehouses  of  the  waters  send 
their  streams  to  refresh  the  plains,  and  to  afford  a  highway  between 
the  nations.  Table-lands  of  less  elevation,  sinking  in  terraces  of 
lower  and  lower  level,  constitute  the  links  between  the  high  ground 
and  the  low,  the  mountains  and  the  plains,  and  thus  maintain  the 
continuity  of  the  land.  They  frequently  are  of  the  richest  soil,  and 
enjoy  the  most  genial  climate,  affording  a  delightful  and  picturesque 
abode  to  man,  though  the  plains  are  his  principal  dwelling.  Sloping 
imperceptibly  from  the  base  of  the  inferior  table-lands,  or  from  the 
last  undulations  of  the  mountains,  to  the  ocean,  the  plains  carry 
off  the  superfluous  waters.  Fruitfulness  and  sterility  vary  their 
aspect ;  immense  tracts  of  the  richest  soil  are  favoured  by  climate 
and  hardly  require  culture ;  a  greater  portion  is  only  rendered  pro- 
ductive by  hard  labour,  compelling  man  to  fulfil  his  destiny ;  while 
vast  regions  are  doomed  to  perpetual  barrenness,  never  gladdened 
by  a  shower. 

The  form  of  the  great  continent  has  been  determined  by  an  im- 
mense zone  of  mountains  and  table-lands,  lying  between  the  30th 
and  40th  or  45th  parallels  of  north  latitude,  which  stretches  across 
it  from  W.S.W.  to  E.N.E.  from  the  coasts  of  Barbary  and  Portu- 
gal, on  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  to  the  farthest  extremity  of  Asia,  at 
Behring's  Straits,  in  the  North  Pacific.  North  of  this  lies  a  vast 
plain,  extending  almost  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  extremity  of  Asia, 
the  greater  portion  of  which  is  a  dead  level,  or  low  undulations, 
uninterrupted  except  by  the  Scandinavian  and  British  system  on 
the  north,  and  the  Ural  chain,  which  is  of  small  elevation.  The 
low  lands  south  of  the  mountainous  zone  are  much  indented  by  the 
ocean,  and  of  the  most  diversified  aspect.  The  greater  part  of  the 
flat  country  lying  between  the  China  Sea  and  the  river  Indus  is  of 
the  most  exuberant  fertility,  while  that  between  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  foot  of  the  Atlas  is,  with  some  happy  exceptions,  one  of  the 
most  desolate  tracts  on  the  earth.  The  southern  lowlands,  too,  are 
broken  by  a  few  mountain  systems  of  considerable  extent  and 
height. 

The  Atlas  and  Spanish  mountains  form  the  western  extremity 
of  that  great  zone  of  high  land  that  girds  the  old  continent  almost 
throughout  its  extent :  these  two  mountain  systems  were  certainly 
at  one  time  united,  and  from  their  geological  formation,  and  also 
the  parallelism  of  their  mountain-chains,  they  must  have  been  ele- 
vated by  forces  acting  in  the  same  direction;  now,  indeed,  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar,  a  sea-filled  chasm  960  fathoms  deep,  divides 
them.1 

1  By  the  soundings  of  Captain  Smyth,  R.  N.,  the  Strait  is  9GO  fathoms 
deep  between  Gibraltar  and  Ceutn,  and  varying  from  160  to  500  in  the 
narrowest  part. 


48  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IT. 

A  very  elevated  and  continuous  mountain  region  extends  in  a 
broad  belt  along  the  north-west  of  Africa,  from  the  promontory  of 
Gher,  on  the  Atlantic,  to  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  in  the  Mediterranean, 
enclosing  all  the  high  lands  of  Morocco,  Algiers,  and  Tunis.  It  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean,  and  insulated  from 
the  rest  of  Africa  by  the  desert  of  Sahara. 

This  mountain  system  consists  of  three  parts.  The  chain  of  the 
Greater  Atlas,  which  is  farthest  inland,  extends  from  Cape  Gher, 
on  the  Atlantic,  to  the  Lesser  Syrtis ;  and,  in  Morocco,  forms  a 
knot  of  mountains  15,000  feet  high,  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

The  Lesser  Atlas  begins  at  Cape  Spartel  (the  ancient  Cape  Cotes) 
opposite  to  Gibraltar,  and  keeps  parallel  to  the  Mediterranean  till 
it  attains  the  Gharian  range  in  Tripoli,  the  last  and  lowest  of  the 
Little  Atlas,  which  runs  due  east  in  a  uniformly  diminishing  line 
till  it  vanishes  in  the  plain  of  the  Great  Syrtis.  That  long,  rugged, 
but  lower  chain  of  parallel  ridges  and  groups  which  forms  the  bold 
coasts  of  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  and  the  Mediterranean,  is  only 
a  portion  of  the  Lesser  Atlas,  which  rises  above  it  majestically, 
covered  with  snow.  The  flanks  of  the  mountains  are  generally 
clothed  with  forests,  but  their  summit  is  one  uninterrupted  line  of 
bare  inaccessible  rocks,  and  they  are  rent  by  fissures  frequently  not 
more  than  a  few  feet  wide — a  peculiar  feature  of  the  whole  system. 

The  Middle  Atlas,  lying  between  the  two  great  chains,  consists 
of  a  table-land,  rich  in  valleys  and  rivers,  which  rises  in  successive 
terraces  to  the  foot  of  the  Greater  Atlas,  separated  by  ridges  of 
hills  parallel  to  it.  This  wide  and  extensive  region  has  a  delightful 
climate,  abounds  in  magnificent  forests,  and  valleys  full  of  vitality. 
The  Greater  Atlas  is  calcareous  in  its  central  portion,  and  composed 
of  granite  and  schistose  rocks  near  the  sea-coast. 

The  Spanish  peninsula  consists  chiefly  of  a  table-land  traversed 
by  parallel  ranges  of  mountains,  and  is  surrounded  by  the  sea, 
except  where  it  is  separated  from  France  by  the  Pyrenees,  which 
extend  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  but  are  con- 
tinued by  the  Cantabrian  chain  to  Cape  Finisterre  on  the  Atlantic. 

The  Pyrenean  chain  is  of  moderate  height  at  its  extremities,  but 
its  summit  maintains  a  waving  line  whose  mean  altitude  is  7990 
feet;  it  rises  to  a  greater  height  on  the  east;  its  highest  point  is  the 
Malahite  or  Nethou,  11,170  feet  above  the  sea.  The  snow  lies  deep 
on  these  mountains  during  the  greater  part  of  the  year,  and  is  per- 
petual on  the  highest  parts ;  but  the  glaciers,  which  are  chiefly  on 
the  northern  side,  are  neither  so  numerous  nor  so  large  as  in  the 
Alps. 

The  greatest  breadth  of  this  range  is  about  60  miles,  and  its  length 
270.  It  is  so  steep  on  the  French  side,  so  rugged  and  so  notched, 
that  from  the  plains  below  its  summits  look  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw, 


CHAP.  II.  THE    ATLAS     MOUNTAINS.  49 

whence  the  term  Sierra  has  been  appropriated  to  mountains  of  this 
form.  On  the  Spanish  side,  gigantic  sloping  offsets,  separated  by 
deep  precipitous  valleys,  extend  to  the  banks  of  the  Ebro.  All 
the  Spanish  mountains  are  torn  by  deep  crevices,  the  beds  of  torrents 
and  rivers. 

The  interior  of  Spain  is  a  table-land  with  an  area  of  93,000 
square  miles,  nearly  equal  to  half  of  the  peninsula.  It  dips  to  the 
Atlantic  from  its  western  side,  where  its  altitude  is  about  2300  feet. 
There  it  is  bounded  by  the  Iberian  mountains,  which  begin  at  the 
point  where  the  Pyrenees  take  the  name  of  the  Cantabrian  chain, 
and  run  in  a  tortuous  south-easterly  direction  through  all  Spain, 
constituting  the  eastern  boundary  of  Valencia  and  Murcia,  and  send- 
ing many  branches  through  these  provinces  to  the  Mediterranean; 
its  most  elevated  point  is  the  Sierra  Urbino. 

Four  nearly  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  originate  in  this  limiting 
chain,  running  from  E.  N.E.  to  W.S.W.  diagonally  across  the  pe- 
ninsula to  the  Atlantic.  Of  these  the  high  Castilian  chain  of  the 
Gaudarama  and  the  Sierra  de  Toledo  cross  the  table-land,  the  Sierra 
Morena,  so  called  from  the  dingy  colour  of  its  forests  of  Hermes 
oak,  on  the  southern  edge;  and  lastly,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  though 
only  100  miles  long  and  50  broad,  the  finest  range  of  mountains  in 
Europe  after  the  Alps,  traverses  the  plains  of  Andalusia  and  Gra- 
nada. The  table-land  is  monotonous  and  bare  of  trees ;  the  plains 
of  Old  Castile  are  as  naked  as  the  Steppes  of  Siberia,  and  unculti- 
vated, except  along  the  banks  of  the  rivers.  Corn  and  wine  are 
produced  in  abundance  on  the  wide  plains  of  New  Castile  and  Estre- 
madura :  other  places  serve  for  pasture.  The  table-land  becomes 
more  fertile  as  it  extends  towards  Portugal,  which  is  altogether  more 
productive  than  Spain,  though  the  maritime  provinces  of  the  latter 
on  the  Mediterranean  are  luxuriant  and  beautiful,  with  a  semi- 
tropical  vegetation. 

Granite,  crystalline,  and  paleozoic  rocks  prevail  chiefly  in  the 
Spanish  mountains,  and  give  them  their  peculiar,  bold,  serrated  as- 
pect. Some  of  the  valleys  between  the  parallel  fanges,  through 
which  the  great  Spanish  rivers  flow  to  the  Atlantic,  appear  to  have 
been  at  one  time  the  basins  of  lakes. 

The  mass  of  high  land  is  continued  through  the  south  of  France, 
at  a  much  lower  elevation,  by  chains  of  hills  and  table-lands,  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  are  the  Montagnes  Noires,  and  the  great 
plateau  of  Auvcrgne,  once  the  theatre  of  violent  volcanic  action, 
which  continued  from  the  beginning  to  the  middle  of  the  tertiary 
period,  presenting  cones  and  craters  very  perfect :  some  of  the 
highest,  as  the  Puy  de  Dome,  are  trachytic  domes.  The  trachytic 
group  of  Mont  Dore,  the  highest  peak  of  which,  the  Puy  de  Sancy; 
rises  to  the  height  of  6188  feet,  and  includes  an  immense  crater  of 
5 


50  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   II. 

elevation.1  The  volcanic  mountains  of  Auvergne,  and  the  CeVennes, 
which  are  a  little  lower,  are  the  most  remarkable  of  the  French 
system ;  the  eastern  offsets  from  the  latter  reach  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ehone.  In  fact,  the  French  mountains  are  the  link  between  the 
more  elevated  masses  of  Western  and  Eastern  Europe. 

The  eastern  and  highest  part  of  the  European  portion  of  the 
mountain-zone  begins  to  rise  above  the  low  lands  about  the  52nd 
parallel  of  north  latitude,  ascending  by  terraces,  groups,  and  chains 
of  mountains,  through  six  or  seven  degrees  of  latitude,  till  it  reaches 
its  highest  point  in  the  great  range  of  the  Alps  and  Balkan.  The 
descent  on  the  south  side  of  this  lofty  mass  is  much  more  rapid  and 
abrupt,  and  the  immediate  offsets  from  the  Alps  shorter ;  but,  taking 
a  very  general  view,  the  Apennines  and  mountains  of  Northern 
Sicily,  those  of  Greece  and  the  southern  part  of  Turkey  in  Europe, 
with  all  the  islands  of  the  adjacent  coasts,  are  but  outlying  members 
of  the  general  protuberance. 

The  principal  chain  of  the  Hyrcanian  mountains,  the  Sudetes,  and 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  form  the  northern  boundary  of  these 
high  lands :  the  first,  consisting  of  three  parallel  ridges,  extends 
from  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine  to  the  centre  of  Germany,  about 
51°  or  52°  of  N.  lat.,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  about  100  miles,  and 
terminates  in  the  knot  of  the  Fichtelberge,  covering  an  area  of  9000 
square  miles,  on  the  confines  of  Bavaria  and  Bohemia.  The  Su- 
detes begin  on  the  east  of  this  group,  and,  after  a  circuit  of  300 
miles  round  Bohemia,  terminate  at  the  small  elevated  plain  of  the 
Upper  Oder,  which  connects  them  with  the  Carpathian  mountains. 
No  part  of  these  limiting  ranges  attains  the  height  of  5000  feet, 
except  the  Carpathians,  some  of  which  are  very  high.  The  latter 
consist  of  mountain-groups  united  by  elevated  plains,  rather  than  of 
a  single  chain  :  the  Tatra  mountains,  bisected  by  the  20th  meridian, 
is  their  loftiest  point.  This  range  is  high  also  in  Transylvania,  be- 
fore it  reaches  the  Danube,  which  divides  it  from  a  secondary  branch 
of  the  Balkan.  Spurs  decline  in  undulations  from  these  limiting 
chains  on  the  great  northern  plain,  and  the  country  to  the  south,  in- 
tervening between  them  and  the  Alps,  is  covered  with  an  intricate 
network  of  mountains  and  plains  of  moderate  elevation. 

The  higher  Alps,  which  form  the  western  crest  of  the  elevated 
zone,  may  be  said  to  begin  at  Cape  della  Melle  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  and  bend  round  by  the  west  and  north  to  Mont  Blanc ;  then 
turning  E.  N.  E.  they  run  through  the  Grisons  and  Tyrol  to  the 
Great  Glockner,  in  40°  7'  N.  lat.,  and  12°  43'  E.  long.,  where  the 

1 A  crater  of  elevation  is  a  mountain,  generally  dome-shaped,  whose  top 
has  sunk  into  a  crater  or  hollow,  after  the  internal  force  which  raised  it 
was  withdrawn,  but  from  which  no  lava  had  issued.  Dome-shaped  moun- 
tains owe  their  form  to  internal  pressure,  probably  from  lava,  but  which 
have  not  sunk  into  a  crater. 


CHAP.  II.  THEHIGHERALP6.  51 

higher  Alps  terminate  a  course  420  miles  long.  All  this  chain  is 
lofty ;  much  of  it  is  above  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation ;  the 
most  elevated  part  lies  between  the  Col  de  la  Seigne,  on  the  western 
shoulder  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  the  Simplon.  The  highest  mountains 
in  Europe  are  comprised  within  this  space,  not  more  than  60  miles 
long,  where  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  of  all,  has  an  absolute  eleva- 
tion of  15,759  feet.  The  central  ridge  of  the  higher  Alps  is  jagged 
with  peaks,  pyramids,  and  needles  of  bare  and  almost  perpendicular 
rock,  rising  from  fields  of  perpetual  snow  and  rivers  of  ice  to  an 
elevation  of  14,000  feet.  Many  parallel  chains  and  groups,  alike 
rugged  and  snowy,  press  on  the  principal  crest,  and  send  their  flanks 
far  into  the  lower  grounds.  Innumerable  secondary  branches,  hardly 
lower  than  the  main  crest,  diverge  from  it  in  various  directions :  of 
these  the  chain  of  the  Bernese  Alps  is  the  highest  and  most  exten- 
sive. It  separates  at  the  St.  Gothard,  in  a  line  parallel  from  the 
principal  chain,  separates  the  Valais  from  the  Canton  of  Berne,  and 
with  its  ramifications  forms  one  of  the  most  remarkable  groups  of 
mountain  scenery  in  Europe.  Its  endless  maze  of  sharp  ridges  and 
bare  peaks,  mixed  with  gigantic  masses  of  pure  snow,  fading  coldly 
serene  into  the  blue  horizon,  present  a  scene  of  sublime  quiet  and 
repose,  unbroken  but  by  the  avalanche  or  the  thunder. 

At  the  Great  Glockner  the  chain  of  the  Alps,  hitherto  undivided, 
splits  into  two  branches,  the  Noric  and.  Carnic  Alps :  the  latter  is 
the  continuation  of  the  chief  stem.  Never  rising  to  the  height  of 
perpetual  snow,  it  separates  the  Tyrol  and  Upper  Carinthia  from  the 
Venetian  States,  and,  taking  the  name  of  the  Julian  Alps  at  Mont 
Terglou,  runs  east  till  it  joins  the  Eastern  Alps,  or  Balkan,  under 
the  18th  meridian.  Offsets  from  this  chain  cover  all  the  neigh- 
bouring countries. 

It  is  difficult  to  estimate  the  width  of  the  Alpine  chain  :  that  of 
the  higher  Alps  is  about  100  miles;  it  increases  to  150  east  of  the 
Grisons,  and  amounts  to  200  between  -the  15th  and  16th  meridians, 
but  is  not  more  than  80  at  its  junction  with  the  Balkan. 

The  Stelvio,  9177  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the  highest  carriage-pass 
in  these  mountains.  That  of  St.  Gothard  (6808)  goes  directly  over 
the  crest  of  the  "Alps.  Passes  very  rarely  go  over  the  summit  of  a 
mountain;  they  generally  cross  the  watershed,  ascending  by  the 
valley  of  a  torrent,  and  descending  by  a  similar  path  on  the  other 
side. 

The  frequent  occurrence  of  extensive  deep  lakes  is  a  peculiar 
feature  in  European  mountains,  rarely  to  be  met  with  in  the  Asiatic 
system,  except  in  the  Altai  and  on  the  elevated  plains. 

With  the  exception  of  the  Jura,  whose  pastoral  summit  is  about 
8000  feet  above  the  sea,  there  are  no  elevated  table-lands  in  the 
Alps;  the  tabular  form,  so  eminently  characteristic  of  the  Asiatic 
high  lands,  begins  in  the  Balkan.  The  Oriental  peninsula  rises  by 


52  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  1 

degrees  from  the  Danube  to  Bosnia  and  Upper  Macedonia,  which 
are  some  hundred  feet  above  the  sea ;  and  the  Balkan  extends  600 
miles  along  this  elevated  mass,  from  the  Julian  Alps  to  Cape  Eminec 
on  the  Black  Sea.  It  begins  by  a  table-land  70  miles  long,  traversed 
by  low  hills  ending,  towards  Albania  and  Myritida,  in  precipitous 
limestone  rocks  from  6000  to  7000  feet  high.  Hugged  mountains, 
all  but  impassable,  succeed  to  this,  in  which  the  domes  and  needles 
of  the  Schandach,  or  ancient  Scamus,  are  covered  with  perpetual 
snow.  Another  table-land  follows,  whose  marshy  surface  is  bounded 
by  mural  precipices  at  Mount  Arbelus,  near  the  town  of  Sophia. 
There  the  Hemus,  or  Balkan  properly  so  called,  begins,  and  runs  in 
parallel  ridges,  separated  by  longitudinal  valleys,  to  the  Black  Sea, 
dividing  the  plains  between  the  Lower  Danube  and  the  Propontis 
into  nearly  equal  parts.  The  central  ridge  is  passable  in  few  places, 
and  where  there  is  no  lateral  ridge  the  precipices  descend  at  once  to 
the  plains. 

The  Balkan  is  everywhere  rent  by  terrific  fissures  across  the 
chains  and  table-lands,  so  deep  and  narrow  that  daylight  is  almost 
excluded.  These  chasms  afford  the  safest  passes  across  the  range ; 
the  others  along  the  faces  of  the  precipices  are  frightful. 

The  Mediterranean  is  the  southern  boundary  of  the  elevated  zone 
of  Eastern  Europe,  whose  last  offsets  rise  in  rocky  islands  along  the 
coasts.  The  crystalline  mountains  of  Sardinia  and  Corsica  are  out- 
lying members  of  the  Maritime  Alps,  while  shorter  offsets  end  in 
the  plains  of  Lombardy,  forming  the  magnificent  scenery  of  the 
Italian  lakes.  Even  the  Apennines,  whose  elevation  has  given  its 
form  to  the  peninsula  of  Italy,  are  but  secondary  on  a  greater  scale 
to  the  broad  central  band,  as  well  as  the  mountains  and  high  land 
in  the  north  of  Sicily,  which  form  the  continuation  of  the  Calabrian 
chain. 

The  Apennines,  beginning  at  the  Maritime  Alps,  enclose  the  Gulf 
of  Genoa,  and  run  through  the  centre  of  Italy  in  parallel  ranges  to 
the  middle  of  Calabria,  where  they  split  into  two  branches,  one  of 
which  goes  to  Capo  de  Leuca,  on  the  Gulf  of  Tarento,  the  other  to 
Cape  Spartivento,  in  the  Straits  of  Messina.  The  whole  length  is 
about  800  miles.  None  of  the  Apennines  come  within  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow,  though  it  lies  nine  months  in  the  year  on  the  Monto 
Corno  or  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,  9521  feet  high  in  Abruzzo  TJlteriore. 

Offsets  from  the  Julian  and  Eastern  Alps  render  Dalmatia  and 
Albania  perhaps  the  most  rugged  tract  in  Europe;  and  the  Pindus, 
which  forms  the  water-shed  of  Greece,  diverges  from  the  latter  chain, 
and,  running  south  200  miles,  separates  Albania  from  Macedonia 
and  Thessaly. 

Greece  is  a  country  of  mountains,  and,  although  none  are  per- 
petually covered  with  snow,  it  lies  nine  months  on  several  of  their 
summits.  The  chains  terminate  in  strongly  projecting  headlands, 


CHAP.  II.  OLACIEBS.  58 

which  reach  far  into  the  sea,  and  reappear  in  the  numerous  islands 
and  rocks  which  stud  that  deeply  indented  coast.  The  Grecian 
mountains,  like  the  Balkan,  are  torn  by  transverse  fractures.  The 
defile  of  Blatamana  and  the  Gulf  of  Salonica  are  examples.  The 
Adriatic,  the  Dardanelles,  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  limit  the  second- 
aries of  the  southern  part  of  the  Balkan. 

The  valleys  of  the  Alps  are  deep,  long,  and  narrow ;  those  among 
the  mountains  of  Turkey  in  Europe  and  Greece  are  mostly  caldron- 
shaped  hollows,  often  enclosed  by  mural  rocks.  Many  of  these 
cavities  of  great  size  lie  along  the  foot  of  the  Balkan.  In  the  Morea 
they  are  so  encompassed  by  mountains  that  the  water  has  no  escape 
but  through  the  porous  soil,  consisting  of  tertiary  strata,  some  of 
which  have  formed  the  bottom  of  lakes.  Caldron-shaped  valleys 
occur  also  in  most  volcanic  countries,  as  Italy,  Sicily,  and  central 
France. 

The  table-lands  which  constitute  the  tops  of  mountains  or  of 
mountain-chains  are  of  a  different  character  from  those  terraces  by 
which  the  high  lands  slope  to  the  low.  The  former  are  on  a  small 
scale  in  Europe,  and  of  a  forbidding  aspect,  with  the  exception  of 
the  Jura,  which  is  pastoral,  whereas  the  latter  are  almost  always 
habitable  and  cultivated.  The  mass  of  high  land  in  south-eastern 
Europe  shelves  on  the  north  to  the  great  plain  of  Bavaria,  3000  feet 
high;  Bohemia,  which  slopes  from  1500  to  900  feet;  and  Hungary, 
from  4000  above  the  sea  to  300.  The  descent  on  the  south  of  the 
Alps  is  six  or  seven  times  more  rapid,  because  the  distance  from  the 
axis  of  the  chain  is  shorter. 

It  is  scarcely  possible  to  estimate  the  quantity  of  ice  on  the  Alps  : 
it  is  said,  however,  that,  independent  of  the  glaciers  in  the  Grisons, 
there  are  1500  square  miles  of  ice  in  the  Alpine  range,  from  80  to 
600  feet  thick.  There  are  no  glaciers  east  of  the  Great  Glockner, 
except  on  the  small  group  of  Hallstadt.  Thirty-four  bound  the 
snowy  regions  of  Mont  Blanc,  and  95  square  miles  of  snow  and  ice 
clothe  that  mountain.  Some  glaciers  have  been  permanent  and  sta- 
tionary in  the  Alps  time  immemorial,  while  others  now  occupy 
ground  formerly  bearing  corn  or  covered  with  trees,  which  the  irre- 
sistible force  of  the  ice  has  swept  away.  These  ice-rivers,  formed 
on  the  snow-clad  summits  of  the  mountains,  fill  the  hollows  and 
high  valleys,  hang  on  the  declivities,  or  descend  by  their  gravity 
through  the  transverse  valleys  to  the  plains,  where  they  are  cut 
short  by  the  increased  temperature,  and  deposit  those  accumulations 
of  rocks  and  rubbish,  which  had  fallen  upon  them  from  the  heights 
above,  forming  those  accumulations  called  moraines;  but  their  motion 
is  so  slow  that  generations  may  pass  before  a  stone  fallen  on  the 
upper  end  of  a  long  glacier  can  reach  the  moraine.  In  the  Alps 
the  glaciers  move  at  the  rate  of  from  12  to  25  feet  annually,  and, 
as  in  rivers,  the  motion  is  most  rapid  in  the  centre,  and  slower  at 
5* 


54  PHYSICAL     GEOGEAPHY.  CHAP.  H. 

the  sides  and  "bottom  on  account  of  friction.  It  is  slower  in  winter, 
yet  it  does  not  cease,  because  the  wintei-'s  cold  penetrates  the  ice,  as 
it  does  the  ground,  only  to  a  limited  depth.  Glaciers  are  not  of 
solid  ice ;  they  consist  of  a  mixture  of  ice,  snow,  and  water,  so  that 
they  are  in  some  degree  flexible  and  viscous,  but  acquire  more  solidity 
as  they  descend  to  lower  levels  :  evaporation  goes  on  at  their  surface, 
but  they  are  not  Consumed  by  it.  The  front  is  perpetually  melting, 
but  maintains  a  permanent  form ;  it  is  steep  and  inaccessible,  owing 
to  the  figure  of  the  ground  over  which  it  tumbles  in  its  icy  cascade, 
sometimes  1000  feet  high.  The  middle  course  is  rather  level,  the 
higher  part  very  steep,  and  the  surface  is  convex  and  uneven,  and 
rent  by  crevices  into  which  the  purest  blue  streams  fall  in  rushing 
cascades  while  the  sun  is  up ;  but  they  freeze  at  his  setting,  and  then 
a  death-like  silence  prevails.  The  rocks  and  large  stones  that  fall 
on  them  from  the  surrounding  heights  protect  the  ice  below  from 
the  sun  which  melts  it  all  around,  so  that  at  last  they  rest  on  ele- 
vated pinnacles,  till  they  fall  off  by  their  weight,  and  in  this  manner 
those  numerous  pyramids  are  formed  with  which  the  surface  is 
bristled.  Small  stones,  on  the  contrary,  absorb  the  sun's  heat,  and 
melt  the  ice  under  them  into  holes  in  which  they  are  buried. 
Throughout  much  of  the  length  of  a  glacier  the  winter's  snow  melts 
from  its  surface  as  completely  as  it  does  from  the  ground :  it  is  fed 
from  above,  for  in  the  upper  part  the  snow  never  melts,  but  accu- 
mulates in  a  stratified  form,  and  is  consolidated.  In  some  of  the 
largest  glaciers,  where  there  is  a  difference  of  4000  feet  in  height 
between  the  origin  and  termination,  the  pressure  is  enormous  and 
irresistible,  carrying  all  before  it;  even  the  thickest  forest  is  over- 
whelmed and  crushed. 

Glaciers  advance  or  retreat  according  to  the  severity  or  mildness 
of  the  season :  they  have  been  advancing  in  Switzerland  of  late 
years,  but  they  are  subject  to  cycles  of  unknown  duration.  From 
the  moraines,  as  well  as  the  striae  engraven  on  the  rocks  over  which 
they  have  passed,  M.  Agassiz  has  ascertained  that  the  valley  of  Cha- 
mouni  was  at  one  time  occupied  by  a  glacier  that  had  moved  towards 
the  Col  de  Balme.  A  moraine  2000  feet  above  the  Rhone  at  St. 
Maurice  would  appear  to  indicate  that,  at  a  remote  period,  glaciers 
had  covered  Switzerland  to  the  height  of  2155  feet  above  the  Lake 
of  Geneva. 

Their  increase  is  now  limited  by  various  circumstances  —  as  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  earth,  which  is  always  above  the  freezing- 
point  in  those  latitudes;  excessive  evaporation;  and  blasts  of  hot 
air,  which  occur  at  all  heights,  in  the  night  as  well  as  in  the  day, 
from  some  unknown  cause.  They  are  not  peculiar  to  the  Alps,  but 
have  been  observed  also  in  the  glaciers  of  the  Andes.  From  the 
heat  of  the  valley  thawing  the  ice,  the  natural  springs  that  rise 
under  the  glacier  as  they  do  elsewhere,  the  heat  of  the  earth,  the 


CHAP.  II.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  55 

melting  of  the  glacier  itself,  the  rain  that  falls  on  its  surface,  which, 
rushes  down  its  crevices,  a  stream  of  turbid  water  is  formed  which 
works  out  an  icy  cavern  at  the  termination  of  the  glacier,  and  flows 
through  it  into  the  lower  ground.  Thus  a  glacier  "  begins  in  the 
clouds,  is  formed  by  the  mountains,  and  ends  in  the  ocean." ' 

Granite  no  doubt  forms  the  base  of  the  mountain  system  of  East- 
ern Europe,  though  it  more  rarely  comes  into  view  than  might  have 
been  expected.  Crystalline  schists  of  various  kinds  are  enormously 
developed,  and  generally  form  the  most  elevated  pinnacles  of  the 
Alpine  crest  and  its  offsets,  and  also  the  principal  chains  in  Greece 
and  Turkey  in  Europe ;  but  the  secondary  fossiliferous  strata  con- 
stitute the  chief  mass,  and  often  rise  to  the  highest  summits;  indeed, 
secondary  limestones  occupy  a  great  portion  of  the  high  land  of 
Eastern  Europe.  Calcareous  rocks  form  two  great  mountain-zones 
on  each  side  of  the  central  chain  of  the  Alps,  and  rise  occasionally 
to  altitudes  of  10,000  or  12,000  feet.  They  constitute  a  great  por- 
tion of  the  central  range  of  the  Apennines,  and  fill  the  greater  part 
of  Sicily.  They  are  extensively  developed  in  Turkey  in  Europe, 
where  the  plateau  of  Bosnia,  with  its  high  lands  on  the  south,  part 
of  Macedonia,  and  Albania  with  its  islands,  are  principally  composed 
of  them.2  Tertiary  strata  of  great  thickness  rest  on  the  flanks  of 
the  Alps,  and  rise  in  some  places  to  a  height  of  5000  feet;  zones 
of  the  older  Pliocene  period  flank  the  Apennines  on  each  side,  filled 
with  organic  remains,  and  half  of  Sicily  is  covered  with  the  Plio- 
cene strata.  It  appears  that  the  Atlas,  the  Sierra  Morena  and  most 
of  the  Spanish  mountains,  the  central  chain  of  the  Caucasus,  and 
the  Balkan,  were  raised  before  the  period  of  the  erratic  blocks. 

From  numerous  dislocations  in  the  strata,  the  Alps  appear  to  have 
been  heaved  up  by  many  violent  and  repeated  convulsions,  separated 
by  intervals  of  repose,  and  different  parts  of  the  chain  have  been 
raised  at  different  times ;  for  example,  the  Maritime  Alps  and  the 
south-western  part  of  the  Jura  mountains  were  raised  previously  to 
the  formation  of  the  chalk :  but  the  tertiary  period  appears  to  have 
been  that  of  the  greatest  commotions;  for  nearly  two-thirds  of  the 
lands  of  Europe  have  risen  since  the  beginning  of  that  epoch,  and 
those  that  existed  acquired  additional  height,  though  some  sank 
below  their  original  level.  During  that  time  the  Alps  acquired  an 
additional  elevation  of  between  2000  and  8000  feet;  Mont  Blanc 
then  attained  its  present  altitude,  the  Apennines  rose  1000  or  2000 

1  The  reader  who  may  wish  for  a  more  detailed  view  on  this  subject  is 
referred  to  Professor  James  Forbes'  volume  on  Glaciers,  a  work  which  is  a 
model  of  exact  observation,  combined  with  such  accurate  physical  and  me- 
chanical deductions  as  could  only  be  arrived  at  by  one  conversant  with  the 
highest  principles  of  physics  and  mathematical  investigations. 

a  Dr.  Boue. 


56  PHYSICAL  GEOGRAPHY:  CHAP.  m. 

feet  higher,  and  the  Carpathians  seemed  to  have  gained  an  accession 
of  height  since  the  seas  were  inhabited  by  the  existing  species  of 
animals.1 


CHAPTER  III. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  continued — The  Caucasus  —  The 
Western  Asiatic  Table-Land  and  its  Mountains. 

THE  Dardanelles  and  the  Sea  of  Marmora  form  but  a  small  break 
in  the  mighty  girdle  of  the  old  continent,  which  again  appears  in 
immense  table-lands,  passing  through  the  centre  of  Asia,  of  such 
magnitude  that  they  occupy  nearly  two-fifths  of  the  continent.  Here 
everything  is  on  a  much  grander  scale  than  in  Europe ;  the  table- 
lands rise  above  the  mean  height  of  the  European  mountains,  and 
the  mountains  themselves  that  gird  and  traverse  them  surpass  those 
of  every  other  country  in  altitude.  The  most  barren  deserts  are 
here  to  be  met  with,  as  well  as  the  most  luxuriant  productions  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life.  The  earliest  records  of  the  human  race 
are  found  in  this  cradle  of  civilization,  and  monuments  still  remain 
which  show  the  skill  and  power  of  those  nations  which  have  passed 
away,  but  whose  moral  influence  is  still  visible  in  their  descendants. 
Customs,  manners,  and  even  prejudices,  carry  us  back  to  times  be- 
yond the  record  of  history  or  even  of  tradition,  while  the  magnitude 
with  which  the  natural  world  is  here  developed  evinces  the  tremen- 
dous forces  that  must  have  been  in  action  at  epochs  immeasurably 
anterior  to  the  existence  of  man. 

The  gigantic  mass  of  high  land  which  extends  for  6000  miles 
between  the  Mediterranean  and  the  Pacific  is  2000  miles  broad  at 
its  eastern  extremity,  700  to  1000  in  the  middle,  and  somewhat  less 
at  its  termination.  Colossal  mountains  and  elevated  terraces  form 
the  edges  of  the  lofty  plains. 

Between  the  47th  and  68th  eastern  meridians,  where  the  low 
plains  of  Hindostan  and  Bokhara  press  upon  the  table-land  and  re- 
duce its  width  to  700  or  1000  miles,  it  is  divided  into  two  parts  by 
an  enormous  knot  of  mountains  formed  by  the  meeting  of  the 
Hindoo  Coosh,  the  Himalaya,  the  Tsung-lin,  and  the  transverse 
ranges  of  the  Beloot  Tagh,  or  Cloudy  Mountains :  these  two  parts 
differ  in  height,  form,  and  magnitude. 

The  western  portion,  which  is  the  table-land  of  Persia  or  plateau 
of  Iran,  is  oblong,  extending  from  the  shores  of  Asia  Minor  to  the 
Hindoo  Coosh  and  the  Solimaun  range,  which  skirts  the  right  bank 

1  Sir  Charles  Lyell. 


CHAP.  III.       WESTERN     ASIATIC     MOUNTAINS.  57 

of  the  Indus.  It  occupies  an  area  of  1,700,000  square  miles,  gene- 
rally about  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  in  some  places  7000.  The 
Oriental  plateau  or  table-land  of  Tibet,  much  the  largest,  has  an 
area  of  7,600,000  square  miles,  a  mean  altitude  of  14,000  feet,  and 
in  some  parts  of  Tibet  an  absolute  altitude  of  17,000  feet. 

As  the  table-lands  extend  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  so  also  do  the 
principal  mountain-chains,  as  well  those  which  bound  the  high  lands 
as  those  which  traverse  them.  Remarkable  exceptions  to  this 
equatorial  direction  of  the  Asiatic  mass,  however,  occur  in  a  series 
of  meridional  chains,  whose  axes  extend  from  S.S.E.  to  N.N.W., 
between  Cape  Comorin,  opposite  to  Ceylon  and  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
under  the  names  of  the  Western  Ghauts,  the  Solimaun  range, 
(which  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  the  table-land  of  Persia,)  the 
Beloot  Tagh,  or  Bolor  (which  is  the  western  limit  of  the  Oriental 
plateau),  and  the  Ural  Mountains.  These  chains,  rich  in  gold,  lie 
in  different  longitudes,  and  so  alternate  among  themselves  that  each 
begins  only  in  that  latitude  which  has  not  yet  been  attained  by  the 
preceding  one.  The  Khinghan,  in  China,  also  extends  from  south 
to  north  along  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  table-land,  and  forms  its 
boundary  at  that  end.1 

The  lofty  range  of  the  Caucasus,  which  extends  700  miles  be- 
tween the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  is  an  outlying  member  of  the 
Asiatic  high  lands.  Offsets  diverge  like  ribs  from  each  side  of  the 
central  crest,  which  penetrate  the  Russian  Steppes  on  one  hand  and 
on  the  other  cross  the  plains  of  Kara,  or  valley  of  the  Kour  and 
llioni,  and  unite  the  Caucasus  to  the  table-land.  Some  parts  of 
these  mountains  are  very  high ;  the  Elbruz,  on  the  western  border 
of  Georgia,  is  17,796  feet.  The  central  part  of  the  chain  is  full 
of  glaciers,  and  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  is  at  the  altitude  of 
11,000  feet,  which  is  higher  than  in  any  other  chain  of  the  old 
continent,  except  the  Himalaya. 

Anatolia,  the  most  western  part  of  the  table-land  of  Iran,  3000 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  traversed  by  short  chains  and  broken  groups 
of  mountains,  separated  by  fertile  valleys,  which  sink  rapidly  to- 
wards the  Archipelago  and  end  in  promontories  and  islands  along 
the  shores  of  Asia  Minor,  which  is  a  country  abounding  in  vast, 
luxuriant,  but  solitary  plains,  watered  by  broad  rivers  —  in  Alpine 
platforms  and  mountain-ridges  broken  up  by  great  valleys,  opening 
seawards,  with  meandering  streams.  Single  mountains  of  volcanic 
formation  are  conspicuous  objects  on  the  table-land  of  Anatolia, 
which  is  rich  in  pasture,  though  much  of  the  soil  is  saline  and 
covered  with  lakes  and  marshes.  A  triple  range  of  limestone 
mountains,  6000  or  7000  feet  high,  divided  by  narrow  but  beautiful 
valleys,  is  the  limit  of  the  Anatolian  table-land  along  the  shores  of 
the  Black  Sea.  Two-thirds  of  their  height  are  covered  with  forests, 

1  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas. 


58  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  III. 

and  broken  by  wooded  glens,  leaving  a  narrow  coast,  except  near 
Trebizond,  where  it  is  broad  and  picturesque.  The  high  land  is 
bounded  on  the  south  by  the  serrated  snowy  range  of  the  Taurus, 
which,  beginning  in  Rhodes,  Cos,  and  other  islands,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, fills  the  south-western  parts  of  Asia  Minor  with  ramifica- 
tions, and,  after  following  the  sinuosities  of  the  iron-bound  coast  of 
I  Karamania  in  a  single  lofty  range,  extends  to  Samisat,  where  the 
'  Euphrates  has  pierced  a  way  through  this  stony  girdle. 
'  About  the  50th  meridian  the  table-land  is  compressed  to  nearly 
half  its  width,  and  there  the  lofty  mountainous  regions  of  Armenia, 
Kourdistan,  and  Azerbijan  tower  higher  and  higher  between  the 
Black  Sea,  the  Caspian,  and  the  Grulf  of  Scanderoon  in  the  Medi- 
terranean. Here  the  cold  treeless  plains  of  Armenia,  the  earliest 
abode  of  man,  7000  feet  above  the  sea,  bear  no  traces  of  the  Garden 
of  Eden ;  Mount  Ararat,  on  which  the  Ark  is  said  to  have  rested, 
stands  a  solitary  majestic  volcanic  cone,  17,112  feet  above  the  sea, 
shrouded  in  perpetual  snow.  Though  high  and  cold,  the  soil  of 
Armenia  is  richer  than  that  of  Anatolia,  and  is  better  cultivated. 
It  shelves  on  the  north  in  luxuriant  and  beautiful  declivities  to  the 
low  and  undulating  valley  of  Kara,  south  of  the  Caucasus ;  and  on 
the  other  hand,  the  broad  and  lofty  belt  of  the  Kourdistan  moun- 
tains, rising  abruptly  in  many  parallel  ranges  from  the  plains  of 
Mesopotamia,  form  its  southern  limit,  and  spread  their  ramifications 
wide  over  its  surface.  They  are  rent  by  deep  ravines,  and  in  many 
places  are  so  rugged  that  communication  between  the  villages  is 
always  difficult,  and  in  winter  impracticable  from  the  depth  of  snow. 
The  line  of  perpetual  snow  is  decided  and  even  along  their  sides ; 
their  flanks  are  wooded,  and  their  valleys  populous  and  fertile. 

A  thousand  square  miles  of  Kourdistan  is  occupied  by  the  brack- 
ish lake  Van,  which  is  seldom  frozen,  though  566  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains. 

The  Persian  mountains,  of  which  Elbruz  is  the  principal  chain, 
extend  along  the  northern  brink  of  the  Plateau,  from  Armenia,  al- 
most parallel  to  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  maintaining  a  con- 
siderable elevation  up  to  the  volcanic  peak  of  Demavend,  near 
Tehran,  their  culminating  point,  which,  though  90  miles  inland,  is 
a  landmark  to  sailors  on  the  Caspian.  Elevated  offsets  of  these 
mountains  cover  the  volcanic  table-land  of  Azerbijan,  the  fire-country 
of  Zoroaster,  and  one  of  the  most  fertile  provinces  of  Persia ;  there 
the  Koh  Salavan  elevates  its  volcanic  cone.  Beautiful  plains,  pure 
streams,  and  peaceful  glades,  interspersed  with  villages,  lie  among 
the  mountains,  and  the  Vale  of  Khosran  Shah,  a  picture  of  sylvan 
beauty,  is  celebrated  as  one  of  the  five  paradises  of  Persian  poetry. 
The  vegetation  at  the  foot  of  these  mountains  on  the  shores  of  the 
Caspian  has  all  the  exuberance  of  a  tropical  jungle.  The  Elbruz 
loses  its  height  to  the  east  of  Demavend,  and  then  joins  the  moun- 


CHAP.  III.  CHARACTER    OF    THE     SOIL.  59 

tains  of  Khorasan  and  the  Paropamisan  range,  which  appear  to  be 
chains  of  mountains  when  viewed  from  the  low  plains  of  Khorasan 
and  Balkh,  but  on  the  table-land  of  Persia  they  merely  form  a  broad 
hilly  country  of  rich  soil,  till  they  join  the  Hindoo  Coosh. 

The  table-land  of  Iran  is  bounded  for  1000  miles  along  the  Per- 
sian Gulf  and  Indian  Ocean  by  a  mountainous  belt  of  from  three  to 
seven  parallel  ranges,  having  an  average  width  of  200  miles,  and 
extending  from  the  extremity  of  the  Kourdistan  Mountains  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Indus.  The  Lasistau  Mountains,  which  form  the 
northern  part  of  this  belt,  and  bound  the  vast  level  plain  of  the 
Tigris,  rise  from  it  in  a  succession  of  high  table-lands  divided  by 
very  rugged  mountains,  the  last  ridge  of  which,  mostly  covered  with 
snow,  abuts  on  the  table-land  of  Persia.  Oaks  clothe  their  flanks ; 
the  valleys  are  of  generous  soil,  verdant,  and  cultivated;  and  many 
rivers  flow  through  them  to  swell  the  stream  of  the  Tigris.  Insu- 
lated hill-forts,  from  2000  to  5000  feet  high,  occur  in  this  country, 
with  flat  cultivated  tops  some  miles  in  extent,  accessible  only  by 
ladders,  or  holes  cut  in  their  precipitous  sides.  These  countries  are 
full  of  ancient  inscriptions  and  remains  of  antiquity.  The  moisture 
decreases  more  and  more  south  from  Shiraz,  and  then  the  parallel 
ridges,  repulsive  in  aspect  and  difficult  to  pass,  are  separated  by  arid 
longitudinal  valleys,  which  ascend  like  steps  from  the  narrow  shores 
of  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the  table-land.  The  coasts  of  the  gulf  are 
burning  hot  sandy  solitudes,  so  completely  barren,  that  the  country 
from  Bassora  to  the  Indus,  a  distance  of  1200  miles,  is  nearly  a 
sterile  waste.  In  the  few  favoured  spots  on  the  terraces  where  water 
occurs,  there  is  vegetation,  and  the  beauty  of  these  valleys  is  en- 
hanced by  surrounding  sterility.1 

With  the  exception  of  Mazanderan  and  the  other  provinces  bor- 
dering upon  the  Caspian,  and  in  the  Paropamisan  range,  Persia  is 
arid,  possessing  few  perennial  springs,  and  not  one  great  river ;  in 
fact,  three-tenths  of  the  country  is  a  desert,  and  the  table-land  is 
nearly  a  wide  scene  of  desolation.  A  great  salt-desert  occupies 
27,000  square  miles  between  Irak  and  Khorasan,  of  which  the  soil 
is  a  stiff  clay,  covered  with  efflorescence  of  common  salt  and  nitre, 
often  an  inch  thick,  varied  only  by  a  few  saline  plants  and  patches 
of  verdure  in  the  hollows.  This  dreary  waste  joins  the  large  sandy 
and  equally  dreary  desert  of  Kerman.  Kelat,  the  capital  of  Belo- 
chistan,  is  7000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea :  round  it  there  is 
cultivation,  but  the  greater  part  of  that  country  is  a  lifeless  plain, 
over  which  the  brick-red  sand  is  drifted  by  the  north  wind  into 
ridges  like  the  waves  of  the  sea,  often  12  feet  high,  without  a  ves- 
tige of  vegetation.  The  blast  of  the  desert,  whose  hot  and  pesti- 
lential breath  is  fatal  to  man  and  animals,  renders  these  dismal  sands 
impassible  at  certain  seasons. 

» Sir  John  Malcolm  on  Persia,  and  Mr.  Morier's  Travels. 


60  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IV. 

Barren  lands  or  bleak  downs  prevail  at  the  foot  of  the  Lukee  and 
Solimaun  ranges,  formed  of  bare  porphyry  and  sandstone,  which 
skirt  the  eastern  edge  of  the  table-land,  and  dip  to  the  plains  of  the 
Indus.  In  Afghanistan  there  is  little  cultivation  except  on  the  banks 
of  the  streams  that  flow  into  the  Lake  Zerrah,  but  vitality  returns 
towards  the  north-east.  The  plains  and  valleys  among  the  offsets 
from  the  Hindoo  Coosh  are  of  surpassing  loveliness,  and  combine 
the  richest  peaceful  beauty  with  the  majesty  of  the  snow-capped 
mountains  by  which  they  are  encircled. 


CHAPTEK   IV. 

The  High  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  continued. — The  Oriental  Table- 
Land  and  its  Mountains. 

THE  Oriental  plateau,  or  table-land  of  Tibet,  is  an  irregular  four- 
sided  mass  stretching  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  enclosed  and 'traversed  by 
the  highest  mountains  in  the  world.  It  is  separated  from  the  table- 
land of  Persia  by  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  which  may  be  considered  as 
the  western  prolongation  of  the  Himalaya,  occupying  the  terrestrial 
isthmus  between  the  low  lands  of  Hindostan  and  Bucharia. 

The  cold  dreary  plateau  of  Tibet  is  separated  on  the  south  from 
the  glowing  luxuriant  plains  of  Hindostan  by  the  Himalaya,  which 
extends  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh  in  Cabulis- 
tan  to  about  the  95th  meridian,  where  it  joins  the  immense  moun- 
tain-knot which  renders  the  south-western  corner  of  the  table-land 
and  the  Chinese  province  of  Yun-nan  one  of  the  most  elevated  re- 
gions on  the  earth.  On  the  north  the  table-land  is  bounded  by  the 
Altai'  chain  which  separates  it  from  the  Siberian  plains,  and  on  the 
west,  it  has  its  limits  in  the  chain  of  the  Bolor  or  Beloot  Tagh,  the 
"  Cloudy  Mountains,"  the  Tartash  Tagh  of  the  natives,  a  transverse 
range  which  detaches  itself  from  the  Hindoo  Coosh  nearly  at  a  right 
angle  about  the  72d  degree  of  E.  longitude,  and,  pursuing  a  north- 
erly direction  forms  magnificent  mountain-knots  with  the  diagonal 
chains  of  the  table-land,  and  is  the  watershed  between  the  valley  of 
the  Oxus  and  Chinese  Tartary.  It  descends  in  a  succession  of  tiers 
or  terraces  through  the  countries  of  Bokhara  and  Balkh  to  the  deep 
cavity  in  which  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azoff  lie,  and  forms, 
with  the  Western  Ghauts,  the  Solimaun  range,  and  the  Ural,  a  sin- 
gular exception  to  the  general  parallelism  of  the  Asiatic  mountains. 
Two  narrow  difficult  passes  lead  over  the  Beloot  Tagh  from  tbe  low 
plains  of  Bucharia  and  Independent  Tourkistan  to  Kashgar  and 
Yarkund,  on  the  table-land  in  Chinese  Tartary.  The  north-eastern 


CHAP.  IV.     EASTERN    ASIATIC     MOUNTAINS.  61 

edge  of  the  table-land  is  bounded  by  the  Khing-han  Mountains, 
a  serrated  granitic  chain  running  from  south  to  north,  which  sepa- 
rates the  plateau  of  Mongolia  from  the  country  of  Mantchouria,  and 
joins  the  Yablonoi  branch  of  the  Altai  at  right  angles  about  the 
55th  degree  of  north  latitude.  Little  more  is  known  of  the  south- 
eastern boundary  of  the  table-land  than  that  it  is  a  mass  of  exceed- 
ingly high  mountains.  In  fact,  between  the  sources  of  the  Brah- 
mapootra and  the  Altai  chain,  nearly  1,000,000  of  square  miles  of 
the  Chinese  empire  is  covered  with  mountains. 

The  table-land  itself  is  traversed  from  west  to  east  by  two  great 
chains.  The  Kuenlun,  or  Chinese  range,  begins  about  35°  30'  N. 
lat.  at  the  mountain-knot  of  Tsung-lin,  formed  by  the  Hindoo  Coosh 
and  Himalaya,  and,  running  eastward,  it  terminates  about  the  110th 
meridian,  but  probably  covers  a  great  part  of  the  western  provinces 
of  China  with  its  branches.  The  Thian-shan,  or  "  Celestial  Moun- 
tains," lie  more  to  the  north;  they  begin  at  the  Bolor  or  Beloot 
Tagh,  and,  running  along  the  42d  parallel,  sink  to  the  desert  of  the 
Great  Gobi  about  the  centre  of  the  plateau,  but,  rising  again,  they 
are  continued  under  the  name  of  Shan-Garjan,  which  runs  to  the 
north-east  and  ends  on  the  shores  of  the  Japan  Sea.  The  Thian- 
shan  is  exceedingly  volcanic,  and,  though  so  far  inland,  some  of  its 
peaks  pour  forth  lava,  and  exhibit  all  the  other  phenomena  of  vol- 
canic districts. 

Tibet  is  a  mountain  valley,  enclosed  between  the  chains  of  the 
Himalaya  on  the  south,  and  the  Kuenlun  on  the  north ;  Tungut,  or 
Chinese  Tartary,  lies  between  the  latter  chain  and  the  Thian-shan, 
or  Celestial  Mountains;  and  Zungary,  or  Mongolia,  between  the 
Celestial  range  and  the  Altai.  The  meridional  chain  of  the  Bolor 
encloses  Chinese  Tartary  on  the  west ;  and  Mongolia,  which  is  en- 
tirely open  on  the  west,  is  shut  in  on  the  east  by  the  Khinghan 
range,  also  running  from  south  to  north.  The  Himalaya  and  Altai 
ranges  diverge  in  their  easterly  courses,  so  that  the  table-land,  which 
is  only  from  700  to  1000  miles  wide  at  its  western  extremity,  is 
2000  between  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan  and  the  country  of 
the  Mantchou  Tonguses.1 

Of  all  these  vast  chains  of  mountains  the  Himalaya,  and  its  prin- 
cipal branch  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  are  best  known ;  though  even  of 
these  a  great  part  has  never  been  explored,  on  account  of  their 
enormous  height  and  the  depth  of  snow,  which  make  it  impossible 
to  approach  the  central  ridge,  except  in  a  very  few  places. 

The  range  consists  of  three  parts :  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  or  Indian 
Caucasus,  which  extends  from  the  Paropamisan  range  in  Afghanistan 
to  Cashmere;  the  Himalaya,  or  Imaus  of  the  ancients,  which 
stretches  from  the  valley  of  Cashmere  to  Bhotan ;  and,  lastly,  the 

1  Johnson's  Physical  Atlas  and  Humboldt's  Asie  Centrale 
6 


62  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IV. 

mountains  of  Bhotan  and  Assam — the  three  making  one  magnificent 
unbroken  chain. 

The  Hindoo  Coosh,  which  has  its  name  from  a  mountain  of  great 
height  (20,232  feet),  north  of  the  city  of  Cabul,  is  very  broad  to 
the  west,  extending  over  many  degrees  of  latitude,  and,  together 
with  the  offsets  of  the  Beloot  Tagh,  fills  the  countries  of  Kafferistan, 
Kooduz,  and  Budakshan.  From  the  plains  to  the  south  it  seems 
to  consist  of  four  distinct  ranges  running  one  above  another,  the  last 
of  which  abuts  on  the  table-land,  and  is  so  high  that  its  snowy  sum- 
mits are  visible  at  the  distance  of  150  miles.  A  ridge  of  stupen- 
dous height  encloses  the  beautiful  valley  of  Cashmere,  to  the  east 
of  which  the  chain  takes  the  name  of  Himalaya,  "  the  dwelling  of 
enow."  From  the  great  mountain-knot  of  Tsung-lin,  the  Himalaya 
no  longer  maintains  its  direct  easterly  course,  but  takes  an  E.  S.  E. 
direction,  extending  to  the  Brahmapootra,  varying  in  breadth  from 
250  to  350  miles,  and  occupying  an  area  of  600,000  square  miles.1 

The  general  structure  of  the  Himalaya  is  very  regular :  the  first 
range  of  hills  that  rises  above  the  plains  of  Hindostan  is  alluvial, 
north  of  which  lies  the  Tariyani,  a  tract  from  10  to  30  miles  wide, 
1000  feet  above  the  sea,  covered  with  dense  pestilential  jungle,  and 
extending  along  the  foot  of  the  range.  North  of  this  region  are 
rocky  ridges  5000  or  6000  feet  high.  Between  these  and  the  higher 
ranges  lie  the  peaceful  and  well-cultivated  valleys  of  Nepaul,  Sikim, 
Bhotan,  and  Assam,  interspersed  with  picturesque  and  populous 
towns  and  villages.  Behind  these  are  mountains  from  10,000  to 
12,000  feet  high,  flanked  by  magnificent  forests;  and  lastly,  the 
snowy  ranges  rise  in  succession  to  the  table-land. 

The  mean  height  of  the  Himalaya  is  stupendous.  Captain  Ge- 
rard and  his  brother  estimated  that  it  could  not  be  less  than  from 
16,000  to  20,000  feet;  but,  from  the  average  elevation  of  the  passes 
over  these  mountains,  Baron  Humboldt  thinks  it  must  be  under 
15,700  feet.  Colonel  Sabine  estimates  it  to  be  only  11,510  feet, 
though  the  peaks  exceeding  that  elevation  are  not  to  be  numbered, 
especially  near  the  sources  of  the  Sutlej  and  the  Ganges;  indeed, 
from  that  river  to  the  Kalee,  the  chain  exhibits  an  endless  succes- 
sion of  the  loftiest  mountains  on  earth;  forty  of  them  surpass  the 
height  of  Chimborazo,  one  of  the  highest  of  the  Andes,  and  several 
reach  the  height  of  25,000  feet  at  least.  So  rugged  is  this  part  of 
the  magnificent  chain,  that  the  military  parade  at  Sabathoo,  half  a 
mile  long  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  broad,  is  said  to  be  the  only  level 
ground  between  it  and  the  Tartar  frontier  on  the  north,  or  the  valley 
of  Nepaul  on  the  east.  Towards  the  fruitful  valleys  of  Nepaul  and 
Sikim  the  Himalaya  is  more  lofty  still,  some  of  the  mountains  ex- 
ceeding 28,000  feet  in  height;  but  it  is  narrower,  and  the  descent 

1  Johnson's  Physical  Atlas. 


CHAP.  IV.  MOUNTAIN    PASSES.  63 

to  the  plains  excessively  rapid,  especially  in  the  territory  of  Bhotan, 
•where  the  dip  from  the  table-land  is  more  than  10,000  feet  in  ten 
miles.  The  valleys  are  crevices  so  deep  and  narrow,  and  the  moun- 
tains that  hang  over  them  in  menacing  cliffs  are  so  lofty,  that  these 
abysses  are  shrouded  in  perpetual  gloom,  except  where  the  rays  of 
a  vertical  sun  penetrate  their  depths.  From  the  steepness  of  the 
descent  the  rivers  shoot  down  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow,  filling 
the  caverns  with  foam  and  the  air  with  mist.  At  the  very  base  of 
this  wild  region  lies  the  elevated  and  peaceful  valley  of  Bhotan, 
vividly  green,  and  shaded  by  magnificent  forests.  Another  rapid 
descent  of  1000  feet  leads  to  the  plain  of  the  Ganges. 

The  Himalaya  still  maintains  great  height  along  the  north  of 
Assam ;  and  where  the  Brahmapootra  cuts  through  it,  the  parent 
stem  and  its  branches  extend  in  breadth  over  two  degrees  of  latitude, 
forming  a  vast  mountain-knot  of  great  elevation.  Beyond  this  point 
nothing  certain  is  known  of  the  range,  but  it  or  some  of  its  branches 
are  supposed  to  cross  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Chinese  empire 
and  to  end  in  the  volcanic  island  of  Formosa.  Little  more  is  known 
of  the  northern  side  of  the  mountains  than  that  the  passes  are  about 
5000  feet  above  the  plains  of  Tibet. 

The  passes  over  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  though  nofthe  highest,  are 
very  formidable  :  there  are  six  from  Cabul  to  the  plains  of  Turkistan; 
and  so  deep  and  so  much  enclosed  are  the  denies,  that  Sir  Alex- 
ander Burnes  never  could  obtain  an  observation  of  the  pole-star  in 
the  whole  journey  from  Bameean  till  within  thirty  miles  of  Tur- 
kistan. 

Most  of  the  passes  over  the  Himalaya  are  but  little  lower  than 
the  top  of  Mont  Blanc;  many  are  higher,  especially  near  the  Sutlej, 
where  they  are  from  18,000  to  19,000  feet  high ;  and  that  north- 
east of  Khoonawur  is  20,000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea — the 
highest  that  has  been  attempted.  All  are  terrific,  and  the  fatigue 
and  suffering  from  the  rarity  of  the  air  in  the  last  500  feet  is  not  to 
be  described.  Animals  are  as  much  distressed  as  human  beings, 
and  many  die;  thousands  of  birds  perish  from  the  violence  of  the 
wind,  the  drifting  snow  is  often  fatal  to  travellers,  and  violent  thun- 
der-storms add  to  the  horror  of  the  journey.  The  Niti  Pass,  by 
which  Mr.  Moocroft  ascended  to  the  sacred  lake  of  Manasarowar,  in 
Tibet,  is  tremendous ;  he  and  his  guide  had  not  only  to  walk  bare- 
footed, from  the  risk  of  slipping,  but  they  were  obliged  to  creep 
along  the  most  frightful  chasms,  holding  by  twigs  and  tufts  of 
grass,  and  sometimes  they  crossed  deep  and  awful  crevices  on  a 
branch  of  a  tree,  or  on  loose  stones  thrown  across.  Yet  these  are 
the  thoroughfares  for  commerce  in  the  Himalaya,  never  repaired  nor 
susceptible  of  improvement  from  frequent  land-slips  and  torrents. 

The  loftiest  peaks  being  bare  of  snow  gives  great  variety  of 
colour  and  beauty  to  the  scenery,  which  in  these  passes  is  at  all 


64  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IV. 

times  magnificent.  During  the  day,  the  stupendous  size  of  the 
mountains,  their  interminable  extent,  the  variety  and  sharpness  of 
their  forms,  and,  above  all,  the  tender  clearness  of  their  distant  out- 
line melting  into  the  pale  blue  sky  contrasted  with  the  deep  azure 
above,  is  described  as  a  scene  of  wild  and  wonderful  beauty.  At 
midnight,  when  myriads  of  stars  sparkle  in  the  black  sky,  and  the 
pure  blue  of  the  mountains  looks  deeper  still  below  the  pale  white 
gleam  of  the  earth  and  snow-light,  the  effect  is  of  unparalleled 
solemnity,  and  no  language  can  describe  the  splendour  of  the  sun- 
beams at  daybreak  streaming  between  the  high  peaks,  and  throwing 
their  gigantic  shadows  on  the  mountains  below.  There,  far  above 
the  habitation  of  man,  no  living  thing  exists,  no  sound  is  heard : 
the  very  echo  of  the  traveller's  footsteps  startles  him  in  the  awful 
solitude  and  silence  that  reigns  in  these  august  dwellings  of  ever- 
lasting snow. 

Nature  has  in  mercy  mitigated  the  intense  rigour  of  the  cold  in 
these  high  lands  in  a  degree  unexampled  in  other  mountainous  re- 
gions. The  climate  is  mild,  the  valleys  are  verdant  and  inhabited, 
corn  and  fruit  ripen  at  elevations  which  in  other  countries — -even 
under  the  equator — would  be  buried  in  permanent  snow. 

It  is  also  a  peculiarity  in  these  mountains  that  the  higher  the 
range  the  higher  likewise  is  the  limit  of  snow  and  vegetation.  On 
the  southern  slopes  of  the  first  range  Mr.  Gerard  found  cultivation 
10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  though  it  was  often  necessary  to  reap  the 
corn  still  green  and  unripe ;  while  in  Chinese  Tartary  good  crops 
are  raised  16,000  feet  above  the  sea.  Captain  Gerard  saw  pasture 
and  low  bushes  up  to  17,009  feet;  and  corn  as  high  as  even  18,544 
feet,  which  is  2805  feet  higher  than  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc,  and 
1279  feet  above  the  snow-line  in  the  province  of  Quito  under  the 
equator.  Birch-trees  with  tall  stems  grow  at  the  elevation  of  14,068 
feet,  and  the  vine  and  other  fruits  thrive  in  the  valleys  of  these  high 
plains.  The  temperature  of  the  earth  has  probably  some  influence 
on  the  vegetation;  as  many  hot  springs  exist  in  the  Himalaya  at 
great  heights,  there  must  be  a  source  of  heat  beneath  these  moun- 
tains, which  in  some  places  comes  near  the  surface,  and  possibly  may 
be  connected  with  the  volcanic  fires  in  the  central  chains  of  the 
table-land.  Hot  springs  abound  in  the  valley  of  Jumnotra;  and 
as  it  is  well  known  that  many  plants  thrive  in  very  cold  air  if  their 
roots  are  well  protected,  it  may  be  the  cause  of  pine-trees  thriving 
at  great  elevations  in  that  valley,  and  of  the  splendid  forests  of  the 
Deodar,  a  species  of  cypress  that  grows  to  a  gigantic  size  even  to 
the  snow. 

According  to  Captain  and  Mr.  Gerard,  the  line  of  perpetual  con- 
gelation is  at  an  elevation  of  only  12,981  feet  on  the  southern  slopes 
of  the  Himalaya,  while  on  the  northern  side  the  limit  is  16,620  feet; 
but  although  the  main  fact  of  the  great  difference  in  the  height  of 


CHAP.  IV.        GEOLOGY     OF    THE     HIMALAYA.  65 

the  snow-line  and  of  vegetation  is  beyond  a  doubt,  the  mean  height 
of  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and  the  relative  elevation  of  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow  on  the  two  declivities  of  the  Himalaya,  require  to 
be  further  investigated.  The  greater  height  of  the  snow-line  on  the 
northern  side  is  the  joint  result  of  the  serenity  of  the  sky,  the  less 
frequent  formation  of  snow  in  very  cold,  dry,  and  elevated  atmo- 
spheres, and  the  radiation  of  heat  from  the  neighbouring  plains, 
which,  being  so  near,  have  much  greater  eifect  on  the  temperature 
than  the  warmer  but  more  distant  plains  on  the  south.  There  are 
fewer  glaciers  in  the  Asiatic  mountains  than  might  have  been  ex- 
pected from  the  great  mass  of  snow :  they  are  chiefly  on  the  Thi- 
betian  side  of  the  Himalaya  and  on  the  Kuenlun.  There  is  a  very 
large  one  at  the  source  of  the  Indus,  and  another  at  the  source  of 
the  Ganges,  on  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya. 

Various  secondary  chains  of  great  length  detach  themselves  from 
the  eastern  extremity  of  the  Himalaya,  or  rather  the  vast  knot  of 
mountains,  near  the  sources  of  the  Brahmapootra  in  the  Chinese 
province  of  Yun-nan,  which  is  a  terra  incognita;  their  origin  there- 
fore is  unknown.  But  in  Upper  Assam  they  run  cross  to  the  equa- 
torial system  of  Asiatic  mountains,  and,  extending  in  a  southerly 
but  diverging  direction,  they  spread  like  the  spokes  of  a  fan  through 
the  countries  east  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula, 
leaving  large  and  fertile  kingdoms  between  them.  The  Birmano- 
Siamese  chain  is  the  most  extensive,  reaching  to  Cape  Romania, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Malay  peninsula,  the  most  south- 
erly point  of  the  Asiatic  continent;  it  may  be  traced  through  the 
island  of  Sumatra  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  also  in  the  islands  of 
Banca  and  Biliton,  where  it  ends. 

Another  range,  called  the  Laos-Siamese  chain,  forms  the  eastern 
boundary  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  and  the  Annamatic  chain,  from 
the  same  origin,  separates  the  empire  of  Annam  from  Tonquin  and 
Cochin  China. 

These  slightly  diverging  lines  of  mountains  yield  gold,  ores  of 
silver  and  tin,  and  precious  stones,  as  rubies  and  sapphires.  Moun- 
tains in  low  latitudes  have  nothing  of  the  severe  character  of  those 
in  less  favoured  climes.  Magnificent  forests  reach  their  summit; 
trees  yielding  spices,  dyes  of  brilliant  tints,  medicinal  and  odorife- 
rous plants  clothe  their  declivities;  and  in  the  low  grounds  the  fruits 
of  India  and  China  grow  in  perfection,  in  a  soil  which  yields  three 
crops  of  grain  in  the  year. 

The  crest  of  the  Himalaya  is  of  stratified  crystalline  rocks,  espe- 
cially gneiss,  with  large  granitic  veins,  and  beds  of  quartz  of  huge 
magnitude.  The  zone  between  15,000  and  18,000  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea  is  formed  chiefly  of  Palaeozoic  strata;  granite  is 
most  frequent  at  the  base,  and  probably  forms  the  foundation  of  the 
chain.  Strata  of  the  comparatively  modern  age  of  the  British 
6* 


66  PHYSIC  A  L    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IV. 

oolites,  occur  at  great  elevations.  These  sedimentary  formations, 
prevailing  also  on  the  acclivities  of  the  Alps  and  Apennines,  show 
that  the  epochs  of  elevation  in  parts  of  the  earth  widely  remote 
from  one  another,  if  not  simultaneous,  were  at  least  not  very  differ- 
ent. There  can  be  no  doubt  that  very  great  geological  changes  have 
taken  place  at  a  comparatively  recent  period,  in  the  Himalaya,  and 
through  an  extensive  part  of  the  Asiatic  continent. 

The  Altai  mountains,  which  form  the  northern  margin  of  the 
table-land,  are  unconnected  with  the  Ural  chain ;  they  are  separated 
from  it  by  400  miles  of  a  low  marshy  country,  part  of  the  steppe 
of  the  Kirghiz,  and  by  the  Dalai  mountains,  a  low  range  never  above 
2000  feet  high,  which  runs  between  the  64th  meridian  and  the  left 
bank  of  the  Irtish.  The  Altai  chain  rises  on  the  right  bank  of  that 
river,  at  the  north-west  angle  of  the  table-land,  and  extends  in  a 
serpentine  line  to  the  Pacific,  south  of  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk,  dividing 
the  high  lands  of  Tartary  and  China  from  the  wastes  of  Asiatic 
Siberia.  Under  various  names,  its  branches  skirt  the  northwest  side 
of  the  Sea  of  Okhotzk,  and  thence  stretching  to  Behring's  Straits, 
it  ends  at  Eastern  Cape,  the  most  eastern  extremity  of  the  old  con- 
tinent, the  whole  length  of  the  chain  being  4500  miles.  The 
breadth  of  this  chain  varies  from  400  to  1000  miles,  but  towards 
the  105th  meridian  it  is  contracted  to  about  150  by  a  projection  of 
the  desert  of  the  Great  Gobi.  Its  height  bears  no  proportion  to 
its  length  and  breadth.  The  Altai',  the  only  part  of  the  chain  pro- 
perly so  called,  can  only  be  regarded  as  a  succession  of  terraces  of 
a  swelling  outline,  descending  by  steps  from  the  table-land,  and 
ending  in  the  promontories  on  the  Siberian  plains.  There  are  nu- 
merous large  lakes  on  these  terraces  and  in  the  valleys,  as  in  the 
mountain  systems  of  Europe.  The  general  form  of  this  part  of  the 
chain  is  monotonous  from  the  prevalence  of  straight  lines  and 
smooth  rounded  outlines  —  long  ridges  with  flattened  summits  or 
small  table-lands  not  more  than  6000  feet  high,  which  rarely  attain 
the  line  of  perpetual  congelation ;  snow,  however,  is  permanent  on 
the  Korgon  table-land,  9900  feet  above  the  sea,  supposed  to  be  the 
culminating  point  of  this  part  of  the  chain.  These  table-lands 
bear  a  strong  resemblance  to  those  in  the  Scandinavian  mountains 
in  baldness  and  sterility,  but  their  flanks  are  clothed  with  forests, 
verdant  meadows,  and  pastoral  valleys. 

East  of  the  86th  meridian  this  region  of  low  mountains  splits 
into  three  branches,  enclosing  longitudinal  valleys  for  450  miles. 
The  Sayansk  and  Zongnou  mountains,  which  are  the  northern  and 
central  branches,  form  a  mountain-knot  nearly  as  large  as  England, 
which  projects  like  a  huge  promontory  on  the  Siberian  plains'  west 
of  Lake  Baikal,  and  is  celebrated  for  the  richness  of  its  mines.  The 

1  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas. 


CHAP.  IV.  THEALTAICHAIN.  67 

third  branch,  which  is  the  Ulangomula,  lies  south  of  Lake  Oubsa. 
The  principal  part  of  the  Baikal  group  is  500  miles  long,  from  10 
to  60  wide,  high,  and  snow-capped,  and  said  to  be  without  glaciers. 
It  flanks  Lake  Baikal  on  the  north,  the  largest  of  Alpine  lakes,  so 
embedded  in  a  knot  of  mountains,  partly  granitic,  partly  volcanic, 
that  rocks  and  pillars  of  granite  rise  from  its  bed.  The  mountains 
south  of  the  lake  are  but  the  face  of  the  table-land ;  a  traveller 
ascending  them  finds  himself  at  once  in  the  desert  of  Gobi,  which 
stretches  in  unbroken  sadness  to  the  great  wall  of  China. 

The  Daouria  mountains,  a  volcanic  portion  of  the  Altai,  which 
borders  the  table-land  on  the  north-east,  follow  the  Baikal  chain ; 
and  farther  east,  at  the  sources  of  the  Aldan,  the  Altai  range  takes 
the  name  of  the  Yablonnoi  Khrebet,  and  stretches  south  of  the 
Gulf  of  Okhotzk  to  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  opposite  to  the  island 
of  Saghalian ;  while  another  part,  1000  miles  broad,  fills  the  space 
between  the  Gulf  of  Okhotzk  and  the  river  Lena,  and  then,  bend- 
ing to  the  north-east,  ends  in  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka.  Be- 
tween the  western  end  of  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Yablonnoi  Khrebet 
'the  mountain-chains  are  parallel,  and  extend  from  the  W.S.W.  to 
the  E.N.E.,  which  is  the  general  direction  of  the  high  lands  in  the 
most  easterly  regions  of  Asia. 

A  great  part  of  the  Altai  chain  is  unknown  to  Europeans ;  the 
innumerable  branches  that  penetrate  the  Chinese  empire  are  com- 
pletely so;  those  belonging  to  Russia  abound  in  a  great  variety  of 
precious  and  rare  inetals  and  minerals — silver,  copper,  and  iron.  In 
the  Yablonnoi  range  and  other  parts  there  are  whole  mountains  of 
porphyry,  with  red  and  green  jasper;  coal  is  also  found;  and  in  a 
branch  of  the  Altai  between  the  rivers  Obi  and  Yenissei  there  are 
mines  of  coal  which,  having  been  set  on  fire  by  lightning,  have  con- 
tinued to  burn  for  more  than  a  century.  The  Siberian  mountains 
far  surpass  the  Andes  in  the  richness  of  their  gold  mines.  The 
eastern  flank  of  the  Ural  chain,  and  some  of  the  northern  spurs  of 
the  Altai,  have  furnished  a  vast  quantity  of  gold;  but  a  region  as 
large  as  France  has  lately  been  discovered  in  Siberia  covered  with 
the  richest  gold  alluvium,  lying  above  rocks  abounding  in  that 
metal.  The  precious  metals  of  the  Ural  and  Altai  are  situated 
principally  in  metamorphic  rocks,  adjacent  to  the  greenstones,  syen- 
ites, and  serpentines  that  have  caused  their  change ;  and  as  the  same 
formation  prevails  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  Altai  and  Al- 
dan chains  almost  to  Kamtchatka,  there  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  whole  of  that  vast  region  is  auriferous :  besides,  as  many 
of  the  northern  offsets  of  the  Altai  are  particularly  rich,  it  may  be 
concluded  that  the  southern  branches  in  the  Chinese  empire  are 
equally  so.  Thus  Southern  Siberia  and  Chinese  Tartary  form  an 
auriferous  district,  probably  greater  in  area  than  all  Europe,  which 


68  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    IV. 

extends  even  to  our  dominions  in  Hindostan,  where  the  formations 
containing  gold  are  unexplored.1 

The  sedimentary  deposits  in  this  extensive  mountain-range  are 
more  ancient  than  the  granite,  syenite,  and  porphyries ;  consequently 
these  igneous  rocks  have  not  here  formed  part  of  the  original  crust 
of  the  globe.  Rocks  of  the  Palaeozoic  series  occupy  the  greater 
part  of  the  Altai,  and  probably  there  are  none  more  modern.  There 
are  no  volcanic  rocks  properly  speaking,  ancient  or  modern,  west  of 
the  Yenissei,  but  they  abound  to  the  east  of  that  river,  even  to 
Kamtchatka,  which  is  full  of  them. 

The  physical  characters  and  the  fossil  remains  of  this  extensive 
mountain  system  have  little  relation  with  the  geological  formations 
of  Europe  and  America.  Eastern  Siberia  seems  even  to  form  an  in- 
sulated district  by  itself,  and  that  part  between  the  town  of  Yakoutzk 
and  the  mouth  of  the  Lena  appears  to  have  been  raised  at  a  later 
period  than  the  part  of  Siberia  stretching  westward  to  the  Sayansk 
mountains ;  moreover,  the  elevation  of  the  western  part  of  the  Altai 
was  probably  contemporaneous  with  that  of  the  Ural  mountains.2 
On  the  whole,  the  chains  in  the  direction  of  parallels  of  latitude  in 
the  Old  Continent  are  much  more  numerous  and  extensive  than 
those  in  the  direction  of  the  meridian ;  and  as  they  lie  chiefly 
towards  the  equator,  the  internal  forces  that  raised  them  were  pro- 
bably modified  by  the  rotation  of  the  earth. 

The  table-land  of  Tibet  is  only  4000  feet  above  the  pea  towards 
the  north,  but  it  rises  in  Little  Tibet  to  between  11,000  and  12,000 
feet.  The  Kuen-lun,  the  most  southerly  of  the  two  diagonal  moun- 
tain-chains that  cross  the  table-land,  begins  at  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  in 
latitude  35°  30',  being,  in  fact,  a  branch  of  that  chain,  and  extends 
eastward  in  two  branches,  which  surround  the  lake  Tengri-Nor,  and 
again  unite  in  the  K'han  of  eastern  Tibet.  The  most  southerly  of 
the  two  branches  known  as  the  Ice  Mountains,  and  which  is  crossed 
by  the  Kara-Korum  Pass,  18,600  feet  above  the  sea,  maintains  a 
curved  course  parallel  to  the  Himalaya,  and  then  bends  north  towards 
the  Kuen-lun,  which  pursues  a  more  direct  line  across  the  table-land. 
Chains  more  or  less  connected  with  these  form  an  elevated  mountain 
plain  round  Lake  Koko-Nor,  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  table-land, 
from  whence  those  immense  mountain-ranges  diverge  which  render 
the  south-western  provinces  of  China  the  most  elevated  region  on 
earth.  The  country  of  Tibet  lying  between  the  Himalaya  and  the 

1  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison. 

2  From  the  observations  of  Sir  Roderick  Murchison,  M.  Middendorf,  M. 
de  Verneuil,  and  Count  Keyserling,  it  appears  also  that  the  low  land  of 
Siberia  has  been  extended  since  the  existing  species  of  shell-fish  inhabited 
the  northern  seas ;  a  circumstance  that  may  have  rendered  the  Siberian 
climate  still  more  severe,  and  materially  affected  that  of  all  the  northern 
parts  of  Europe  and  Asia. 


CHAP.  IV.  TABLE-LAND    OP    TIBET.  69 

Kuen-lun  consists  of  rocky  mountainous  ridges,  extending  from 
N.W.  to  S.E.,  separated  by  long  valleys,  in  which  flow  the  upper 
courses  of  the  Brahmapootra,  Sutlej,  and  Indus.  According  to 
Lieut.  Strachey,  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasa,  in  Great  Tibet,  and 
the  surrounding  country,  are  15,250  feet  above  the  sea — higher  than 
Monte  Rosa,  the  second  giant  of  the  Alps.  In  this  elevated  region 
wheat  and  barley  grow,  and  many  of  the  fruits  of  southern  Europe 
ripen.  The  city  of  H'Lassa  in  eastern  Tibet,  the  residence  of  the 
Grand  Lama,  is  surrounded  by  vineyards,  and  is  called  by  the 
Chinese  the  "Realm  of  Pleasure."  There  are  some  trees  in  this 
country;  but  the  ground  in  cultivation  bears  a  small  proportion  to 
the  grassy  steppes,  which  extend  in  endless  monotony,  grazed  by 
thousands  of  the  shawl- wool  goats,  sheep,  and  cattle.  There  are 
many  lakes  in  the  table-land  :  some  about  Ladak  contain  borax ' — a 
salt  very  useful  in  the  arts,  found  only  here. 

In  summer  the  sun  is  powerful  at  mid-day,  the  air  is  of  the  purest 
transparency,  and  the  azure  of  the  sky  so  deep  that  it  seems  black 
as  in  the  darkest  night.  The  rising  moon  does  not  enlighten  the 
atmosphere,  no  warning  radiance  announces  her  approach,  till  her 
limb  touches  the  horizon,  and  the  stars  shine  with  the  distinctness 
and  brilliancy  of  suns.  In  southern  Tibet  the  verdure  is  confined 
to  favoured  spots ;  the  bleak  mountains  and  high  plains  are  sternly 
gloomy — a  scene  of  barrenness  not  to  be  conceived.  Solitude  reigns 
in  these  dreary  wastes,  where  there  is  not  a  tree,  nor  even  a  shrub 
to  be  seen  of  more  than  a  few  inches  high.  The  scanty,  short-lived 
verdure  vanishes  in  October;  the  country  then  looks  as  if  fire  had 
passed  over  it,  and  cutting  dry  winds  blow  with  irresistible  fury, 
howling  in  the  bare  mountains,  whirling  the  snow  through  the  air, 
and  freezing  to  death  the  unfortunate  traveller  benighted  in  their 
defiles. 

Yarkand  and  Khotan,  provinces  of  Chinese  Tartary,  which  lie 
beyond  the  two  diagonal  chains,  are  less  elevated  and  more  fertile 
than  Tibet;  yet  it  is  so  cold  in  winter  that  the  river  Yarkiang  is  frozen 
for  three  months.  They  are  watered  by  five  rivers,  and  contain 
several  large  cities;  Yarkand,  the  most  considerable  of  these,  is  the 
emporium  of  commerce  between  Tibet,  China,  Turkistan,  Bookahra, 
and  Persia  and  Russia.  Gold,  rubies,  silk,  and  other  productions 
are  exported. 

The  Tartar  range  of  the  Thian-Shan  is  very  high ;  the  Bogda 

1  Borax  (borate  of  soda),  for  a  long  time  exclusively  brought  from  Tibet, 
is  now  manufactured  in  large  quantities,  by  combining  boracic  acid  with 
soda.  Boracic  acid  exists  in  abundance  in  the  hot  springs  of  Monte  Cer- 
boli  and  Castel  Nuovo  in  Tuscany,  arid  in  an  extinct  crater  of  the  Island 
of  Volcano,  one  of  the  Lipari  group ;  but  Tibet  appears  to  be  the  only 
place  where  native  Borax,  or  Tincal,  is  found.  Borax  and  Boracic  acid  are 
extensively  used  as  fluxes  in  the  making  of  glass,  &c. 


70  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IV. 

Oola,  or  "  Holy  Mountain,"  near  Lake  Lop,  its  highest  point,  is 
always  covered  with  snow,  and  has  two  active  volcanoes,  one  on  each 
side.  This  range  runs  along  the  42nd  parallel  of  north  latitude, 
forming  at  its  western  extremity  a  mountain-knot  with  the  Beloot 
Tagh,  in  the  centre  of  which  lies  the  small  table-land  of  Pamir, 
15,630  feet  high,  called  by  the  natives  the  Barni  Dunya,  or  "Ter- 
raced Roof  of  the  World."  Its  remarkable  elevation  was  first 
described  by  the  celebrated  Venetian  traveller  Marco  Polo,  six  cen- 
turies ago.  The  Amu  or  Oxus  issues  from  the  western  extremity 
of  the  small  Alpine  lake  Sir-i-Kol,1  situated  on  this  elevated  plateau ; 
and  the  rivers  of  Yarkund  and  Kohan  also  rise  towards  the  eastern 
side  of  the  same  plain,  which  is  intensely  cold  in  winter,  and  in  sum- 
mer is  alive  with  flocks  of  sheep  and  goats.  Snow  lies  deep  on  the 
Thian-Shan  range  in  winter,  yet  little  falls  on  the  plains  on  account  of 
the  dryness  of  the  air.  There  are  only  two  or  three  showers  of  rain 
annually  on  these  mountains,  for  a  very  short  time,  and  the  drops 
are  so  minute  as  scarcely  to  wet  the,  ground,  yet  the  streams  from 
them  suffice  for  irrigation. 

Zungary,  or  Mongolia,  the  country  between  the  Thian-Shan  and 
the  Alta'i,  is  hardly  known,  further  than  that  its  grassy  steppes,  in- 
tersected by  many  lakes  and  offsets  from  the  Altai,  are  the  pasture- 
grounds  of  the  wandering  Kirghiz. 

The  remarkable  feature  of  the  table-land  is  the  desert  of  the  Great 
Gobi,  which  occupies  an  area  of  300,000  square  miles  in  its  eastern 
extremity,  interrupted  only  by  a  few  spots  of  pasture  and  low  bushes. 
Wide  tracts  are  flat  and  covered  with  small  stones  or  sand,  and 
widely  separated  from  one  another  are  low  hills  destitute  of  wood 
and  water ;  its  general  elevation  is  4220  feet  above  the  sea,  but  it  is 
intersected  from  west  to  east  by  a  depressed  valley,  aptly  named 
Shamo,  or  the  "  Sea  of  Sand,"  which  is  also  mixed  with  salt.  West 
from  it  lies  the  Han-Hai,  the  "  Dry  Sea,"  a  barren  plain  of  shifting 
sand  blown  into  high  ridges.  Here,  as  in  all  deserts,  the  summer 
sun  is  scorching,  no  rain  falls,  and  when  thick  fog  occurs  it  is  only 
the  precursor  of  fierce  winds.  All  the  plains  of  Mongolia  are  in- 
tensely cold  in  winter,  because  the  hills  to  the  north  are  too  low  to 
screen  them  from  the  polar  blast,  and  being  higher  than  the  Siberian 
deserts,  they  are  bitterly  cold ;  no  month  in  the  year  is  free  from 
frost  and  snow,  yet  it  is  not  deep  enough  to  prevent  cattle  from  find- 
ing pasture.  Sandy  deserts  like  that  of  the  Great  Gobi  occupy 
much  of  the  country  south  of  the  Chinese  branches  of  the  Altai. 

Such  is  the  stupendous  zone  of  high  land  that  girds  the  old  con- 
tinent throughout  its  whole  length.  In  the  extensive  plains  on  each 
side  of  it  several  independent  mountain  systems  rise,  though  much 
inferior  to  it  in  extent  and  height. 

1  Lieut.  Wood,  Voyage  to  the  Source  of  the  River  Oxus,  1  vol.,  8vo. 


CHAP.  V.          SCANDINAVIAN     MOUNTAINS.  71 


CHAPTER  V. 

Secondary  Mountain  Systems  of  the  Great  Continent  —  That  of  Scandi- 
navia —  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  —  The  Ural  Mountains  —  The  Great 
Northern  Plain. 

THE  Great  Northern  Plain  is  broken  by  two  masses  of  high  land, 
in  every  respect  inferior  to  those  described;  they  are  the  Scandina- 
vian system  and  the  Ural  mountains,  the  arbitrary  limit  between 
Europe  and  Asia. 

The  range  of  primary  mountains  which  has  given  its  form  to  the 
Scandinavian  peninsula  begins  at  Cape  Lindesnaes,  the  most  south- 
erly  point  of  Norway,  and,  after  running  along  its  western  coast 
1000  miles  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  ends  at  Cape  Nord  Kyn,  on 
the  Polar  Ocean,  the  extremity  of  Europe.  The  highest  elevation 
of  this  chain  is  not  more  than  8412  feet.  It  has  been  compared  to 
a  great  wave  or  billow,  rising  gradually  from  the  east,  which,  after 
having  formed  a  crest,  falls  perpendicularly  into  the  sea  in  the  west. 
There  are  3696  square  miles  of  this  peninsula  above  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow. 

The  southern  portion  of  the  chain  consists  of  ridges  following  the 
general  direction  of  the  range,  150  miles  broad.  At  the  distance 
of  360  miles  from  Cape  Lindesnaes  the  mountains  form  a  single  ele- 
vated mass,  terminated  by  a  table-land  which  maintains  an.  altitude 
of  4500  feet  for  100  miles.  It  sloj>es  towards  the  east,  and  plunges 
at  once  in  high  precipices  into  a  deep  sea  on  the  west. 

The  surface  is  barren,  marshy,  and  bristled  with  peaks ;  besides 
an  area  of  600  square  leagues  is  occupied  by  the  Snae  Braen,  the 
greatest  mass  of  perpetual  snow  and  glaciers  on  the  continent  of 
Europe.  A  prominent  cluster  of  mountains  follows,  from  whence 
a  single  chain,  25  miles  broad,  maintains  an  uninterrupted  line  to 
the  island  of  Megaree,  where  it  terminates  its  visible  career  in  North 
Cape,  a  huge  barren  rock  perpetually  lashed  by  the  surge  of  the 
Polar  Ocean,  but  from  the  correspondence  in  geological  structure  it 
must  be  continued  under  the  sea  to  where  it  reappears,  according  to 
M.  Boue,  in  the  schistose  rocks  of  Spitzbergen.  Offsets  from  these 
mountains  cover  Finland  and  the  low  rocky  table-land  of  Lapland; 
the  valleys  and  countries  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  chain  abound 
in  forests  and  Alpine  lakes. 

The  iron-bound  coast  of  Norway  is  a  continued  series  of  rocky 
islands,  capes,  promontories,  and  precipitous  cliffs,  rent  into  chasms 
which  penetrate  miles  into  the  heart  of  the  mountains.  These 


72  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  V. 

chasms,  or  fiords,  are  either  partly  or  entirely  filled  by  arms  of  the 
sea;  in  the  former  case  the  shores  are  fertile  and  inhabited,  and  the 
whole  country  abounds  in  the  most  picturesque  scenery.  Fiords 
are  not  peculiar  to  the  coast  of  Norway;  they  are  even  more  exten- 
sive in  Greenland  and  iceland,  and  of  a  more  stern  character,  over- 
hung by  snow-clad  rocks  and  glaciers. 

As  the  Scandinavian  mountains,  those  of  Feroe,  Britain,  Ireland, 
and  the  north-eastern  parts  of  Iceland  have  a  similar  character,  and 
follow  the  same  general  directions,  they  must  have  been  elevated 
by  forces  acting  in  parallel  lines,  and  therefore  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  the  same  system. 

The  Feroe  islands,  due  west  from  Norway,  rise  at  once  in  a 
table-land  2000  feet  high,  bounded  by  precipitous  clifis,  which  dip 
into  the  ocean. 

The  rocky  islands  of  Zetland  and  those  of  Orkney  form  part  of 
the  mountain  system  of  Scotland;  the  Orkney  islands  have  evi- 
dently been  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the  Pentland  Firth, 
where  the  currents  run  with  prodigious  violence.  The  north- 
western part  of  Scotland  is  a  table-land  from  1000  to  2000  feet 
high,  which  ends  abruptly  in  the  sea,  covered  with  heath,  peat- 
mosses,'and  pasture.  The  general  direction  of  the  Scottish  moun- 
tains, like  those  of  Scandinavia,  is  from  north-east  to  south-west, 
divided  by  a  long  line  of  lakes  in  the  same  direction,  extending 
from  the  Moray  Firth  completely  across  the  island  to  south  of  the 
island  of  Mull.  Lakes  of  the  most  picturesque  beauty  abound 
among  the  Scottish  mountains.  The  Grampian  hills,  with  their 
offsets  and  some  low  ranges,  fill  the  greater  part  of  Scotland  north 
of  the  Clyde  and  Forth.  Ben  Nevis,  only  4368  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  the  highest  mountain  in  the  British  islands. 

The  east  coast  of  Scotland  is  generally  bleak,  though  in  many 
parts  it  is  extremely  fertile,  and  may  be  cited  as  a  model  of  good 
cultivation ;  and  the  midland  and  southern  counties  are  not  inferior 
either  in  the  quality  of  the  soil  or  the  excellence  of  the  husbandry. 
To  the  west  the  country  is  wildly  picturesque;  the  coast  of  the 
Atlantic,  penetrated  by  the  sea,  which  is  covered  with  islands,  bears 
a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  Norway. 

There  cannot  be  a  doubt  that  the  Hebrides  formed  part  of  the 
mainland  at  some  remote  geological  period,  since  they  follow  the 
direction  of  the  mountain  system  in  two  parallel  lines  of  islands, 
of  rugged  and  imposing  aspect,  never  exceeding  the  height  of  3200 
feet.  The  undulating  country  on  the  borders  of  Scotland  becomes 
higher  in  the  west  of  England  and  North  Wales,  where  the  hills 
are  wild,  but  the  valleys  are  cultivated  like  gardens,  and  the  English 
lake  scenery  is  of  the  most  gentle  beauty. 

Evergreen  Ireland  is  mostly  a  mountainous  country,  and  opposes 
to  the  Atlantic  storms  an  iron-bound  coast  of  the  wildest  aspect; 


CHAP.  V.  THE     URAL    CHAIN.  73 

but  it  is  rich  in  arable  land  and  pasture,  and  possesses  the  most 
picturesque  lake  scenery :  indeed,  freshwater  lakes  in  the  mountain 
valleys,  so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  the  European  system^  are  the 
great  ornaments  of  the  high  lands  of  Britain. 

Various  parts  of  the  British  islands  were  dry  land  while  most 
of  the  continent  of  Europe  was  yet  below  the  ancient  ocean.  The 
high  land  of  Lammermuir  and  the  Grampian  hills  in  Scotland,  and 
those  of  Cumberland  in  England,  were  raised  before  the  Alps  had 
begun  to  appear  above  the  waves.  In  general  all  the  highest  parts 
of  the  British  mountains  are  of  granite  and  stratified  crystalline 
rocks.  The  earliest  fossiliferous  strata  are  of  immense  thickness 
in  Cumberland  and  in  the  north  of  Wales,  and  the  old  red  sand- 
stone, many  hundred  feet  thick,  stretches  from  sea  to  sea  along  the 
flanks  of  the  Grampians.  The  coal  strata  are  developed  on  a  great 
scale  in  the  south  of  Scotland  and  the  north  of  England;  and  ex- 
amples of  every  formation,  with  the  exception  of  the  muschelkalk, 
are  to  be  found  in  these  islands.  Volcanic  fires  had  been  very 
active  in  early  times,  and  nowhere  is  the  columnar  structure  more 
beautifully  exhibited  than  in  Fingal's  Cave  and  the  Storr  of  Skye, 
in  the  Hebrides :  and  in  the  North  of  Ireland  a  base  of  800  square 
miles  of  mica-slate  is  covered  with  volcanic  rocks,  which  end  on  the 
coast  in  the  magnificent  columnar  cliffs  of  the  Giant's  Causeway. 

The  Ural  chain,  the  boundary  between  Europe  and  Asia,  is  the 
only  interruption  to  the  level  of  the  great  northern  plain,  and  is 
altogether  unconnected  with  and  far  separated  from  the  Altai  moun- 
tains by  salt  lakes,  marshes,  and  deserts.  The  central  ridge  may 
be  traced  from  between  the  Lake  of  Aral  and  the  Caspian  Sea  to 
the  northern  extremity  of  Nova  Zembla,  a  distance  of  more  than 
1700  miles;  but  as  a  chain  it  really  begins  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ural  river,  at  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz,  about  the  51st  degree 
of  north  latitude,  and  runs  due  north  in  a  long  narrow  ridge  to  the 
Karskaia  Gulf,  in  the  Polar  Ocean,  though  it  may  be  said  to  termi- 
nate in  dreary  rocks  on  the  west  side  of  Nova  Zembla.  The  Ural 
range  is  about  the  height  of  the  mountains  in  the  Black  Forest  or 
the  Vosges;  and,  with  few  exceptions,  it  is  wooded  to  the  top, 
chiefly  by  the  Pinus  cembra.  The  immense  mineral  riches  of  these 
mountains — gold,  platina,  magnetic  iron,  and  copper — lie  on  the 
Siberian  side,  and  mostly  between  the  54th  and  60th  degrees  of 
north  latitude :  the  only  part  that  is  colonized,  and  one  of  the  most 
industrious  and  civilized  regions  of  the  Russian  empire.  To  the 
south  the  chain  is  pastoral,  about  100  miles  broad,  consisting  of 
longitudinal  ridges,  the  highest  of  which  does  not  exceed  3498  feet: 
in  this  part  diamonds  are  found.  To  the  north  of  the  mining  dis- 
trict the  narrow  mural  mass  is  covered  with  impenetrable  forests 
and  deep  morasses,  altogether  uninhabitable  and  unexplored. 
Throughout  the  Ural  mountains  there  arc  neither  precipices,  trans- 
7 


74  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  V. 

verse  gorges,  nor  any  of  the  characteristics  of  a  high  chain ;  the 
descent  on  both  sides  is  so  gentle  that  in  many  places  it  is  difficult 
to  know  where  the  plain  begins ;  and  the  road  over  the  chain  from 
Russia  by  Ekaterinburg  is  so  low  that  it  hardly  seems  to  be  a 
mountain-pass.  The  gentle  descent  and  sluggishness  of  the  streams 
produce  extensive  marshes  along  the  Siberian  base  of  the  range. 
To  the  arduous  and  enterprising  researches  of  Sir  Roderick  Mur- 
chison  we  are  indebted  for  almost  all  we  know  of  these  mountains : 
he  found  them  on  the  western  side  to  be  composed  of  Silurian,  De- 
vonian, and  carboniferous  rocks,  more  or  less  altered  and  crystal- 
lized ;  on  the  eastern  declivity  the  mines  are  in  metaphoric  strata, 
mixed  with  rocks  of  igneous  origin ;  and  the  central  axis  is  of 
quartzose  and  chloritic  rocks. 

The  great  zone  of  high  land  which  extends  along  the  old  conti- 
nent from  the  Atlantic  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  divides 
the  low  lands  into  two  very  unequal  parts.  That  to  the  north,  only 
broken  by  the  Ural  range  and  the  Valdai  table-land  of  still  less  ele- 
vation, stretches  from  the  Thames  or  the  British  hills  and  the  eastern 
bank  of  the  Seine  to  Behring's  Straits,  including  more  than  190° 
of  longitude,  and  occupying  an  area  of  at  least  4,500,000  square 
geographical  miles,  which  is  a  third  more  than  all  Europe.  The 
greater  part  of  it  is  perfectly  level,  with  a  few  elevations  and  low 
hills,  and  in  many  places  a  dead  level  extends  hundreds  of  miles. 
The  country  between  the  Carpathian  and  Ural  mountains  is  a  flat, 
on  which  there  is  scarcely  a  rise  in  1500  miles ;  and  in  the  steppes 
of  southern  Russia  and  Siberia  the  extent  of  level  ground  is  im- 
mense. The  mean  absolute  height  of  the  flat  provinces  of  France 
is  480  feet.  Moscow,  the  highest  point  of  the  European  plain,  is 
also  480  feet  high,  from  whence  the  land  slopes  imperceptibly  to 
the  sea,  both  on  the  north  and  south,  till  it  absolutely  dips  below  its 
level.  Holland,  on  one  side,  would  be  overflowed,  were  it  not  for 
its  dykes,  and  towards  Astrakan  the  plain  sinks  still  lower.  With 
the  exception  of  the  plateau  of  Ust-Urt,  of  no  great  elevation,  situ- 
ated between  the  Caspian  and  Aral,  and  which  is  the  extreme  south- 
ern ridge  of  the  Ural  chain,  the  whole  of  that  extensive  country 
north  and  east  of  the  Caspian  Sea  and  around  the  Lake  of  Aral 
forms  a  vast  cavity  of  18,000  square  leagues,  all  considerably  below 
the  level  of  the  ocean ;  and  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea  itself, 
the  lowest  point,  has  a  depression  of  rather  more  than  82  feet. 

The  European  part  of  the  plain  is  highly  cultivated  and  very 
productive  in  the  more  civilized  countries  in  its  western  and  middle 
regions  and  along  the  Baltic.  The  greatest  amount  of  cultivated 
land  lies  to  the  north  of  the  watershed  which  stretches  from  the 
Carpathians  to  the  centre  of  the  Ural  chain,  yet  there  are  large 
heaths  which  extend  from  the  extremity  of  Jutland  through  Lune- 
bourg  and  Westphalia  to  Belgium.  The  land  is  of  excellent  quality 


CHAP.  V.  STEPPES    OF    EASTERN   EUROPE.  75 

to  the  south  of  it.  Round  Polkova  and  Moscow  there  is  an  extent 
of  the  finest  vegetable  mould,  equal  in  size  to  France  and  the  Span- 
ish peninsula  together,  which  forms  part  of  the  High  Steppe,  and 
is  mostly  in  a  state  of  nature. 

A  large  portion  of  the  great  plain  is  pasture-land,  and  wide  tracts 
are  covered  with  natural  forests,  especially  in  Poland  and  Russia, 
where  there  are  millions  of  acres  of  pine,  fir,  and  deciduous  trees. 

The  quantity  of  waste  land  in  Europe  is  very  great,  and  there  are 
also  many  swamps.  A  morass  as  long  as  England  extends  from 
the  52d  parallel  of  latitude,  following  the  course  of  the  river  Pro- 
pit,  a  branch  of  the  Dnieper,  which  runs  through  its  centre.  There 
are  swamps  at  the  mouths  of  many  of  the  sluggish  rivers  in  Central 
Europe.  They  cover  1970  miles  in  Denmark,  and  mossy  quagmires 
occur  frequently  in  the  more  northerly  parts. 

Towards  the  eastern  extremity  of  Europe  the  great  plain  assumes 
the  peculiar  character  of  desert  called  a  steppe,  a  word  supposed  to 
be  of  Tartar  origin,  signifying  a  level  waste  destitute  of  trees : 
hence  the  steppes  may  vary  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil. 
They  commence  at  the  river  Dnieper,  and  extend  along  the  shores 
of  the  Black  Sea.  They  include  all  the  country  north  and  east  of 
the  Caspian  Lake  and  Independent  Tartary;  and  passing  between 
the  Ural  and  Altai  mountains,  they  may  be  said  to  occupy  all  the 
low  lands  of  Siberia.  Hundreds  of  leagues  may  be  traversed  east 
from  the  Dnieper  without  variation  of  scene.  A  dead  level  of  thin 
but  luxuriant  pasture,  bounded  only  by  the  horizon,  day  after  day 
the  same  unbroken  monotony  fatigues  the  eye.  Sometimes  there  is 
the  appearance  of  a  lake,  which  vanishes  on  approach,  the  phantom 
of  atmospheric  refraction.  Horses  and  cattle  beyond  number  give 
some  animation  to  the  scene,  so  long  as  the  steppes  are  green  ;  but 
winter  comes  in  October,  and  then  they  become  a  trackless  field  of 
spotless  snow.  Fearful  storms  rage,  and  the  dry  snow  is  driven  by 
the  gale  with  a  violence  which  neither  man  nor  animal  can  resist, 
while  the  sky  is  clear  and  the  sun  shines  cold  and  bright  above  the 
earthly  turmoil.  The  contest  between  spring  and  winter  is  long 
and  severe,  for 

"Winter  oft  at  once  resumes  the  breeze, 
Chills  the  pale  morn,  and  bids  his  driving  sleets 
Deform  the  day,  delightless." 

Yet  when  gentler  gales  succeed,  and  the  waters  run  off  in  torrents 
through  the  channels  which  they  cut  in  the  soft  ground,  the  earth  is 
again  verdant.  The  scorching  summer's  sun  is  as  severe  in  its  con- 
sequences in  these  wild  regions  as  the  winter's  cold.  In  June  the 
steppes  are  parched,  no  shower  falls,  nor  does  a  drop  of  dew  refresh 
the  thirsty  and  rent  earth.  The  sun  rises  and  sets  like  a  globe  of 
fire,  and  during  the  day  he  is  obscured  by  a  thick  mist  from  the 


76  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  V. 

evaporation.  In  some  seasons  the  drought  is  excessive:  the  air  is 
filled  with  dust  in  impalpable  powder,  the  springs  become  dry,  and 
cattle  perish  in  thousands.  Death  triumphs  over  animal  and  vege- 
table nature,  and  desolation  tracks  the  scene  to  the  utmost  verge  of 
the  horizon,  a  hideous  wreck. 

Much  of  this  country  is  covered  by  an  excellent  but  thin  soil,  fit 
for  corn,  which  grows  luxuriantly  wherever  it  has  been  tried;  but  a 
stiff  cold  clay  at  a  small  distance  below  the  surface  kills  every  herb 
that  has  deep  roots,  and  no  plants  thrive  but  those  which  can  resist 
the  extreme  vicissitudes  of  climate.  A  very  wide  range  is  hope- 
lessly barren.  The  country  from  the  Caucasus,  along  the  shores  of 
the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas  —  a  dead  flat,  twice  the  size  of  the  Bri- 
tish islands  —  is  a  desert  destitute  of  fresh  water.  Saline  efflores- 
cences cover  the  surface  like  hoar-frost.  Even  the  atmosphere  and 
the  dew  are  saline,  and  many  salt  lakes  in  the  neighbourhood  of  As- 
trakan  furnish  great  quantities  of  common  salt  and  nitre.  Saline 
plants,  with  patches  of  verdure  few  and  far  between,  are  the  only 
signs  of  vegetable  life,  but  about  Astrakan  there  is  soil  and  cultiva- 
tion. Some  low  hills  occur  in  the  country  between  the  Caspian  and 
the  Lake  of  Aral,  but  it  is  mostly  an  ocean  of  shifting  sand,  often 
driven  by  appalling  whirlwinds. 

Turkistan  is  a  sandy  desert,  except  on  the  ba'nks  of  the  Oxus  and 
the  Jaxartes,  and  as  far  on  each  side  of  them  as  canals  convey  the 
fertilizing  waters.  To  the  north,  barrenness  gives  place  to  verdure 
between  the  river  Ural  and  the  terraces  and  mountains  of  Central 
Asia,  where  the  steppes  of  the  Kirghiz  afford  pasture  to  thousands 
of  camels  and  cattle  belonging  to  these  wandering  hordes. 

Siberia  is  either  a  dead  level  or  undulating  surface  of  more  than 
7,000,000  of  square  miles,  between  the  North  Pacific  and  the  Ural 
mountains,  the  Polar  Sea  and  the  Altai  range,  whose  terraces  and 
offsets  end  in  those  plains,  like  headlands  and  promontories  in  the 
ocean.  M.  Middendorf,  indeed,  met  with  a  chain  of  most  desolate 
mountains  on  the  shores  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  in  the  country  of  the 
Samoides;  and  the  almost  inapproachable  coast  far  to  the  east  is 
unexplored.  The  mineral  riches  of  the  mountains  have  brought 
together  a  population  who  inhabit  towns  of  considerable  importance 
along  the  base  of  the  Ural  and  Altai  chains,  where  the  ground  yields 
good  crops  and  pasture ;  and  there  are  forests  on  the  undulations  of 
the  mountains  and  on  the  plains.  There  are  many  hundred  square 
miles  of  rich  black  mould  covered  with  trees  and  grass,  uninhabited, 
between  the  river  Tobol  and  the  upper  course  of  the  Obi,  within  the 
limit  where  corn  would  grow;  but  even  this  valuable  soil  is  studded 
with  small  lakes  of  salt  and  fresh  water,  a  chain  of  which,  300 
miles  long,  skirts  the  base  of  the  Ural  mountains. 

North  of  the  62nd  parallel  of  latitude  corn  does  not  ripen  on 
account  of  the  biting  blasts  from  the  Icy  Ocean  which  sweep  su- 


CHAP.  V.  SIBERIAN     DESERT.  77 

preme  over  these  unprotected  wastes.  In  a  higher  latitude,  even 
the  interminable  forests  of  gloomy  fir  are  seen  no  more :  all  is  a 
wide-spreading  desolation  of  salt  steppes,  boundless  swamps,  and 
lakes  of  salt  and  fresh  water.  The  cold  is  so  intense  there  that  the 
spongy  soil  is  perpetually  frozen  to  the  depth  of  some  hundred  feet 
below  the  surface ;  and  the  surface  itself,  not  thawed  before  the  end 
of  June,  is  again  ice-bound  by  the  middle  of  September,  and  deep 
snow  covers  the  ground  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year.  Happily 
gales  of  wind  are  not  frequent  during  winter,  but  when  they  do 
occur  no  living  thing  ventures  to  face  them.  The  Russian  Admiral 
Wrangel,  who  travelled  during  the  most  intense  cold  from  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Kolyma  to  Behring's  Strait,  gives  an  appalling  account 
of  these  deserts.  "  Here  endless  snows  and  ice-covered  rocks  bound 
the  horizon,  nature  lies  shrouded  in  all  but  perpetual  winter,  life  is 
a  constant  conflict  with  privation  and  with  the  terrors  of  cold  and 
hunger — the  grave  of  nature,  which  contains  only  the  bones  of  ano- 
ther world.  The  people,  and  even  the  snow  smoke,  and  this  eva- 
poration is  instantly  changed  into  millions  of  needles  of  ice,  which 
make  a  noise  in  the  air  like  the  sound  of  torn  satin  or  thick  dlk. 
The  reindeer  take  to  the  forest,  or  crowd  together  for  heat,  and  the 
raven  alone,  the  dark  bird  of  winter,  still  cleaves  the  icy  air  with 
slow  and  heavy  wing,  leaving  behind  him  a  long  line  of  thin  vapour, 
marking  the  track  of  his  solitary  flight.  The  trunks  of  the  thickest 
trees  are  rent  with  a  loud  noise,  masses  of  rock  are  torn  from  their 
sites,  the  ground  in  the  valleys  is  rent  into  yawning  fissures,  from 
which  the  waters  that  are  underneath  rise,  giving  off  a  cloud  of 
vapour,  and  immediately  become  ice.  The  atmosphere  becomes 
dense,  and  the  glistening  stars  are  dimmed.  The  dogs  outside  the 
huts  of  the  Siberians  burrow  in  the  snow,  and  their  howling,  at 
intervals  of  six  or  eight  hours,  interrupts  the  general  silence  of  win- 
ter." l  In  many  parts  of  Siberia,  however,  the  sun,  though  long 
absent  from  these  dismal  regions,  does  not  leave  them  to  utter  dark- 
ness. The  extraordinary  brilliancy  of  the  stars,  and  the  gleaming 
snowlight,  produce  a  kind  of  twilight,  which  is  augmented  by  the 
splendid  coruscations  of  the  aurora  borealis. 

The  scorching  heat  of  the  summer's  sun  produces  a  change  like 
magic  on  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Siberian  wilderness.  The 
snow  is  scarcely  gone  before  the  ground  is  covered  with  verdure,  and 
flowers  of  various  hues  blossom,  bear  their  seed,  and  die  in  a  few 
months,  when  Winter  resumes  his  empire.  A  still  shorter-lived 

1  In  the  year  1820,  Admiral  (then  Lieutenant)  Wrangel  travelled  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Kolyma  to  Behring's  Straits  on  sledges  drawn  by  dogs,  and 
made  a  bold  but  vain  attempt  to  reach  the  North  Pole.  Lieutenant  Anjou, 
at  the  same  time,  sailed  from  the  mouth  of  the  Jana  river,  reached  76$ 
degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  passed  round  the  group  of  the  New  Siberian 
Islands. 


78  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VI. 

vegetation  scarcely  covers  tbe  plains  in  the  far  north,  and,  on  the 
shores  of  the  Icy  Ocean,  even  reindeer-moss  grows  scantily. 

The  abundance  of  fur-bearing  animals  in  the  less  rigorous  parts 
of  the  Siberian  deserts  has  tempted  the  Russians  to  colonize  and 
build  towns  on  these  frozen  plains.  Yakutsk,  on  the  river  Lena,  in 
62°  1'  30"  N.  lat.,  is  probably  the  coldest  town  on  the  earth.  The 
ground  is  perpetually  frozen  to  the  depth  of  more  than  400  feet,  of 
which  three  feet  only  are  thawed  in  summer,  when  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer  is  frequently  77°  in  the  shade;  and  as  there  is  in  some 
seasons  no  frost  for  four  months,  larch  forests  cover  the  ground,  and 
wheat  and  rye  produce  from  fifteen  to  forty  fold.  In  winter  the  cold 
is  so  intense  that  mercury  is  constantly  frozen  two  months,  and  occa- 
sionally even  three. 

In  the  northern  parts  of  Europe  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  car- 
boniferous strata  are  widely  developed,  and  more  to  the  south  they 
are  followed  in  ascending  order  by  immense  tracts  of  the  higher 
series  of  secondary  rocks,  abounding  in  the  huge  monsters  of  a 
former  world.  Very  large  and  interesting  tertiary  basins  fill  the 
ancient  hollows  in  many  parts  of  the  plain,  which  are  crowded  with 
the  remains  of  animals  that  no  longer  exist.  Of  these  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  London,  Paris,  Vienna,  and  Moscow  basins,  with 
many  others  in  the  north  of  Germany  and  Russia ;  and  alluvial  soil 
covers  the  greater  part  of  the  plain.  In  the  east  Sir  Roderick  Mur- 
chison  has  determined  the  boundary  of  a  region  twice  as  large  as 
France,  extending  from  the  Polar  Ocean  to  the  southern  steppes, 
and  from  beyond  the  Volga  to  the  flanks  of  the  Ural  chain,  which 
consists  of  a  red  deposit  of  sand  and  marl,  full  of  copper  in  grains, 
belonging  to  the  Permian  system.  This  and  the  immense  tract  of 
black  loam  already  mentioned  are  among  the  principal  features  of 
Eastern  Europe. 


C.HAPTER  vi. 

The  Southern  Low  Lands  of  the  Great  Continent,  with  their  Secondary 
Table-Lauds  and  Mountains. 

THE  low  lands  to  the  south  of  the  great  mountain  girdle  of  the 
old  continent  are  much  broken  by  its  offsets,  by  separate  groups  of 
mountains,  and  still  more  by  the  deep  indentation  of  bays  and  large 
seas.  Situate  in  lower  latitudes,  and  sheltered  by  mountains  from 
the  cutting  Siberian  winds,  these  plains  are  of  a  more  tropical  cha- 
racter than  those  to  the  north ;  but  they  are  strikingly  contrasted  in 
1  heir  different  parts  —  either  rich  in  all  the  exuberance  that  heat, 


CHAP.  VI.  CHINESE    PLAIN.  79 

moisture,  and  soil  can  produce,  or  covered  by  wastes  of  bare  sand — • 
in  the  most  advanced  state  of  cultivation,  or  in  the  wildest  garb  of 
nature. 

The  barren  parts  of  the  low  lands  lying  between  the  eastern  shores 
of  China  and  the  Indus  bear  a  small  proportion  to  the  riches  of  a 
soil  vivified  by  tropical  warmth  and  watered  by  the  periodical  inun- 
dations of  the  mighty  rivers  that  burst  from  the  icy  caverns  of  Tibet 
and  the  Himalaya.  On  the  contrary,  the  favoured  regions  in  that 
part  of  the  lowlands  lying  between  the  Persian  Gulf,  the  Euphrates, 
and  the  Atlas  mountains,  are  small  when  compared  with  the  im- 
mense expanse  of  the  Arabian  and  African  deserts,  scorched  and 
calcined  by  an  equatorial  sun.  The  blessing  of  a  mountain-zone, 
pouring  out  its  everlasting  treasures  of  moisture,  the  life-blood  of 
the  soil,  is  nowhere  more  strikingly  exhibited  than  in  the  contrast 
formed  by  these  two  regions  of  the  globe. 

The  Tartar  country  of  Manchouria,  watered  by  the  river  Amour, 
but  little  known  to  Europeans,  lies  immediately  south  of  the  Yablon- 
noi  branch  of  the  Altai  chain,  and  consequently  partakes  of  the 
desert  aspect  of  Siberia,  and,  in  its  northern  parts,  even  of  the  Great 
Gobi.  It  is  partly  intersected  by  mountains,  and  covered  by  dense 
forests;  nevertheless,  oats  grow  in  the  plains,  and  even  wheat  in 
sheltered  places.  Towards  Corea  the  country  is  more  fertile;  in 
that  peninsula  there  are  cultivated  plains  at  the  base  of  its  central 
mountain-range. 

China  is  the  most  productive  country  on  the  face  of  the  earth ;  an 
alluvial  plain  of  210,000  square  miles,  formed  by  one  of  the  most 
extensive  river  systems  in  the  old  world,  occupies  its  eastern  part. 
This  plain,  seven  times  the  size  of  Lombardy,  is  no  less  fertile,  and 
perfectly  irrigated  by  canals.  The  Great  Canal  traverses  the  eastern 
part  of  the  plain  for  700  miles,  of  which  500  are  in  a  straight  line 
of  considerable  breadth,  with  a  current  in  the  greater  part  of  it. 
Most  of  the  plain  is  in  rice  and  garden  grounds,  the  whole  cultivated 
with  the  spade.  The  tea-plant  grows  on  a  low  range  of  hills  be- 
tween the  30th  and  32nd  parallels  of  north  latitude,  an  offset  from 
the  Pe-ling  chain.  The  cold  in  winter  is  much  greater  than  in  the 
corresponding  European  latitudes,  and  the  heat  in  summer  is  pro- 
portionally excessive. 

The  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  lying  between  China  and  the  river 
Brahmapootra,  has  an  area  of  77,700  square  miles,  and  projects 
1500  miles  into  the  ocean.  The  plains  lying  between  the  offsets 
descending  from  the  east  end  of  the  Himalaya,  and  which  divide  it 
longitudinally,  as  before  meptioned,  are  very  extensive.  The  Bir 
man  empire  alone,  which  occupies  the  valley  of  the  Irrawaddy,  is 
said  to  be  as  large  as  France,  and  not  less  fertile,  especially  its 
southern  part,  which  is  the  granary  of  the  empire.  Magnificent 
rivers  intersect  the  alluvial  plains,  whose  soil  they  have  brought 


80  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VI. 

down  from  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and  still  continue  to  deposit  in 
great  quantities  in  the  deltas  at  their  mouths. 

The  plains  of  Hindostan  extend  2000  miles  along  the  southern 
slopes  of  the  Himalaya,  between  the  Brahmapootra  and  the  Indus, 
and  terminate  on  the  south  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  table-land  of 
the  Deccan,  and  the  Indian  Ocean  —  a  country  embracing  in  its 
range  every  variety  of  climate  from  tropical  heat  and  moisture  to 
the  genial  temperature  of  southern  Europe. 

The  valley  of  the  Ganges  is  one  of  the  richest  on  the  globe,  and 
contains  a  greater  extent  of  vegetable  mould,  and  of  land  under 
cultivation,  than  any  other  country  in  this  continent,  except  perhaps 
the  Chinese  empire.  In  its  upper  part,  Sirhind  and  Delhi,  the  seat 
of  the  ancient  Mogul  empire,  still  rich  in  splendid  specimens  of 
Indian  art,  are  partly  arid,  although  in  the  latter  there  is  fertile  soil. 
The  country  is  beautiful  where  the  Jumna  and  other  streams  unite 
to  form  the  Ganges.  These  rivers  are  often  hemmed  in  by  rocks 
and  high  banks,  which  in  a  great  measure  prevent  the  periodical 
overflow  of  the  waters ;  this,  however,  is  compensated  by  the  cool- 
ness and  moisture  of  the  climate.  The  land  gradually  improves 
towards  the  east,  as  it  becomes  more  flat,  till  at  last  there  is  not  a 
stone  to  be  seen  for  hundreds  of  miles  down  to  the  Gulf  of  Bengal. 
Wheat  and  other  European  grain  are  produced  in  the  upper  part  of 
this  magnificent  valley,  while  in  the  south  every  variety  of  Indian 
fruit,  rice,  cotton,  indigo,  opium,  and  sugar,  are  the  staple  commo- 
dities. The  ascent  of  the  plain  of  the  Ganges  from  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  is  so  gradual  that  Saharampore,  nearly  at  the  foot  of  the 
Himalaya,  is  only  1100  feet  above  the  level  of  Calcutta ;  the  con- 
sequence of  which  is  that  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  with  their 
branches,  in  the  rainy  season  between  June  and  September,  lay 
Bengal  under  water  for  hundreds  of  miles  in  every  direction,  like  a 
great  sea.  When  the  water  subsides,  the  plains  are  verdant  with 
rice  and  other  grain  j  but  when  harvest  is  over,  and  the  heat  is  in- 
tense, the  scene  is  changed  —  the  country,  divested  of  its  beauty, 
becomes  parched  and  dusty  everywhere,  except  in  the  extensive 
jungles.  It  has  been  estimated  that  one-third  of  the  British  terri- 
tory in  India  is  covered  with  these  rank  marshy  tracts.1 

The  peninsula  of  Hindostan  is  occupied  by  the  triangular-shaped 
table-land  of  the  Deccan,  which  is  much  lower,  and  totally  uncon- 
nected with  the  table-land  of  Tibet.  It  has  the  primary  ranges  of 
the  Ghauts  on  the  east  and  west,  and  the  Vendhya  mountains  oa 
the  north,  sloping  by  successive  levels  to  the  plains  of  Hindostan 
Proper.  A  trace  of  the  general  equatorial  direction  of  the  Asiatic 
high  land  is  still  perceptible  in  the  Vendhya  mountains,  sometimes 

1  The  estimate  was  made  by  Lord  Cornwallis,  and  confirmed  by  Mr. 
Oolebrooke 


CHAP.  VI.  T  H  E    D  E  C  C  A  N  .  81 

called  the  central  chain  of  India,  and  in  the  Saulpoora  range  to  the 
south,  both  being  nearly  parallel  to  the  Himalaya.1  The  surface  of 
the  Deccan,  between  3000  and  4000  feet  above  the  sea,  is  a  combi- 
nation of  plains,  ridges  of  rocks,  and  insulated  flat-topped  hills, 
•which  are  numerous,  especially  in  its  north-eastern  parts.  These 
solitary  and  almost  inaccessible  heights  rise  abruptly  from  the  plains, 
with  all  but  perpendicular  sides,  which  can  only  be  scaled  by  steps 
cut  in  the  rock,  or  by  very  dangerous  paths.  Many  are  fortified, 
and  were  the  strongholds  of  the  natives,  but  they  never  have  with- 
stood the  determined  intrepidity  of  British  soldiers. 

The  peninsula  terminates  with  the  table-land  of  the  Mysore, 
7000  feet  above  the  sea,  surrounded  by  the  Nilgherry  or  Blue 
Mountains,  which  rise  2941  feet  higher. 

The  base  of  this  plateau,  and  indeed  of  all  the  Deccan,  is  granite, 
and  there  are  also  many  syenitic  and  trap  rocks,  with  abundance 
of  primary  and  secondary  fossiliferous  strata.  Though  possessing 
the  diamond  mines  of  Golconda,  the  true  riches  of  the  country  con- 
sist in  its  vegetable  mould,  which  in  the  Mysore  is  100  feet  thick, 
an  inexhaustible  source  of  fertility.  The  sea-coasts  on  the  two  sides 
of  the  peninsula  are  essentially  different;  that  of  Malabar  on  the 
western  side  is  rocky,  but  in  many  parts  well  cultivated,  and  its 
mountains  covered  with  forests  form  a  continuous  wall  of  very  sim- 
ple structure,  510  miles  long,  and  rather  more  than  5000  feet  high. 
On  the  coast  of  Coromandel  the  mountains  are  bare,  lower,  frequent- 
ly interrupted,  and  the  wide  maritime  plains  are  generally  parched. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  nearly  equal  in  extent  to  Ireland,  is  almost 
joined  to  the  southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  by  sandbanks  and 
small  islands,  between  which  the  water  is  only  six  feet  deep  in 
spring-tides.  The  Sanscrit  name  of  the  "  Resplendent "  may  convey 
some  idea  of  this  island,  rich  and  fertile  in  soil,  adorned  by  lofty 
mountains,  numerous  streams,  and  primeval  forests ;  in  addition  to 
which  it  is  rich  in  precious  stones,  and  has  the  pearl  oyster  on  its 
coast. 

The  Asiatic  low  lands  are  continued  westward  from  the  Indian 
peninsula  by  the  Punjab  and  the  ^reat  Indian  desert.  "  The  Pun- 
jab, or  country  of  the  five  rivers,"  lies  at  the  base  of  the  Western 
Himalaya.  Its  most  northern  part  consists  of  fertile  terraces  highly 
cultivated,  and  valleys  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains.  It  is  very  pro- 
ductive in  the  plain  within  the  limits  of  the  periodical  inundations 
of  the  rivers,  and  where  it  is  watered  by  canals ;  in  other  parts  it  is 
pastoral.  The  kingdom  of  Lahore  occupies  the  chief  part  of  the 
-Punjab,  and  the  city  of  that  name  near  the  llavee,  the  ancient  Hy- 
draotes,  once  the  rival  of  Delhi,  lies  on  the  high  road  from  Persia 
to  India,  and  was  made  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  by  Eunjeet  Sing. 

'Johnston's  Physical  Atlas. 


82  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.     VI. 

The  lower  valley  of  the  Indus  throughout  partakes  of  the  character 
of  the  Punjab ;  it  is  fertile  only  where  it  is  within  reach  of  water ; 
much  of  it  is  delta,  which  is  occupied  by  rice-grounds ;  the  rest  is 
pasture,  or  sterile  salt  marshes. 

South  of  the  Punjab,  and  between  the  fertile  plains  of  Hindostan 
and  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  lies  the  great  Indian  desert,  which 

;  is  about  400  miles  broad,  and  becomes  more  and  more  arid  as  it 
approaches  the  river.  It  consists  of  a  hard  clay,  covered  with  shift- 

i  ing  sand,  driven  into  high  waves  by  the  wind,  with  some  parts  that 
are  verdant  after  the  rains.  In  the  province  of  Cutch,  south  of  the 
desert,  a  space  of  7000  square  miles,  known  as  the  Run  of  Cutch, 
is  alternately  a  sandy  desert  and  an  inland  sea.  In  April  the  waves 
of  the  sea  are  driven  over  it  by  the  prevailing  winds,  leaving  only 
a  few  grassy  eminences,  the  resort  of  wild  asses.  The  desert  of 
Mekran,  an  equally  barren  tract,  extends  along  the  Gulf  of  Oman 
from  the  mouths  of  the  Indus  to  the  Persian  Gulf:  in  some  places, 
however,  it  produces  the  Indian  palm,  and  the  aromatic  shrubs  of 
Arabia  Felix.  It  was  the  line  followed  by  Alexander  the  Great  re- 
turning with  his  army  from  India, 

The  scathed  shores  of  the  Arabian  Gulf,  where  not  a  blade  of 
grass  freshens  the  arid  sands,  and  the  uncultivated  valleys  of  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  separate  Asia  from  Arabia  and  Africa,  the 
most  desert  regions  in  the  old  world. 

The  peninsula  of  Arabia,  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Tropic 
of  Cancer,  is  about  four  times  the  size  of  France.  No  rivers,  and 
few  streams  or  springs  nourish  the  thirsty  land,  whose  barren  sands 
are  scorched  by  a  fierce  sun.  The  central  part  is  a  table-land  of 
moderate  height,  which  however  is  said  to  have  an  elevation  of  8000 
feet  in  the  province  of  Haudramaut.  To  the  south  of  the  tropic 
it  is  an  almost  interminable  ocean  of  drifting  sand,  wafted  in  clouds 
by  the  gale,  and  dreaded  even  by  the  wandering  Bedouin.  At  wide- 
intervals,  long  narrow  depressions  cheer  the  eye  with  brushwood  and 
verdure.  More  to  the  north,  mountains  and  hills  cross  the  penin- 
sula from  S.E.  to  N.W.,  enclosing  cultivated  and  fine  pastoral  val- 

*  leys  adorned  by  groves  of  the  date-palm  and  aromatic  shrubs.  Deso- 
lation once  more  resumes  its  domain  where  the  table-land  sinks  into 
the  Syrian  desert,  and  throughout  the  rest  of  its  circumference  it 
descends  in  terraces  or  parallel  ranges  of  mountains  and  hills  to  a 
flat  sandy  coast  from  30  to  100  miles  wide,  which  surrounds  the 
greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Euphrates  to 
the  Isthmus  of  Suez.  The  hills  come  close  to  the  beach  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Oman,  which  is  traversed  by  chains,  and  broken  into  piles 
of  arid  mountains  not  more  than  3500  feet  high,  with  the  exception 
of  the  Jebel  Okkdar,  which  is  6000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  is  cleft 
by  temporary  streams  and  fertile  valleys.  Here  the  ground  is  cul- 
tivated and  covered  with  verdure,  and  still  farther  south  there  is  a 


CHAP.  VI.  THE    ARABIAN    PENINSULA.  83 

i 

line  of  oases  fed  by  subterraneous  springs,  -where  the  fruits  common 
to  Persia,  India,  and  Arabia  are  produced. 

The  south-eastern  coast  is  scarcely  known,  except  towards  the 
provinces  of  Haudramaut  and  Yemen,  or  Arabia  Felix,  where  ranges 
of  mountains,  some  above  5000  feet  high,  line  the  coast,  and  in 
many  places  project  into  the  ocean,  sometimes  forming  excellent 
harbours,  as  that  of  Aden,  which  is  protected  by  projecting  rocks. 
In  the  intervals  there  are  towns  and  villages,  cotton-plantations,  date- 
groves,  and  cultivated  ground. 

On  the  northern  side  of  these  granite  ranges,  where  the  table- 
land is  8000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  along  the  edge  of  the  desert 
of  El  Akkvj  in  Haudramaut,  there  is  a  tract  of  sand  so  loose  and 
so  very  fine,  that  a  plummet  was  sunk  in  it  by  Baron  Wrede  to  the 
depth  of  360  feet  without  reaching  the  bottom.  There  is  a  tradi- 
tion in  the  country  that  the  Sabaean  army  of  King  Suffi  perished  in 
attempting  to  cross  this  desert.  Arabia  Felix,  which  merits  its 
name,  is  the  only  part  of  that  country  with  permanent  streams, 
though  they  are  small.  Here  also  the  mountains  and  fertile  ground 
run  far  inland,  producing  grain,  pasture,  coffee,  odoriferous  plants, 
and  gums.  High  cliffs  line  the  shores  of  the  Indian  Ocean  and  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-man-deb — "  the  Grate  of  Tears."  The  fertile  coun- 
try is  continued  a  considerable  way  along  the  coast  of  the  Red  Sea, 
but  the  character  of  barrenness  is  resumed  by  degrees,  till  at  length 
the  hills  and  intervening  terraces,  on  which  Mecca  and  Medina,  the 
holy  cities  of  the  Mahomedans,  stand,  are  sterile  wastes  wherever 
springs  do  not  water  them.  The  blast  of  the  desert,  loaded  with 
burning  sand,  sweeps  over  these  parched  regions.  Mountains  skirt 
the  table-land  to  the  north ;  and  the  peninsula,  between  the  Gulfs 
of  Akabah  and  Suez  on  the  Red  Sea,  the  Eliath  of  Scripture,  is 
filled  by  the  mountain-group  of  Sinai  and  Horeb.  Jebel  Houra, 
Mount  Horeb,  on  which  Moses  received  the  Ten  Commandments, 
is  8593  feet  high,  surrounded  by  higher  mountains,  which  are 
covered  with  snow  in  winter.  The  group  of  Sinai  abounds  in 
springs  and  verdure.  At  its  northern  extremity  lies  the  desert  of 
El-Teh,  70  miles  long  and  30  broad,  in  which  the  Israelites  wan- 
dered forty  years.  It  is  covered  with  long  ranges  of  high  rocks, 
of  most  repulsive  aspect,  rent  into  deep  clefts  only  a  few  feet  wide, 
hemmed  in  by  walls  of  rock  sometimes  1000  feet  high,  like  the 
deserted  streets  of  a  Cyclopean  town.  The  journey  from  Sinai  to 
Akabah,  by  the  Wadee-el-Ain,  or  Valley  of  the  Spring,  is  perfectly 
magnificent,  and  the  sight  of  Petra  itself  is  a  tremendous  confu- 
sion of  black  and  brown  mountains.  It  is  a  considerable  basin' 
closed  in  by  rocks,  with  chasms  and  defiles  in  the  precipices.  The 
main  street  is  two  miles  long,  and  not  more  than  from  10  to  30 
feet  wide,  enclosed  between  perpendicular  rocks  from  100  to  700 
feet  high,  which  so  nearly  meet  as  to  leave  only  a  strip  of  sky.  A 


84  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VI 

stream  runs  through  the  street  which  must  once  have  been  a  consi- 
derable torrent,  and  the  precipitous  rocks  are  excavated  into  thou- 
sands of  caverns  once  inhabited  —  into  conduits,  cisterns,  flights  of 
steps,  theatres,  and  temples,  forming  altogether  one  of  the  most 
wonderful  remains  of  antiquity.  The  whole  of  Arabia  Petrea, 
Edom  of  the  sacred  writers,  presents  a  scene  of  appalling  desolation, 
completely  fulfilling  the  denunciation  of  prophecy.1 

A  sandy  desert,  crossed  by  low  limestone  ridges,  separates  the 
table-land  of  Arabia  from  the  habitable  part  of  Syria,  which  the 
mountains  of  Lebanon  divide  into  two  narrow  plains.  These  moun- 
tains may  almost  be  considered  offsets  from  the  Taurus  chain ;  at 
least  they  are  joined  to  it  by  the  wooded  range  of  Gawoor,  the  an- 
cient Amanus,  impassable  except  by  two  defiles,  celebrated  in  history 
as  the  Amanic  and  Syrian  Gates.  The  group  of  Lebanon  begins 
with  the  Jebel  Okrab  (Mount  Casius),  which  rises  abruptly  from 
the  sea  in  a  single  peak  to  the  height  of  7000  feet,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Orontes.  From  thence  the  chain  runs  south,  at  a  distance 
of  about  twenty  miles  from  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  in  a 
continuous  line  of  peaks  to  the  sources  of  the  Jordan,  where  it 
splits  into  two  nearly  parallel  naked  branches,  enclosing  the  wide 
and  fertile  plain  of  Beka  or  Ghor,  the  ancient  Coelo-Syria,  in  which 
are  the  ruins  of  Balbec. 

The  Lebanon  branch  terminates  at  the  sea  near  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Leontes,  a  few  miles  north  of  the  city  of  Old  Tyre ;  while  the 
Anti-Libanus,  which  begins  at  Mount  Hermon,  9000  feet  high,  runs 
west  of  the  Jordan  through  Palestine  in  a  winding  line,  till  its  last 
spurs,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea,  sink  into  rocky  ridges  on  the  desert 
of  Sinai. 

The  tops  of  all  these  mountains,  from  Scanderoon  to  Jerusalem, 
are  covered  with  snow  in  winter ;  it  is  permanent  on  Lebanon  only, 
Avhose  absolute  ^levation  is  9517  feet.  The  precipices  are  terrific, 
the  springs  abundant,  and  the  spurs  of  the  mountains  are  studded 
with  villages  and  convents ;  there  are  forests  in  the  higher  grounds, 
and  lower  down  vineyards  and  gardens.  Many  offsets  from  the 
Anti-Libanus  end  in  precipices  on  the  coast  between  Tripoli  and 
Beyrout,  among  which  the  scenery  is  superb. 

The  valleys  and  plains  of  Syria  are  full  of  rich  vegetable  mould, 
particularly  the  plain  of  Damascus,  which  is  brilliantly  verdant, 
though  surrounded  by  deserts,  the  barren  uniformity  of  which  is 
relieved  on  the  east  by  the  broken  columns  and  ruined  temples  of 
Palmyra  (Tadmor).  The  Assyrian  wilderness,  however,  is  not 
everywhere  absolutely  barren.  In  the  spring-time  it  is  covered  with 
a  thin  but  vivid  verdure,  mixed  with  fragrant  aromatic  herbs  of  very 

'  From  Miss  Martineau's  spirited  and  picturesque  account  of  her  journey 
to  Egypt  and  Syria. 


CHAP.  VI.  VALLEY    OP    THE, JORDAN.  85 

short  duration.  When  these  are  burnt  up,  the  unbounded  plains 
resume  their  wonted  dreariness.  The  country,  high  and  low,  be- 
comes more  barren  towards  the  Holy  Land,  yet  even  here  some  of 
the  mountains  —  as  Carmel,  Bashan,  and  Tabor — are  luxuriantly 
wooded,  and  many  of  the  valleys  are  fertile,  especially  the  valley 
of  the  Jordan,  which  has  the  appearance  of  pleasure-grounds  with 
groves  of  wood  and  aromatic  plants,  but  almost  in  a  state  of  nature. 
One  side  of  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  in  Galilee  is  savage ;  on  the  other 
there  are  gentle  hills  and  wild  romantic  vales,  adorned  with  palm- 
trees,  olives,  and  sycamores — a  scene  of  calm  solitude  and  pastoral 
beauty.  Jerusalem  stands  on  a  declivity  encompassed  by  severe 
stony  mountains,  wild  and  desolate.  The  greater  part  of  Syria  is  a 
desert  compared  with  what  it  formerly  was.  Mussulman  rule  has 
blighted  this  fair  region,  once  flowing  with  milk  and  honey — the 
Land  of  Promise. 

Farther  south  desolation  increases ;  the  valleys  become  narrower, 
the  hills  more  denuded  and  rugged,  till,  south  of  the  Dead  Sea, 
their  dreary  aspect  announces  the  approach  of  the  desert. 

The  valley  of  the  Jordan  affords  the  most  remarkable  instance 
known  of  the  depression  of  the  land  below  the  general  level  of  the 
ocean.  This  hollow,  which  extends  from  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  on 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  bifurcation  of  Lebanon,  is  620  feet  below  the 
Mediterranean  at  the  Lake  of  Tiberias,  and  the  acrid  waters  of  the 
Dead  Sea  have  a  depression  of  1300  feet.1  The  lowness  of  the 
valley  had  been  observed  by  the  ancients,  who  gave  it  the  descrip- 
tive name  of  Coelo-Syria,  "  Hollow  Syria."  It  is  absolutely  walled 
in  by  mountains  between  the  Dead  Sea  and  Lebanon,  where  it  is 
from  ten  to  fifteen  miles  wide. 

A  shrinking  of  the  strata  must  have  taken  place  along  this  coast 
of  the  Mediterranean,  from  a  sudden  change  of  temperature  in  the 
earth's  crust,  or  perhaps  in  consequence  of  some  of  the  internal 
props  giving  way,  for  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  is  not  the  only  in- 
stance of  a  depression  of  the  soil  below  the  sea-level:  the  small 
bitter  lakes  on  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  are  cavities  of  the  same  kind, 
as  well  as  the  Natron  lakes  on  the  Libyan  desert,  west  from  the 
delta  of  the  Nile,  and  perhaps  a  part  of  the  date-bearing  district  of 
Beskra  in  the  regency  of  Tunis. 

1  By  the  trigonometrical  measurement  of  Lieutenant  Anthony  Symonds, 
confirmed  by  French  authorities,  and  adopted  by  Baron  Humboldt,  the  de- 
pression of  the  Dead  Sea  is,  as  stated  in  the  text,  1300  feet ;  out  MM. 
Bertou  and  Russiger  made  it  out  to  be  1388  by  the  barometer.  See  Lieut. 
Molyneux's  paper  in  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Geographical  Society,  1848. 
Subsequently  the  American  expedition,  under  Lieut.  Lynch,  found  "  tho 
depression  of  the  Dead  Sea  below  the  Mediterranean  a  little  over  1300 
feet." 

8 


86  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VH. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Africa  —  Table  Land  —  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Eastern  Coast  —  Western 
Coast — Abyssinia  —  Senegambia  —  Low  Lands  and  Deserts. 

THE  continent  of  Africa  is  4330  geographical  miles  long  from 
Cape  Lagullus,  east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  to  Cape  Bianco, 
near  Bizerta,  its  northern  extremity,  and  4000  between  Cape  Guar- 
dafu'i,  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  Cape  Verd,  on  the  Atlantic ;  but 
from  the  irregularity  of  its  figure  it  has  an  area  of  only  12,000,000 
of  square  miles.  It  is  divided  in  two  by  the  equator,  consequently 
the  greater  part  of  it  lies  under  a  tropical  sun.  The  high  and  low 
lands  of  this  portion  of  the  old  continent  are  so  distinctly  separated 
from  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon,  or  rather  of  Komri,  that,  with  the 
exception  of  the  mountainous  territory  of  the  Atlas,  and  the  small 
table-land  of  Barca,  it  may  be  said  to  consist  of  two  parts  only,  a 
high  country  and  a  low. 

An  extensive,  though  not  very  elevated,  table-land  occupies  all 
Southern  Africa,  and  even  reaches  to  six  or  seven  degrees  north  of 
the  equator.  On  three  sides  it  shelves  down  in  tiers  of  narrow 
parallel  terraces  to  the  ocean,  separated  by  mountain-chains  which 
rise  in  height  as  they  recede  from  the  coast ;  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  the  structure  of  the  northern  declivity  is  similar,  though 
its  extremities  only  are  known — namely,  Abyssinia  on  the  east,  and 
the  high  land  of  Senegambia  on  the  west;  both  of  which  project 
farther  to  the  north  than  the  central  part. 

The  borders  of  the  table-land  are  very  little  known  to  Europeans, 
and  still  less  its  surface,  which  no  white  man  has  crossed  north  of 
the  Tropic  of  Capricorn.  A  comparatively  small  part,  north  from 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  has  been  explored  by  European  travellers. 
Mr.  Truter  and  Mr.  Somerville  were  the  first  white  men  whom  the 
inhabitants  of  Litakoo  had  seen.  Of  an  expedition  that  followed 
their  track,  a  few  years  after,  no  one  returned. 

North  of  the  Cape  the  land  rises  to  600  feet  above  the  sea ;  and 
the  Orange  River,  or  Gareep,  with  its  tributaries,  may  be  more  aptly 
said  to  drain  than  to  irrigate  the  arid  country  through  which  they 
flow ;  many  of  the  tributaries,  indeed,  are  only  the  channels  through 
which  torrents,  from  the  periodical  rains,  are  carried  to  the  Orange 
River,  and  are  destitute  of  water  many  months  in  the  year.  The 
"  Dry  River,"  the  name  of  one  of  these  periodical  streams,  is  in  that 
country  no  misnomer.  Their  margins  are  adorned  with  mimosas, 


CHAP.  VII.        SOUTH  AFRICAN   TABLE-LAND.  87 

and  the  sandy  plains  have  furnished  treasures  to  the  botanist ;  zoology 
is  no  less  indebted  to  the  whole  continent  of  Africa  for  the  various 
animals  it  produces. 

Dr.  Smith  crossed  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  in  a  journey  from  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  where  the  country  had  still  the  same  arid  char- 
acter. North  from  that  there  is  a  vast  tract  unexplored.  In  1802 
two  native  travelling  merchants  crossed  the  continent,  which  is  1590 
miles  wide,  from  Loando  on  the  Atlantic  to  Zanzibar  on  the  Mozam- 
bique Channel.  They  found  various  mercantile  nations,  considerably 
advanced  in  civilization,  who  raise  abundance  of  maize  and  millet, 
though  the  greater  part  of  the  country  is  in  a  state  of  nature.  Ridges 
of  low  hills  yielding  copper,  the  staple  commodity  of  this  coun- 
try, run  from  S.  B.  to  N.W.  to  the  west  of  the  dominions  of  the 
Cambeze,  a  country  full  of  rivers,  morasses,  and  extensive  salt 
marshes  which  supply  this  part  of  the  continent  with  salt.  The 
travellers  crossed  102  rivers,  most  of  them  fordable.  The  leading 
feature  of  this  country  is  Lake  N'yassi,  of  great  but  unknown  length, 
and  comparatively  narrow.  It  begins  200  miles  north  from  the  town 
of  Tete,  on  the  Zambeze,  and  extends  from  S.E.  to  N.  W.,  flanked 
on  the  east  by  a  range  of  mountains  of  the  same  name  running  iu 
the  same  direction,  at  the  distance  of  350  miles  from  the  Mozam- 
bique Channel.  This  is  all  we  know  from  actual  observation  of  the 
table-land  of  South  Africa,  till  about  the  8th  northern  parallel  of 
latitude,  where  M.  d'Abbadie's  Abyssinian  journey  terminated.  It 
is  probable,  however,  that  there  can  be  no  very  high  mountains  cov- 
ered with  perpetual  snow  in  the  interior  of  the  table-land,  for,  if 
there  were,  Southern 'Africa  would  not  be  destitute  of  great  rivers; 
nevertheless  the  height  of  the  table-land  on  its  northern  edge  must 
be  considerable  to  supply  the  perennial  sources  of  the  Nile,  the  Sen- 
egal, and  the  Niger. 

The  edges  of  the  table-land  are  better  known.  At  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope  the  African  continent  is  about  700  miles  broad,  and 
ends  in  three  narrow  parallel  ridges  of  mountains,  the  last  of  which 
is  the  highest  and  abuts  on  the  table-land.  All  are  cleft  by  precip- 
itous deep  ravines,  through  which  whiter  torrents  flow  to  the  ocean. 
The  longitudinal  valleys,  or  karroos,  that  separate  them,  are  tiers, 
or  steps,  by  which  the  plateau  dips  to  the  maritime  plains.  The 
descent 'is  rapid,  as  both  these  plains  and  the  mountain  ranges  are 
very  narrow.  On  the  western  side  the  mountains  form  a  high  group 
and  end  in  steep  promontories  on  the  coast,  where  Table  Mountain, 
at  Cape  Town,  3582  feet  high,  forms  a  conspicuous  landmark  for 
mariners. 

Granite,  which  is  the  base  of  Southern  Africa,  rises  to  a  consider- 
able height  in  many  places,  and  is  generally  surmounted  by  vast 
horizontal  beds  of  sandstone,  which  give  that  character  of  flatness 
peculiar  to  the  summits  of  many  of  the  Cape  mountains. 


88  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VII. 

The  karroos  are  arid  deserts  in  the  dry  season,  but  soon  after  the 
rains  they  are  covered  with  verdure  and  a  splendid  flora.  The  mari- 
time plains  partake  of  the  same  temporary  aridity,  though  a  large 
portion  is  rich  in  cereal  productions,  vineyards,  fruits,  and  pasture. 

The  most  inland  of  the  parallel  ranges,  about  the  20th  meridian 
east,  is  10,000  feet  high,  and,  though  it  sinks  to  some  groups  of 
hills  at  its  eastern  extremity,  it  rises  again  about  the  37th  meridian, 
in  a  truly  alpine  and  continuous  chain — the  Quotlamba  mountains, 
which  follow  the  northerly  direction  of  Natal,  and  are  continued  in 
the  Lupata  range  of  hills,  89  miles  inland,  through  Zanguebar. 

At  Natal  the  coast  is  grassy,  with  clumps  of  trees,  like  an  English 
park.  The  Zambeze  and  other  streams  from  the  table-land  refresh 
the  plains  on  the  Mozambique  Channel  and  Zanguebar,  where, 
though  some  parts  are  marshy  and  covered  with  mangroves,  groves 
of  palm-trees  adorn  the  plains,  which  yield  prodigious  quantities  of 
grain,  and  noble  forests  cover  the  mountains  j  bnt  from  4°  N.  lati- 
tude to  Cape  Gruardafui  is  a  continued  desert.  There  is  also  a  bar- 
ren tract  at  the  southern  end  of  the  Lupata  chain,  where  gold  is 
found  in  masses  and  grains  on  the  surface  and  in  the  water-courses, 
which  tempted  the  Portuguese  to  make  settlements  on  these  unwhole- 
some coasts. 

The  island  of  Madagascar,  with -its  magnificent  range  of  moun- 
tains, full  of  tremendous  precipices,  and  covered  with  primeval 
forests,  is  parallel  to  the  African  coast,  and  only  separated  from  it 
by  the  Mozambique  Channel,  300  miles  broad,  so  it  may  be  pre- 
sumed that  it  rose  from  the  deep  at  the  same  time  as  the  Lupata 
chain. 

The  contrast  between  the  eastern  and  western  coasts  of  South  Af- 
rica is  very  great.  The  escarped  bold  mountains  round  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  its  rocky  coast,  which  extends  a  short  way  along 
the  Atlantic  to  the  north,  are  succeeded  by  ranges  of  sandstone  of 
small  elevation,  which  separate  the  internal  sandy 'desert  from  the 
equally  parched  sandy  shore.  The  terraced  dip  of  the  Atlantic  coast 
for  900  miles  between  the  Orange  River  and  Cape  Negro  has  not  a 
drop  of  fresh  water. 

At  Cape  Negro,  ranges  of  mountains  separated  by  long  level 
tracts  begin  and  make  a  semicircular  bend  into  the  interior,  leaving 
plains  along  the  coast  140  miles  broad.  In  Benguela  these  plains 
are  healthy  and  cultivated;  farther  north  there  are  monotonous 
grassy  savannahs,  and  forests  of  gigantic  trees.  The  ground,  in 
many  places  saturated  with  water,  bears  a  tangled  crop  of  mangroves 
and  tall  reeds  which  even  cover  the  shoals  along  the  coast;  hot  pes- 
tilential vapours  hang  over  them,  never  dissipated  by  a  breeze. 

The  country  of  Calbongos  is  the  highest  land  on  the  coast,  where 
a  magnificent  group  of  mountains,  covered  almost  to  their  tops  with 
large  timber,  lie  not  far  inland.  The  low  plains  of  Biafra  and  Be- 


CHAP.  VII.  ABYSSINIA.  89 

nin,  west  of  them,  and  especially  the  delta  of  the  Niger,  consist 
entirely  of  swamps  loaded  with  rank  vegetation. 

The  angel  of  Death  brooding^over  these  regions  in  noisome  ex- 
halations, guards  the  interior  of  that  country  from  the  aggressions 
of  the  European,  and  has  hitherto  baffled  his  attempts  to  form  set- 
tlements on  the  banks  of  this  magnificent  river. 

Many  portions  of  North  Guinea  are  so  fertile  that  they  might  vie 
with  the  valley  of  the  Nile  in  cereal  riches,  besides  various  other 
productions  j  and  though  the  temperature  is  very  high,  the  climate 
is  not  very  unhealthy. 

The  chain  of  mountains  bordering  the  great  African  table-land 
on  the  east,  or  towards  the  Indian  Ocean,  attains  a  great  height 
between  the  third  and  fourth  degrees  of  south  latitude.  It  is  in 
this  space  that,  according  to  M.  Rebman,  the  giant  mountain  of  Af- 
rica, the  snow-capped  Kilimanjaro,  rises  to  an  elevation  of  20,000 
feet  in  3°  40'  south,  in  the  country  of  Mono  Moezi;  it  is  supposed 
by  some  authors  that  the  highest  branch  of  the  Nile  rises  in  this 
remote  part  of  the  continent,  and  as  Moezi  in  the  language  of  the 
country  signifies  Moon,  the  origin  of  the  Nile  in  the  Mountains  of 
the  Moon,  as  described  by  Ptolemy,  would  be  confirmed.  As  to  the 
chain  of  Komri,  made  to  stretch  in  an  equatorial  direction  across 
the  African  continent  from  the  Arabic  Gulf  to  the  Bay  of  Benin 
on  the  Atlantic,  it  has  probably  no  other  existence  than  the  imagina- 
tion of  map-makers,  the  vast  extent  of  country  it  is  made  to  traverse 
being  entirely  unknown  to  modern  geographers  and  travellers. 

The  vast  alpine  promontory  of  Abyssinia  or  Ethiopia,1  700  miles 
wide,  projects  from  the  table-land  for  300  miles  into  the  low  lands 
of  North  Africa.  It  dips  to  a  low  swampy  region  on  the  north,  to 
the  plains  of  Senaar  and  Kordofan  on  the  west,  and  on  the  east  sinks 
abruptly  to  the  coast  at  a  short  distance  from  the  Red  Sea.  It  is 
there  from  8000  to  9000  feet  high  on  the  plateau  of  Tigraj,  but 
declines  to  the  westward,  so  that  in  the  15th  parallel  of  N.  latitude 
the  eastern  slope  of  the  table-land  towards  the  Red  Sea  is  nearly 
twenty  times  greater  than  the  counter-slope  towards  the  Nile ;  the 
edge  of  the  latter,  however,  is  from.  3000  to  4000  feet  above  the 
plains.2  The  character  of  Abyssinia  is  in  that  respect  like  the  Dec- 
can,  or  Southern  India,  where  the  Ghauts  rise  abruptly  near  the 

1  The  name  of  Ethiopia  is  still  used  by  the  Abyssinians,  as  stated  by  M 
A*.  d'Abbadie,  the  talented  traveller,  who  has  resided  so  many  years  among 
them,  as  including  Abyssinia  proper,  the  Bija  country  as  far  as  Sawakin, 
the  Afar  (Aidal  of  our  maps),  the  Somaly,  Gurage,  and  Galla  countries. 
The  word  Abyssinia  is  better  employed  in  the  Arab  sense,  for  those  popu- 
lations, chiefly  Christian,  which  have  lost  all  idea  of  tribe,  according  to  the 
same  traveller. 

"  Estimated  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  the  propjrtion  of  the  two  slopes  of  the 
Abyssinian  table-land  is  as  12.6  to  1. 
8* 


90  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   VET. 

coast  of  Malabar,  and  the  surface  falls  gradually  towards  that  of 
Coromandel.  The  table-land  of  Abyssinia  is  a  succession  of  undu- 
lating plains,  broken  by  higher  insulated  mountain-masses,  which  in 
Sime'n,1  Gojjam,  and  in  Kaffa  more  to  the  south,  attain  an  absolute 
altitude  of  from  11,000  to  13,500  feet.  The  plains  are  intersected 
by  numerous  streams  which* form  the  Nile  and  its  tributaries  on  the 
one  hand,  and  the  Hawash  and  its  affluents,  which  flow  towards  the 
Indian  Ocean,  to  be  lost  in  a  swamp,  on  the  other.  The  edge  of 
the  table-land  towards  the  Nile  is  steep ;  the  streams  run  to  the  low 
lands  through  valleys  from  3000  to  4000  feet  deep,  so  that  a  tra- 
veller in  ascending  them  might  imagine  that  he  is  crossing  a  moun- 
tain range,  whereas,  on  coming  to  the  top,  he  finds  himself  on  a 
high  plain.  This  elevated  country  has  lakes,  swamps,  verdant  mea- 
dows, and  cultivated  land,  producing  various  grains,  and  occasion- 
ally coffee.  The  plain  of  Dambia,  the  granary  of  the  country,  en- 
joys perpetual  spring.  M.  A.  d'Abbadie  and  Dr.  Beke,  to  whom 
we  are  indebted  for  so  much  valuable  information  with  regard  to 
this  part  of  Africa,  travelled  to  within  eight  degrees  of  the  equator, 
and,  from  the  accounts  given  by  them,  the  country  touth  of  Abys- 
sinia appears  to  be  similar  to  those  of  Shoa  and  Gojjam — extensive 
undulating  plains,  with  occasional  mountain-masses,  and  traversed 
by  numerous  streams;  wide  tracts  must  be  7000  or  8000  feet  high, 
as  they  only  produce  barley :  the  country  towards  Kaffa  and  the 
sources  of  the  Gojeb  is.  still  higher,  and  in  some  parts  desert;  but 
the  caravan-road  between  Wallega  and  Kaffa  passes  through  a  vast 
forest  impervious  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  which,  according  to  the  ac- 
counts of  the  merchants,  is  not  seen  for  four  or  five  days  successively; 
and  west  of  the  Did-e'sa  there  are  immense  grassy  plains,  the  ele- 
phant-hunting grounds  of  the  Galla  tribes. 

The  geological  structure  of  Ethiopia  is  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  the  base  being  granite  and  the  super- 
structure sandstone,  occasionally  limestone,  schist,  and  breccia.  The 
granite  comes  to  the  surface  in  the  lower  parts  of  Abyssinia,  but 
sandstone  predominates  in  the  upper  parts  and  assumes  a  tabular 
form,  often  lying  on  the  tops  of  the  mountains  in  enormous  fiat 
masses,  only  accessible  by  steps  cut  in  the  rocks  or  by  ladders :  such 
insulated  spots  are  used  as  state  prisons.  Large  tracts  of  ancient 
volcanic  rocks  occur,  especially  in  Shoa.  Trap  rocks  also  abound  in 
Sime'n.  A  great  part  of  Gojjam  and  Gudru  is  formed  of  prismatic 
basalt  lying  under  red  clay;  it  is  likewise  found  in  Inarya.  Marry 
of  the  hill  forts  in  Abyssinia  are  basaltic. 

Senegambia,  the  appendage  to  the  western  extremity  of  the  table- 
land, also  projects  far  into  the  low  lands,  and  is  the  watershed 

1  The  highest  inhabited  village  visited  by  M.  d'Abbadie  was  that  of  Ar- 
quiaze,  in  the  province  of  Sime'n,  12,450  feet  above  the  sea. 


CHAP.  VII.  AFRICANDESERTS.  91 

whence  the  streams  flow  on  one  side  to  the  plains  of  Soudan,  where 
they  join  the  Joliba  or  Niger;  and  from  the  other  side,  the  Gambia, 
Senegal,  and  other  rivers  run  into  the  Atlantic  over  a  rich  cultivated 
plain,  but  unhealthy  from  the  rankness  of  the  vegetation. 

The  moisture  that  descends  from  the  northern  edge  of  the  table- 
land of  South  Africa,  under  the  fiery  radiance  of  a  tropical  sun,  fer- 
tilizes a  tract  of  country  stretching  from  sea  to  sea  across  the  con- 
tinent, the  commencement  of  the  African  low  lands.  A  great  part 
of  this  region,  which  contains  many  kingdoms  and  commercial  cities, 
is  a  very  productive  country.  The  abundance  of  water,  the  industry 
of  the  natives  in  irrigating  the  ground,  the  periodical  rains,  and  the 
tropical  heat,  leave  the  soil  no  repose.  Agriculture  is  in  a  rude 
state,  but  nature  is  so  bountiful  that  rice  and  millet  are  raised  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  supply  the  wants  of  a  numerous  population. 
Gold  is  found  in  the  river  courses,  and  there  are  elephants  in  the 
forests;  but  man  is  the  staple  of  their  commerce — a  disgrace  to  the 
savage  who  sells  his  fellow-creature,  but  a  far  greater  disgrace  to  the 
more  savage  purchaser  who  dares  to  assume  the  sacred  name  of 
Christian. 

This  long  belt  of  never-failing  vitality,  which  has  its  large  lakes, 
poisonous  swamps,  deep  forests  of  gigantic  trees,  and  vast  solitudes 
in  which  no  white  men  ever  trode,  is  of  small  width  compared  with 
its  length.  In  receding  from  the  mountains,  the  moisture  becomes 
less  and  the  soil  gradually  worse,  sufficing  only  to  produce  grass  for 
the  flocks  of  the  wandering  Bedouin.  At  last  a  hideous  barren 
waste  begins,  which  extends  northwards  800  miles  in  unvaried  deso- 
lation to  the  grassy  steppes  at  the  foot  of  the  Atlas ;  and  for  1000 
miles  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Red  Sea  the  nakedness  of  this 
blighted  land  is  unbroken  but  by  the  valley  of  the  Nile  and  a  few  oases. 

In  the  west  about  760,000  miles,  an  area  equal  to  that  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  and,  in  some  parts,  of  a  lower  level,  is  covered 
by  the  trackless  sands  of  the  Sahara  desert,  which  is  even  prolonged 
for  miles  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  the  form  of  sand-banks.  The 
desert  is  alternately  scorched  by  heat  and  pinched  by  cold.  The 
wind  blows  from  the  east  nine  months  in  the  year;  and  at  <be  equi- 
noxes it  rushes  in  a  hurricane,  driving  the  sand  in  clouds  before  it, 
producing  the  darkness  of  night  at  midday,  and  overwhelming  cara- 
vans of  men  and  animals  in  common  destruction.  Then  the  sand 
is  heaped  up  in  waves  ever  varying  with  the  blast ;  even  the  atmo- 
sphere is  sand.  The  desolation  of  this  dreary  waste,  boundless  to 
the  eye  as  the  ocean,  is  terrific  and  sublime ;  the  dry  heated  air  is 
like  a  red  vapour,  the  setting  sun  seems  to  be  a  volcanic  fire,  and'at 
times  the  burning  wind  of  the  desert  is  the  blast  of  death.  There 
are  many  salt  lakes  to  the  north,  and  even  the  springs  are  of  brino , 
thick  incrustations  of  dazzling  salt  cover  the  ground,  and  the  par- 
ticles, carried  aloft  by  whirlwinds,  flash  in  the  sun  like  diamonds. 


92  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VII. 

Sand  is  not  the  only  character  of  the  desert ;  tracts  of  gravel  and 
low  bare  rocks  occur  at  times,  not  less  barren  and  dreary ;  but  on 
the  eastern  and  northern  borders  of  the  Sahara  fresh  water  rises 
near  the  surface,  and  produces  an  occasional  oasis  where  barrenness 
and  vitality  .meet.  The  oases  are  generally  depressed  below  the  level 
of  the  desert,  with  an  arenaceous  or  calcareous  border  enclosing  their 
emerald  verdure  like  a  frame.  The  smaller  oases  produce  herbage, 
ferns,  acacias,  and  some  shrubs ;  forests  of  date-palms  grow  in  the 
larger,  which  are  the  resort  of  lions,  panthers,  gazelles,  reptiles,  and 
a  variety  of  birds. 

In  the  Nubian  and  Libyan  deserts,  to  the  east  of  the  Sahara,  the 
continent  shelves  down  towards  the  Mediterranean  in  a  series  of  ter- 
races, consisting  of  vast  level  sandy  or  gravelly  deserts,  lying  east 
and  west,  separated  by  low  rocky  ridges.  Thjs  shelving  country, 
which  is  only  540  feet  above  the  sea  at  the  distance  of  750  miles 
inland,  is  cut  transversely  by  the  Nile,  and  by  a  deep  furrow  parallel 
to  it,  in  which  there  is  a  long  line  of  oases.  This  furrow,  the  Nile, 
and  the  Red  Sea,  nearly  parallel  to  both,  are  flanked  by  rocky  emi- 
nences which  run  north  from  the  table-land. 

On  the  interminable  sands  and  rocks  of  these  deserts  no  animal 
— no  insect — breaks  the  dread  silence ;  not  a  tree  nor  a  shrub  is  to 
be  seen  in  this  land  without  a  shadow.  In  the  glare  of  noon  the 
air  quivers  with  the  heat  reflected  from  the  red  sand,  and  in  the 
night  it  is  chilled  under  a  clear  sky  sparkling  with  its  host  of  stars. 
Strangely  but  beautifully  contrasted  with  these  scorched  solitudes  is 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Nile,  threading  the  desert  for  1000  miles 
in  emerald  green,  with  its  blue  waters  foaming  with  rapids  among 
wild  rocks,  or  quietly  spreading  in  a  calm  stream  amidst  fields  of 
corn  and  the  august  monuments  of  past  ages. 

At  the  distance  of  a  few  days'  journey  west  from  the  Nile,  over 
a  hideous  flinty  plain,  lies  the  furrow  already  mentioned,  trending 
to  the  north,  and  containing  the  oases  of  Darfour,  Selime,  the  Great 
and  Little  Oases,  and  the  parallel  valleys  of  the  Natron  Lakes,  and 
Bahr-Belama  or  the  "  Dry  River."  The  Great  Oasis,  or  Oasis  of 
Thebes,  is  120  miles  long  and  4  or  5  broad ;  the  lesser  Oasis,  sepa- 
rated from  it  by  40  miles  of  desert,  is  of  the  same  form.  Both  are 
rich  in  verdure  and  cultivation,  with  villages  amid  palm-groves  and 
date-plantations,  mixed  with  the  ruins  of  remote  antiquity,  offering 
scenes  of  peaceful  and  soft  beauty  contrasted  with  the  surrounding 
gloom.  The  Natron  Lakes  are  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Valley 
of  Nitrun,  35  miles  west  of  the  Nile ;  the  southern  part  is  a  beau- 
tiful quiet  spot,  that  became  the  retreat  of  Christian  monks  in  tho 
middle  of  the  second  century,  and  at  one  time  contained  360  con- 
vents, of  which  4  only  remain ;  from  these  some  very  valuable  man- 
uscripts of  old  date  have  recently  been  obtained. 

Another  line  of  oases  runs  along  the  latitude  of  Cairo,  with  fresh- 


CHAP.  VIT.  AFRICANDESERTS.  93 

water  lakes — consequently  no  less  fertile  than  the  preceding.  The 
ruins  of  the  Temple  of  Jupiter  Amnion  arc  in  one  of  them. 

Hundreds  of  miles  on  the  northern  edge  of  the  desert,  from  the 
Atlantic  along  the  southern  foot  of  the  Atlas  to  the  Great  Syrtis, 
are  pasture-lands  without  a  tree  —  an  ocean  of  verdure.  At  the 
Great  Syrtis  the  Sahara  comes  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean ; 
and,  indeed,  for  1100  miles  between  the  termination  of  the  Atlas 
and  the  little  table-land  of  Barca,  the  ground  is  so  unprofitable  that 
the  population  only  amounts  to  about  30,000,  and  these  are  mostly 
wandering  tribes  who  feed  their  flocks  on  the  grassy  steppes.  Mag- 
nificent countries  lie  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  north  of  the 
Atlas,  susceptible  of  cultivation.  History,  and  the  ruins  of  many 
great  cities,  attest  their  former  splendour ;  even  now  there  are  many 
populous  commercial  cities,  and  much  grain  is  raised,  though  a  great 
part  of  these  valuable  kingdoms  is  badly  cultivated  or  not  cultivated 
at  all. 

The  base  of  the  sandy  parts  of  North  Africa  is  stiff  clay;  in 
Lower  Nubia,  between  the  parallels  of  Assouan  and  Esneh,  red  and 
white  granite  prevail,  followed  by  argillaceous  sandstone;  Middle 
Egypt  is  calcareous;  and  lower  down  the  alluvium  of  the  Nile 
covers  the  surface. 

It  would  appear  that  Southern  Africa,  though  similar  in  its  un- 
broken surface  and  peninsular  shape  to  South  America,  bears  no 
resemblance  to  it  in  other  respects,  but  has  a  great  analogy  to  the 
Deccan  in  its  triangular  form,  its  elevated  platform,  and  in  the  posi- 
tion of  its  encompassing  mountain-chains,  if,  as  there  is  reason  to 
believe,  from  the  fertile  region  to  the  north,  either  that  South  Africa 
descends  in  a  succession  of  terraces  to  the  low  lands,  or  that  the 
Komri  mountains  have  a  real  existence,  and  run  directly  across  the 
continent.  From  the  connexion  already  mentioned  between  external 
appearance  and  internal  structure,  as  well  as  from  partial  informa- 
tion, it  is  surmised  that  the  mountains  surrounding  the  two  triangles 
in  question  are  of  corresponding  constitution ;  that,  if  any  secondary 
strata  do  exist  in  this  part  of  Africa,  they  must  be  exterior  to  these 
chains,  and  neither  on  the  summits  of  the  high  mountains  nor  in 
the  interior ;  and  that  any  tertiary  strata  on  the  table-land  must,  as 
in  the  Deccan,  hare  been  formed  in  the  basins  of  fresh-water 
lakes.1 

The  prodigious  extent  of  desert  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary 
circumstances  in  the  structure  of  the  old  continent.  A  zone  of 
almost  irretrievable  desolation  prevails  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
across  Africa  and  through  Central  Asia  almost  to  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
at  least  120  degrees  of  longitude.  There  are  also  many  long  dis- 
tricts of  the  sju^p  sterile  nature  in  Europe ;  and  if  to  these  sandy 

1  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas. 


94  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VIII. 

plains  the  deserts  of  Siberia  be  added,  together  with  all  the  barren 
and  rocky  mountain  tracts,  the  unproductive  land  in  the  Old  World 
is  prodigious.  The  quantity  of  salt  on  the  sandy  plains  is  enor- 
mous, and  proves  that  they  have  been  part  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
or  of  inland  seas  at  no  very  remote  geological  period.  The  low 
lands  round  the  Black  Sea  and  Caspian,  and  the  Lake  of  Aral,  seem 
to  have  been  the  most  recently  reclaimed,  from  the  great  proportion 
of  shells  in  them  identical  with  those  now  existing  in  these  seas. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  the  Sahara  desert,  where  salt  and  recent 
shells  are  plentiful. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

American  Continent — The  Mountains  of  South  America — The  Andes — The 
Mountains  of  the  Parima  and  Brazil. 

SOME  thinner  portion  of  the  crust  of  the  globe  under  the  meri- 
dians that  traverse  the  continent  of  America  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean  must  have  yielded  to  the  expansive  forces  of  the  sub- 
terranean fires,  or  been  rent  by  contraction  of  the  strata  in  cooling. 
Through  this  the  Andes  had  arisen,  producing  the  greatest  influence 
on  the  form  of  the  continent,  and  the  peculiar  simplicity  that  pre- 
vails in  its  principal  mountain  systems,  which,  with  very  few  excep- 
tions, have  a  general  tendency  from  north  to  south.  The  continent 
is  9000  miles  long,  and,  its  form  being  two  great  peninsulas  joined 
by  a  long  narrow  isthmus,  it  is  divided  by  nature  into  three  parts, 
of  South,  Central,  arid  North  America;  yet  these  three  are  con- 
nected by  the  mighty  chaift  of  the  Andes,  but  little  inferior  in  height 
to  the  Himalaya,  running  along  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  from  within 
the  Arctic  nearly  to  the  Antarctic  circle.  In  this  course  every 
variety  of  clime  is  to  be  met  with,  from  the  rigour  of  polar  conge- 
lation to  the  scorching  heat  of  the  torrid  zone ;  while  the  mountains 
are  so  high  that  the  same  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  may  be  expe- 
rienced in  the  journey  of  a  few  hours .:from  the  burning  plains  of 
Peru  to  the  snow-clad  peaks  above.  In  this  long  chain  there  are 
three  distinct  varieties  of  character,  nearly,  though  not  entirely,  cor- 
responding to  the  three  natural  divisions  of  the  continent.  The 
Andes  of  South  America  differ  materially  from  those  of  Central 
America  and  Mexico,  while  both  are  dissimilar  to  the  North  Ameri- 
can prolongation  of  the  chain,  generally  known  as  the  Chippewayan 
or  Rocky  Mountains. 

The  greatest  length  of  South  America  from  Cape  Horn  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  is  about  4020  geographical  miles.  It  is  very 


CHAP.  VIII.  THEANDES.  95 

narrow  at  its  southern  extremity,  but  increases  in  width  northwards 
to  the  latitude  of  Cape  Roque  on  the  Atlantic,  between  which  and 
Cape  Blanco  on  the  Pacific  it  attains  its  greatest  breadth  of  nearly 
2750  miles.  It  consists  of  three  mountain  systems,  separated  by 
the  basins  of  the  three  greatest  rivers  in  the  world.  The  Andes 
run  along  the  western  coast  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  in  a  single  chain  of  no  inconsiderable  width  but  majestic 
height,  dipping  rapidly  to  the  narrow  maritime  plains  of  the  Pacific, 
but  descending  on  the  east  in  high  valleys  and  occasional  offsets  to 
plains  of  vast  extent,  whose  dead  level  is  for  hundreds  of  miles  as 
unbroken  as  that  of  the  ocean  by  which  they  are  bounded.  Never- 
theless two  detached  mountain  systems  rise  on  these  plains,  one  in 
Brazil  between  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and  the  river  of  the  Amazons ; 
the  other  is  that  of  Parima  and  Guiana,  lying  between  the  river  of 
the  Amazons  and  the  Orinoco. 

The  great  chain  of  the  Andes  first  raises  its  crest  above  the  waves 
of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  in  the  majestic  dark  mass  of  Cape  Horn,  the 
southernmost  point  of  the  archipelago  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  This 
group  of  mountainous  islands,  equal  in  size  to  Britain,  is  cut  off  from 
the  main  land/  by  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  The  islands  are  pene- 
trated in  every  direction  by  bays  and  narrow  inlets  of  the  sea,  or 
fiords,  ending  often  in  glaciers  fed  by  the  snow  on  the  summits  of 
mountains  6000  feet  high.  Peat-mosses  cover  the  higher  declivities 
of  these  mountains,  and  their  flanks  are  beset  with  densely  entangled 
forests  of  brown  beech,  which  never  lose  their  dusky  leaves,  pro- 
ducing altogether  a  savage,  dismal  scene.  The  mountains  which 
occupy  the  western  side  of  this  cluster  of  islands  sink  down  to  wide 
level  plains  to  the  east,  like  the  continent  itself,  of  which  the  archi- 
pelago is  but  the  southern  extremity.1 

The  Pacific  washes  the  very  base  of  the  Patagonian  Andes  for 
about  1000  miles,  from  Cape  Horn  to  the  40th  parallel  of  south 
latitude.  The  whole  coast  is  lined  by  a  succession  of  archipelagoes 
and  islands,  separated  from  the  iron-bound  shores  by  narrow  arms 
of  the  sea,  which,  in  the  more  southern  part,  are  in  fact  profound 
longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Andes  filled  by  the  ocean,  so  that  the 
chain  of  islands  running  parallel  to  the  axes  of  the  mountains  is  but 
the  summits  of  an  exterior  range  rising  above  the  sea. 

The  coast  itself  for  650  miles  is  begirt  by  walls  of  rock,  which 
sink  into  unfathomable  depths,  torn  by  long  crevices  or  fiords,  simi- 
lar to  those  on  the  Norwegian  shore,  ending  in  tremendous  glaciers, 
whose  masses,  falling  with  a  crash  like  thunder,  drive  the  sea  in 

1  The  Voyages  of  Captains  King  and  Fitzroy,  R.N.,  Mr.  Darwin's  'Jour- 
nal of  a  Naturalist,'  Dr.  Poeppig's  '  Travels  in  South  America,'  are  the  au- 
thorities for  the  account  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  Patagonia,  and  Chile ;  Baron 
Humboldt,  Mr.  Pentland,  Drs.  Poeppig  and  Meyer  of  Berlin,  for  Peru  and 
the  Andean  Chain  to  the  Isthmus  of  Panam&. 


96  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  Yin. 

sweeping  breakers  through  these  chasms.  The  islands  and  the  main- 
land are  thickly  clothed  with  forests,  which  are  of  a  less  sombre 
aspect  as  the  latitude  decreases. 

Between  the  Pass  of  Chacabuco  north  of  Santiago,  the  capital  of 
Chile,  and  the  archipelago  of  Chiloe,  a  chain  of  hills,  composed  in 
general  of  crystalline  rocks,  borders  the  coast ;  between  which  and 
the  Andes  exists  a  longitudinal  valley,  well  watered  by  the  rivers 
descending  from  the  central  chain,  and  which  constitutes  the  most 
fertile  portion,  nay  the  garden  of  the  Chilian  republic  —  the  rich 
provinces  of  Santiago,  Talca,  Cauquenes,  and  Concepcion.  This 
longitudinal  depression  may  be  considered  as  a  prolongation  of  the 
strait  that  separates  Chiloe  from  the  mainland.  Many  peaks  of  the 
Andes  enter  within  the  limits  of  perpetual  snow,  between  the  40th 
and  31st  parallels;  some  of  which  are  active  volcanoes.  In  lat. 
32°  39'  rises  the  giant  of  the  American  Andes,  the  Nevado  of  Acon- 
cagua, which  towers  over  the  Chilian  village  of  the  same  name,  and 
is  so  clearly  visible  from  Valparaiso.  Although  designated  as  a  vol- 
cano, a  term  generally  applied  in  Chile  to  every  elevated  and  snowy 
peak,  it  offers  no  trace  of  modern  igneous  origin.  It  appears  to  be 
composed  of  a  species  of  porphyry  generally  found  in  the  centre  of 
the  Chilian  chain.  Its  height,  according  to  Captain  Beechey's  very 
accurate  observations,  exceeds  23,910  feet.1 

About  the  latitude  of  Concepcion  the  dense  forests  of  Araucarias 
and  of  other  semi-tropical  plants  cease  with  the  humid  equable  cli- 
mate ;  and  as  no  rain  falls  in  central  Chile  for  nine  months  in  the 
.year,  the  brown,  purple,  and  tile-red  hills  and  mountains  are  only 
dotted  here  and  there  with  low  trees  and  bushes ;  very  soon,  how- 
ever, after  the  heavy  showers  have  moistened  the  cracked  ground,  it 
is  covered  with  a  beautiful  but  transient  flora.  In  some  valleys  it 
is  more  permanent  and  of  a  tropical  character,  mixed  with  alpine 
plants.2  In  Northern  Chile  rain  falls  only  once  in  two  or  three 
years,  the  consequence  of  which  is  sterility  on  the  western  precipi- 
tous and  unbroken  descent  of  the  Andes;  but  on  the  east,  two 
secondary  branches  leave  the  central  Cordillera,  which  extend  300 
or  400  miles  into  the  plains,  wooded  to  a  great  height.  The  Sierra 
de  Cordova,  the  most  southern  of  these,  begins  between  the  33d  and 
31st  parallels,  and  extends  in  the  direction  of  the  Pampas;  more  to 
the  north,  Sierra  di  Salti  and  Jujuy  stretches  from  the  valley  of 
Catamarca  and  Tucuman  towards  the  Ilio  Vermejo,  one  of  the  tribu- 
taries of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata. 

The  chain  takes  the  name  of  the  Peruvian  Andes  about  the  24th 
degree  of  south  latitude,  and  is  separated  from  the  Pacific  by  a  range 

1  This  great  height  has  been  deduced,  adopting  the  position  of  the  Peak 
as  fixed  by  Captain  Fitz  Roy,  and  employing  the  angles  of  elevation  observed 
near  Valparaiso  by  Captain  Beechey. 

1  Dr.  Poeppig's  Travels. 


CHAP.  VIII.          0  THE    ANDES.  U7 

of  hills  composed  of  crystalline  rocks,  parallel  to  the  sea  coast,  and 
by  an  intervening  sandy  desert,  seldom  above  60  miles  broad,  on 
which  rain  scarcely  ever  falls,  where  bare  rocks  pierce  through  the 
moving  sand.  The  width  of  the  coast  is  nearly  the  same  to  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama,  but  damp  luxuriant  forests,  full  of  orchideae, 
begin  about  the  latitude  of  Payta,  and  continue  northwards  through 
the  provinces  of  Guayaquil,  Las  Esmeraldas,  and  Darien. 

From  its  southern  extremity  to  the  Nevado  of  Chorolque,  in  21° 
30'  S.  lat.,  the  Andes  are  merely  one  grand  and  continuous  range 
of  mountains ;  but  north  of  that  the  chain  divides  into  longitudinal 
ridges,  which  enclose  a  series  of  valleys  or  table-lands,  forming  so 
many  basins,  enclosed  at  various  points  by  transverse  groups  or 
mountain-knots,  or  by  single  ranges  crossing  between  them  like 
dykes,  a  structure  that  prevails  to  Pasto,  1°  13'  6"  N.  lat. 

Unlike  the  table-lands  of  Asia  of  the  same  elevation,  where  cul- 
tivation is  confined  to  the  more  sheltered  spots,  or  those  still  lower 
in  Europe,  which  are  only  fit  for  pasture,  these  lofty  regions  of  the 
Andes  yield  exuberant  crops  of  every  European  grain,  and  have  many 
populous  cities  enjoying  the  luxuries  of  life,  with  universities,  libra- 
ries, civil  and  religious  establishments,  at  altitudes  equal  to  that  of 
the  Peak  of  Teneriffe,  which  is  12,170  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Villages  are  placed  and  mines  are  worked  at  heights  as  great  or  even 
greater  than  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc.1  This  state  is  not  limited  to  the 
present  times,  since  these  table-lands  were  made  the  centre  of  civili- 
zation by  a  race  of  mankind  which  u  bear  the  same  relation  to  the 
Incas  and  the  present  inhabitants  that  the  Etruscans  bear  to  the 
ancient  Romans  and  to  the  Italians  of  our  own  days.5' 

The  table-land  or  valley  of  Desaguadero,  one  of  the  most  remarkable 
of  these,  has  an  absolute  altitude  of  12,900  feet,  and  a  breadth  vary- 
ing from  30  to  60  miles :  it  stretches  400  miles  between  the  two 
parallel  chains  of  the  Andes,  and  between  the  transverse  mountain- 
groups  of  Lipez,  in  20°  S.  lat.,  and  the  great  mountain  knot  of 
Vilcanota,  which,  extending  from  east  to  west,  shuts  in  the  valley 
on  the  north-west,  and  occupies  an  area  three  times  as  large  as 
Switzerland,  some  of  the  snowy  peaks  rising  8300  feet  above  the 
surface  of  the  table-land,  from  which  an  idea  may  be  formed  of 
the  gigantic  scale  of  the  Andes.  This  table-land  or  valley  is 
bounded  on  each  side  by  the  two  grand  chains  of  the  Bolivian 
Andes :  that  on  the  west  is  the  Cordillera  of  the  coast ;  the  range 
on  the  east  is  the  Bolivian  Cordillera,  properly  speaking;  and  on 
its  north-west  prolongation  the  Cordillera  Real.2  These  two  rows 
of  mountains  lie  so  near  to  each  other  that  the  whole  breadth  of  the 

1  The  celebrated  silver-mines  of  Potosi  were,  until  the  last  fifty  years, 
worked  to  the  very  summit  of  that  metalliferous  mountain,  16,150  feet 
above  the  sea-level. 

a  Baron  Uumboldt  and  Mr.  Pentland. 
9 


98  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.*          CHAP.  VIII. 

table-land,  including  both,  is  only  226  miles.  All  the  snowy  peaks 
of  the  Cordilleras  of  the  coast  are  either  active  volcanoes  or  of  ig- 
neous origin,  and  are  all  situate  near  the  maritime  declivity  of  the 
chain;  consequently,  the  descent  to  the  shores  of  the  Pacific  is 
every  where  very  abrupt.  The  eastern  Cordillera,  which  begins 
near  the  metalliferous  mountain  of  Potosi,  is  below  the  level  of  per- 
petual snow  to  the  south,  but  its  northern  portion  contains  the  three 
peaked  mountains  of  Ancohuma  or  Nevado  of  Sorata,  of  Supaiwasi, 
and  Illimani,  and  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  portions  of  the 
Andes.1  The  snowy  part  begins  with  the  gigantic  mass  of  Illimani, 
whose  serrated  ridges  are  elongated  in  the  direction  of  the  axis  of 
the  chain.  The  lowest  glacier  on  its  southern  slope  does  not  descend 
below  16,500  feet,  and  the  valley  of  Tortoral,  a  mere  gulf  in  which 
Vesuvius  might  stand,  comes  between  Illimani  and  the  Nevado  of 
La  Mesada,  from  whence  the  eastern  Cordillera  runs  to  the  north- 
west in  a  continuous  line  of  snow-clad  peaks  to  the  group  of  Vilca- 
nota,  where  it  unites  with  the  Western  Cordillera. 

The  valley  of  the  Desaguadero,  occupying  150,000  square  miles, 
has  a  considerable  variety  of  surface  ;  in  the  south,  throughout  the 
mining  districts,  it  is  poor  and  cold.  Potosi,  the  highest  city  in  the 
world,  stands  at  an  absolute  elevation  of  13,330  feet,  at  the  foot  of 
a  mountain  celebrated  for  its  silver-mines.  Chiquisaca,  the  capital 
of  Bolivia,  containing  13,000  inhabitants,  lies  to  the  north-east  of 
Potosi,  in  the  midst  of  cultivated  fields.  The  northern  part  of  the 
valley  is  populous,  and  produces  wheat,  barley,  and  other  grain ;  and 
the  Lake  of  Titicaca,  twenty  times  as  large  as  the  Lake  of  Geneva, 
fills  the  north-western  portion  of  this  great  basin.  The  islands  and 
shores  of  this  lake  still  exhibit  ruins  of  gigantic  magnitude,  monu- 
ments of  a  people  more  ancient  than  the  Incas.  The  modern  city 
of  La  Paz  with  40,000  inhabitants,  a  few  leagues  from  its  southern 
shores,  stands  in  the  most  sublime  situation  that  can  be  imagined, 
having  in  full  view  the  vast  Nevado  of  Illimani  to  the  east-south- 
east, at  a  distance  of  seven  leagues. 

Many  offsets  leave  the  eastern  side  of  the  Bolivian  Cordillera, 
which  terminates  in  the  great  plain  of  Chiquitos  and  Paraguay ;  the 
most  important  is  the  Cordillera  of  Yuracaraes,  which  bounds  the 
rich  valley  of  Cochabamba  on  the  north,  and  ends  near  the  town  of 
Santa  Cruz  de  la  Sierra. 

There  are  some  fertile  valleys  in  the  snow-capped  group  of  Vil- 
canota  and  Cusco.  The  city  of  Cusco,  which  contains  nearly  50,000 
inhabitants,  was  the  capital  of  the  empire  of  the  Incas :  it  still  con- 
tains' numerous  ruins  of  that  dynasty,  among  which  the  remains  of 

1  The  breadth  of  the  table-land,  and  the  two  Cordilleras  of  the  Bolivian 
Andes  given  in  the  text,  was  measured  by  Mr.  Pentland ;  he  also  deter- 
mined the  heights  of  Illimani  to  be  21,150  feet;  of  Supaiwasi,  or  Huayna 
Potosi,  20,260  feet ;  and  of  Ancohuma  or  the  Nevado  of  Sorata,  21,290 
feet. 


CHAP.  VIII.  +•*  T II E    A  N  D  E  8 .  99 

the  Temple  of  the  Sun,  and  the  Cyclopean  Fortress  that  towers  over 
it  on  the  north,  still  mark  its  former  splendour.  Four  ancient  Pe- 
ruvian roads  led  from  Cusco  to  the  different  parts  of  the  empire, 
little  inferior  in  many  respects  to  the  old  Roman  ways :  all  crossing 
mountain-passes  higher  than  the  Peak  of  Tenerifle.  On  the  north- 
ern prolongation  of  the  chain,  in  lat.  11°  S.,  encircled  by  the  An- 
des, is  the  elevated  plain  of  Bonbon,  near  to  the  celebrated  silver- 
mines  of  Pasco,  at  a  height  of  14,000  feet  above  the  sea.  In  it  is 
situated  the  Lake  of  Lauricocha,  which  may  be  considered,  from 
its  remoteness,  as  one  of  the  sources  of  the  Amazon.  There  are 
many  small  lakes  on  the  table-lands  and  high  valleys  of  the  Andes, 
some  even  within  the  range  of  perpetual  snow.  They  are  very  cold 
and  deep,  often  of  the  purest  sea-green  colour;  some  of  them  may 
have  been  craters  of  extinct  volcanoes. 

The  chain  of  the  Andes  is  divided  into  three  ranges  of  mountains 
running  from  south  to  north  in  the  transverse  group  or  mountain- 
knot  of  Pasco  and  Huanuco,  which  shuts  in  the  valley  of  Bonbon 
between  the  llth  and  10th  parallels  of  south  latitude  :  that  in  the 
centre  separates  the  wide  fertile  valley  of  the  Upper  Maranon  from 
the  still  richer  valley  of  the  Huallaga,  whilst  the  more  eastern  forms 
the  barrier  between  the  latter  and  the  tropical  valley  of  the  Yuca- 
yali.  The  western  chain  alone  reaches  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow, 
and,  if  we  except  the  Nevado  of  Huaylillas,  in  7°  50',  no  mountain 
north  of  this  for  nearly  400  miles  to  the  Andes  of  Quito  arrives  at 
the  snow-line. 

In  lat.  4°  50'  S.  the  Andes  form  the  mountain-knot  of  Loxa,  once 
celebrated  for  its  forests,  in  which  the  Cinchona  or  Peruvian  bark 
was  first  discovered.  From  this  knot  the  chain  divides  into  two 
great  longitudinal  ridges  or  cordilleras,  in  an  extent  of  350  miles 
passing  through  the  republic  of  the  Equator  to  the  mountain- group 
of  Los  Pastes  in  that  of  New  Grenada.  These  ridges  enclose  a 
vast  longitudinal  valley,  which,  divided  by  the  cross  ridges  of  As- 
suay,  and  Chisinche,  into  three  basins,  form  the  valleys  of  Cuenca, 
La  Tapia,  and  Quito.  The  plain  of  Cuenca  offers  little  interest; 
that  of  La  Tapia  is  magnificent;  whilst  the  valley  of  Quito  is  one 
of  extraordinary  beauty  :  on  either  side  rise  a  series  of  snow-capped 
peaks,  celebrated  in  every  way  in  the  history  of  science,  as  the 
valley  itself  is  in  that  of  the  aboriginal  races  of  the  New  World 
Here  the  energies  of  volcanic  action  have  been  studied  with  the 
greatest  advantage ;  here,  more  than  one  hundred  years  ago,  took 
place  that  measurement  of  an  arc  of  the  meridian  which  afforded 
the  most  accurate  data  at  the  time  towards  the  determination  of  the 
mass  and  form  of  our  planet,  and  which  has  conferred  eternal  honour 
on  the  body  with  which  it  originated,  the  French  Academy  of  Sci- 
ences; and  celebrity  on  the  names  of  Bouguier,  La  Condamine, 


100 


PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VIII. 


Juan,  Ulloa,  and  Godin,  who  conducted  it  on  the  part  of  the  crowns 
of  France  and  of  Spain. 

The  Cordillera  or  ridge  which  hems  in  the  valley  of  Quito  on  the 
east  contains  the  snow-capped  peaks  of  Antisana,  Cotopaxi,  one  of 
the  most  beautiful  of  active  volcanoes,  whose  dazzling  cone  rises  to 
a  height  of  18,775  feet,  of  Tungaragua,  and  el-Altar,  the  latter 
once  equal  to  Chimborazo  in  height,  and  Sangay.  The  western 
range  includes  the  gigantic  Chimborazo,  which  may  be  seen  from 
the  coast  of  the  Pacific,  the  pyramidal  peak  of  Illinissa,  the  wreck 
of  an  ancient  volcano.  The  height  of  Illinissa  was  measured  by 
the  French  Academicians,  by  a  very  careful  direct  operation — above 
the  level  of  the  ocean,  the  latter  being  visible  from  it;  and  by  its 
means  the  absolute  elevation  of  the  valley  of  Quito,  and  of  the 
other  peaks  that  encircle  it,  was  deduced,  as  well  as  the  first  approx- 
imate value  of  the  barometrical  coefficient.  North  of  Chimborazo 
and  near  it  is  the  Carguairazo,  and  close  to  the  city  of  Quito  rises 
the  scarcely  less  celebrated  volcano  of  Pichincha,  whilst  the  Nevado 
of  Cayambe,  whose  summit,  elevated  19,535  feet,  is  traversed  by 
the  terrestrial  equator,  perhaps  the  greatest  and  most  remarkable 
landmark  on  the  earth's  surface,  closes  the  north-east  extremity  of 
the  valley. 

The  valley  of  Quito,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  Andes,  is  200  miles 
long  and  30  wide,  with  a  mean  altitude  of  10,000  feet,  bounded  by 
the  most  magnificent  series  of  volcanoes  and  mountains  in  the  New 
World.  A  peculiar  interest  is  attached  to  two  of  the  many  vol- 
canoes in  the  parallel  Cordilleras  that  flank  it  on  each  side.  The 
beautiful  snow-clad  cone  of  Cayambe  Urcu,  as  already  stated,  tra- 
versed by  the  equator,  the  most  remarkable  division  of  the  globe, 
closes  it  on  the  north ;  and  in  the  western  cordillera  the  cross  still 
stands  on  the  summit  of  Pichincha,  15,924  feet  above  the  Pacific, 
which  served  for  a  signal  to  Bouguier  and  La  Condamine  in  their 
memorable  measurement  of  the  Equatorial-arc  of  the  meridian.1 

Some  parts  of  the  plain  of  Quito  to  the  south  are  sterile,  but  the 
soil  generally  is  good,  and  perpetual  spring  clothes  it  with  exuberant 
vegetation.  The  city  of  Quito,  containing  70,000  inhabitants,  on 
the  side  of  Pichincha  has  an  absolute  height  of  9540  feet.  The 
city  is  well  built  and  handsome ;  the  churches  are  splendid ;  it  pos- 
sesses universities,  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life,  in  a 
situation  of  unrivalled  grandeur  and  beauty.  Thus,  on  the  very 
summit  of  the  Andes  there  is  a  world  by  itself,  with  its  mountains 
and  its  valleys,  its  lakes  and  rivers,  populous  towns  and  cultivated 
fields.  Many  monuments  of  the  Incas  are  still  found  in  good  pre- 
servation in  these  plains,  where  the  scenery  is  most  noble — eleven 

1  Baron  Humboldt 


CHAP.  VIII.  THE    AND  E  S .  101 

volcanic  cones  are  visible  from  one  spot.  Although  the  Andes  are 
inferior  in  height  to  the  Himalaya,  yet  the  domes  of  trachyte,  the 
truncated  cones  of  the  active  volcanoes,  and  the  serrated  ruins  of  those 
that  are  extinct,  mixed  with  the  bold  features  of  primary  mountains, 
give  an  infinitely  greater  variety  to  the  scene,  while  the  smoke,  and 
very  often  the  flame,  issuing  from  these  regions  of  perpetual  snow, 
increase  its  sublimity.  Stupendous  as  these  mountains  appear  even 
when  viewed  from  the  plains  of  the  table-land,  they  are  merely  the 
inequalities  of  the  tops  of  the  Andes,  the  serrated  summit  of  that 
mighty  chain. 

Between  the  large  group  of  Los  Pastes,  containing  several  active 
volcanoes,  and  the  group  of  Las  Papas,  in  the  second  degree  of  north 
latitude,  the  bottom  of  the  valley  is  only  6920  feet  above  the  sea; 
and  north  of  the  latter  mountain-knot  the  crest  of  the  Andes  splits 
into  three  Cordilleras,  which  diverge  not  again  to  unite.  The  most 
westerly  of  these,  the  chain  of  Choco,  which  may  be  considered  the 
continuation  of  the  great  chain,  divides  the  valley  of  the  river  Cauca 
from  the  Pacific ;  it  is  only  5000  feet  high,  and  the  lowest  of  the 
three.  Though  but  20  miles  broad,  it  is  so  steep  and  so  diflicult  of 
access,  that  travellers  cannot  cross  it  on  mules,  but  are  carried  on 
men's  shoulders  :  it  is  rich  in  gold  and  platina.  The  central 
branch,  or  Cordillera  of  Quindiii,  runs  due  north  between  the  Mag- 
dalena  and  Cauca,  rising  to  a  great  height  in  the  volcanic  Peak  of 
Tolima.  The  two  last  chains  are  united  by  the  mountain-knot  of 
Antioquia,  of  which  little  more  is  known  than  that  it  forms  two 
great  masses,  which,  after  separating  the  streams  of  the  Magdalena, 
Cauca,  and  Atrato,  trends  to  the  N.  W.,  greatly  reduced  in  height, 
and  with  the  chain  of  Choco  forms  the  low  mountains  of  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama.  The  most  easterly  of  the  three  Cordilleras, 
called  the  Sierra  de  la  Summa  Paz,  spreads  out  on  its  western  de- 
clivity into  the  table-lands  of  Bogota,  Tunja,  and  others,  the  ancient 
Cundinamarca,  which  have  an  elevation  of  about  9000  feet;  whilst 
on  its  eastern  slope  rise  the  rivers  of  Guaviari  and  Meta,  which  form 
the  head  waters  of  the  Orinoco.  The  tremendous  crevice  of  Ico- 
nonzo  occurs  in  the  path  leading  from  the  city  of  Santa  Fe  de  Bogota 
to  the  banks  of  the  Magdalena.  It  probably  was  formed  by  an 
earthquake,  and  is  like  an  empty  mineral  vein,  across  which  are  two 
natural  bridges :  the  lowest  is  composed  of  stones  that  have  been 
jammed  between  the  rocks  in  their  fall.1  This  Cordillera  comprises 
the  Andes  of  Cundinamarca  and  Merida,  and  goes  north-east  through 
New  -Grenada  to  the  10th  northern  parallel,  where  it  joins  the 
coast-chain  of  Venezuela  or  Caraccas,  which  runs  due  east,  and  ends 
at  Cape  Paria  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  or  rather  at  the  eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  island  of  Trinidad.  This  coast-chain  is  so  majestic 

1  Baron  Humboldt. 
9* 


102 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VIII. 


and  beautiful  that  Baron  Humboldt  says  it  is  like  the  Alps  rising 
out  of  the  sea  without  their  snow.  The  insulated  group  of  Santa 
Martha,  19,000  feet  high,  deeply  covered  with  snow,  stands  on  an 
extensive  plain  between  the  delta  of  the  Magdalena  and  the  sea- 
lake  of  Maracaybo,  and  is  a  landmark  to  mariners  far  off  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea. 

The  passes  over  the  Chilian  Andes  are  numerous :  that  of  the 
Portillo,  leading  from  Santiago,  the  capital  of  Chile,  to  Mendoza,  is 
the  highest;  it  crosses  two  ridges,  offering  a  valley  between,  a  di- 
minutive representation  of  the  great  Peru-Bolivian  depression  and 
of  the  valley  of  Quito;  the  most  elevated  is  so  high  that  vegetation 
ceases  far  below  its  summit.  Those  in  Peru  are  higher,  though  very 
few  reach  the  snow-line.  In  Bolivia  the  mean  elevation  of  the 
passes  in  the  western  and  eastern  Cordillera  is  14,892  and  14,422 
feet  respectively.  That  leading  from  Sorata  to  the  auriferous  valley 
of  Tipuani  is  perhaps  the  highest  in  Bolivia.  From  the  total  ab- 
sence of  vegetation  and  the  intense  cold,  it  is  supposed  to  exceed 
16,000  feet  above  the  Pacific ;  those  to  the  north  are  but  little  lower. 
The  pass  of  Quindiii  in  Colombia,  though  not  so  high,  is  the  most 
difficult  of  all  across  the  Andes ;  but  those  crossing  the  mountain- 
knots  from  one  table-land  to  another  are  the  most  dangerous ;  for 
example,  that  over  the  Paramo  del  Assuay,  in  the  plain  of  Quito, 
where  the  road  is  nearly  as  high  as  Mont  Blanc,  and  travellers  not 
unfrequently  perish  from  cold  winds  in  attempting  it.1 

On  the  western  side  of  the  Andes  little  or  no  rain  falls,  except 
at  their  most  southern  extremity,  and  scanty  vegetation  appears  only 
on  spots  or  in  small  valleys,  watered  by  streams  from  the  Andes. 
Excessive  heat  and  moisture  combine  to  cover  the  eastern  side  and 
its  offsets  with  tangled  forests  of  large  trees  and  dense  brushwood. 
This  exuberance  diminishes  as  the  height  increases,  till  at  last  the 
barren  rocks  are  covered  only  by  snow  and  glaciers.  In  the  Andes 
near  the  equator  glaciers  descending  below  the  snow-line  are  un- 
known. The  steepness  of  the  declivities  and  the  dryness  of  the  air, 
at  such  great  elevations,  prevent  any  accumulation  of  infiltrated 
water:  the  annual  changes  of  temperatHre  besides  are  small.  No- 
thing can  surpass  the  desolation  of  these  regions,  where  nature  has 

1  It  appears  by  the  measurements  of  Mr.  Pentland  in  the  Peru-Bolivian 
Andes,  that  many  of  their  passes  are  higher  than  in  the  equatorial  portion 
of  the  chain.  The  passes  of  llumihuasi,  on  the  high  road  from  Cusco  to 
Arequipa,  of  Toledo  (between  Arequipa  and  Puno),  of  Gualillas  and  Ohul- 
lunquiani  (between  Arica  and  La  Paz),  all  in  the  Western  Cordillera,  attain 
the  respective  elevations  of  16,160,  15,790,  14,750,  and  15,160  feet;  whilst 
in  the  Eastern  or  Bolivian  Cordillera  the  passes  of  Challa  (between  Oruro 
and  Cochabamba),  of  Pecuani  (between  La  Paz  and  Coroico),  of  Pumapa- 
cheta  (between  the  lake  of  Titicaca  and  the  affluents  to  the  Amazon),  of 
Vilcauota  (between  the  valley  of  the  Collao  and  that  of  the  river  Yucay), 
rise  to  the  heights  of  13,600,  15,350,  13,000,  and  14,520  English  feet. 


CHAP.  VIII.  THE    ANDES.  103 

been  shaken  by  terrific  convulsions.  The  dazzling  snow  fatigues  tho 
eye;  the  huge  masses  of  bold  rock,  the  mural  precipices,  and  the 
chasms  yawning  into  dark  unknown  depths,  strike  the  imagination ; 
while  the  crash  of  the  avalanche  or  the  rolling  thunder  of  the  vol- 
cano startles  the  ear.  In  the  dead  of  night,  when  the  sky  is  clear 
and  the  wind  hushed,  the  hollow  moaning  of  the  volcanic  fire  fills 
the  Indian  with  superstitious  dread  in  the  deathlike  stillness  of  these 
solitudes. 

In  the  very  elevated  plains  in  the  transverse  groups,  such  as  that 
of  Bonbon,  however  pure  the  sky,  the  landscape  is  lurid  and  colour- 
less :  the  dark-blue  shadows  are  sharply  defined,  and  from  the  thin- 
ness of  the  air  it  is  hardly  possible  to  make  a  just  estimate  of  dis- 
tance. Changes  of  weather  are  sudden  and  violent ;  clouds  of  black 
vapour  arise  and  are  carried  by  fierce  winds  over  the  barren  plains ; 
snow  and  hail  are  driven  with  irresistible  impetuosity ;  and  thunder- 
storms come  on,  loud  and  awful,  without  warning.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  thinness  of  the  air,  the  crash  of  the  peals  is  quite  appalling : 
while  the  lightning  runs  along  the  scorched  grass,  and,  sometimes 
issuing  from  the  ground,  destroys  a  team  of  mules  or  a  flock  of  sheep 
at  one  flash.1 

Currents  of  warm  air  are  occasionally  met  with  on  the  crest  of 
the  Andes  —  an  extraordinary  phenomenon  on  such  gelid  heights, 
which  is  not  yet  accounted  for :  they  generally  occur  two  hours  after 
sunset,  are  local  and  narrow,  not  exceeding  a  few  fathoms  in  width, 
similar  to  the  equally  partial  blasts  of  hot  air  in  the  Alps.  A  sin- 
gular instance,  probably,  of  earth-light  occurs  in  crossing  the  Andes 
from  Chile  to  Mendoza.  On  this  rocky  scene  a  peculiar  brightness 
occasionally  rests,  a  kind  of  undescribable  reddish  light,  which  van- 
ishes during  the  winter  rains,  and  is  not  perceptible  on  sunny  days. 
Dr.  Pceppig  ascribes  the  phenomenon  to  the  dryness  of  the  air :  he 
was  confirmed  in  his  opinion  from  afterwards  observing  a  similar 
brightness  on  the  coast  of  Peru,  and  it  has  also  been  seen  in  Egypt. 

The  Andes  descend  to  the  eastern  plains  by  a  series  of  cultivated 
levels,  as  those  of  Tucuman,  Sata,  and  Jujuy,  in  the  republic  of  La 
Plata,  with  many  others.  That  of  Tucuman  is  2500  feet  above  the 
sea  —  the  garden  of  the  republic. 

The  low  lands  to  the  east  of  the  Andes  are  divided  by  the  table- 
lands and  mountains  of  Parima  and  Brazil  into  three  parts  of  very 
different  aspect — the  deserts  and  pampas  of  Patagonia  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  the  Silvas  or  woody  basin  of  the  Amazons,  and  the  Llanos 
or  grassy  steppes  of  the  Orinoco.  The  eastern  table-lands  nowhere 
exceed  2500  feet  of  absolute  height ;  the  plains  are  so  low  and  flat, 
especially  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  that  a  rise  of  1000  feet  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  would  submerge  more  than  half  the  continent  of 
South  America. 

1  Dr.  Poeppig. 


1,04  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  VTTT. 

The  system  of  Parima  is  a  group  of  mountains  scattered  over  a 
table-land  not  more  than  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  which  extends 
600  or  700  miles  from  east  to  west,  between  the  river  Orinoco,  the 
Rio  Negro,  the  Amazons,  and  the  Altantic  Ocean.  It  is  quite  un- 
connected with  the  Andes,  being  80  leagues  east  from  the  mountains 
of  New  Grenada.  It  begins  60  or  70  miles  from  the  coast  of  Vene- 
zuela, and  ascends  by  four  successive  terraces  to  undulating  plains, 
which  come  within  one  or  two  degrees  of  the  equator,  and  is  twice  as 
long  as  it  is  broad. 

Seven  chains,  besides  groups  of  mountains,  cross  the  table-land 
from  west  to  east,  of  which  the  chief  is  the  Sierra  del  Parima. 
Beginning  at  the  mouth  of  the  Meta,  it  crosses  the  plains  of  Esme- 
ralda to  the  frontier  of  Brazil.  This  chain  is  not  more  than  600 
feet  high,  is  everywhere  abrupt,  and  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  tributaries  of  the  Amazons  and  those  of  the  Orinoco.  The 
Orinoco  rises  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Sierra  del  Parima,  and  in 
its  circuitous  course  over  the  plains  of  Esmeralda  it  breaks  through 
that  chain  and  the  parallel  chain  of  the  Maypures  36  miles  to  the 
south ;  dashing  with  violence  against  the  transverse  shelving  rocks 
and  dykes,  it  forms  the  magnificent  series  of  rapids  and  cataracts 
of  Maypures  and  Atures,  from  whence  the  Parima  mountains  have 
got  the  name  of  the  Cordillera  of  the  cataracts  of  the  Orinoco.  The 
chain  is  of  granite,  which  forms  the  banks  and  fills  the  bed  of  the 
river,  covered  with  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  especially  palm- 
forests.  In  the  district  of  the  Upper  Orinoco,  near  Charichana, 
there  is  a  granite  rock  which  emits  musical  sounds  at  sunrise,  like 
the  notes  of  an  organ,  occasioned  by  the  difference  of  temperature 
of  the  external  air  and  that  which  fills  the  deep  narrow  crevices  with 
which  the  rock  is  everywhere  torn.  Something  of  the  same  kind 
occurs  at  Mount  Sinai.1 

The  other  parallel  chains  that  extend  over  the  table-land  in  Vene- 
zuela and  Guiana,  though  not  of  great  height,  are  very  rugged  and 
often  crowned  with  mural  ridges ;  they  are  separated  by  flat  savan- 
nahs, generally  barren  in  the  dry  season,  but  after  the  rains  covered 
with  a  carpet  of  emerald-green  grass,  often  six  feet  high,  mixed  with 
flowers.  The  vegetation  in  these  countries  is  beautiful  beyond  imag- 
ination :  the  regions  of  the  Upper  Orinoco  and  Rio  Negro,  and  of 
almost  all  the  mountains  and  banks  of  rivers  in  Guiana,  are  clothed 
with  majestic  and  impenetrable  forests,  whose  moist  and  hot  recesses 
are  the  abode  of  the  singular  and  beautiful  race  of  the  Orchidese 
and  tangled  creepers  of  many  kinds. 

Although  all  the  mountains  of  the  system  of  Parima  are  wild 
and  rugged,  they  are  not  high ;  the  inaccessible  peak  of  the  Cerro 
Duida,  which  rises  insulated  7155  feet  above  the  plain  of  Esmeralda, 

1  Baron  Humboldt. 


CHAP.  VIIL  TABLE-LAND    OF    BRAZIL.  105 

is  the  culminating  point,  and  one  of  the  highest  mountains  in  South 
America  east  of  the  Andes.  The  fine  savannahs  of  the  Rupununi 
were  the  country  of  romance  in  the  days  of  Queen  Elizabeth.  South 
of  Pacaraime,  near  an  inlet  of  the  river,  the  far-famed  city  of  Manoa 
was  supposed  to  stand,  the  object  of  the  unfortunate  expedition  of 
Sir  Walter  Haleigh ;  about  11  miles  south-west  of  which  is  situate 
the  lake  Amucu,  "the  Great  Lake  with  golden  banks/' — great  only 
during  the  periodical  floods.1 

On  the  southern  side  .of  the  basin  of  the  river  Amazon  lies  the 
table-land  of  Brazil,  nowhere  more  than  2500  feet  high,  which  occu- 
pies half  that  empire,  together  with  part  of  the  republics  of  the  Rio 
de  la  Plata  and  Uruguay.  Its  form  is  a  triangle,  whose  apex  is  at 
the  confluence  of  the  rivers  Mamore  and  Beni,  and  its  base  extends, 
near  the  shores  of  the  Atlantic,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  de  la 
Plata  to  within  three  degrees  of  the  equator.  It  is  difficult  to  define 
the  limits  of  this  vast  territory,  but  some  idea  may  be  formed  of  it 
by  following  the  direction  of  the  rapids  and  cataracts  of  the  rivers 
descending  from  it  to  the  plains  around.  Thus  a  line  draw^from 
the  fall  of  the  river  of  the  Tocantins,  in  3°  80'  S.  latitude,  to  the 
cataracts  of  the  Madeira,  in  the  eighth  degree  of  south  latitude,  will 
nearly  mark  its  northern  boundary;  from  thence  the  line  would 
run  S.  W.  to  the  junction  of  the  Mamore  and  Beni ;  then  turning 
to  the  S.  E.  along  the  ridges  of  mountains  called  the  Cordillera 
Geral,  and  Serra  Pareicis,  it  would  proceed  south  to  the  cataract 
of  the  Parand,,  called  the  Sete  Quedas,  in  24°  30'  S.  lat. ;  and 
lastly  from  thence,  by  the  great  falls  of  the  river  Iguassu,  to  the 
Morro  de  Santa  Martha,  in  lat.  28°  40',  south  of  the  island  of  St. 
Catherine. 

Chains  of  mountains,  nearly  parallel,  extend  from  south-west  to 
north-east,  700  miles  along  the  base  of  the  triangle,  with  a  breadth 
of  about  400  miles.  Of  these  the  Serra  do  Mar,  on  the  "coast- 
chain,"  reaches  from  the  river  Uruguay  to  Cape  San  Roque,  never 
more  distant  than  20  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  except  to  the  south 
of  the  bay  of  Santos,  where  it  is  80.  Offsets  diverge  to  the  right 
and  left;  the  granitic  peaks  of  the  Corcovado  and  Tejuco,  [2000 
feet  above  the  sea  level],  which  form  such  picturesque  objects  in 
that  most  magnificent  of  panoramas,  the  bay  of  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
are  the  ends  of  one.  The  parallel  chain  of  Espenha90,  beginning 
near  the  town  of  San  Paulo,  and  the  continuous  chains  of  the  Serru 
Frio,  and  forming  the  western  boundary  of  the  basin  of  the  Rio 
San  Francisco,  is  the  highest  in  Brazil,  one  of  its  mountains,  Itambe, 
being  8426  feet  above  the  sea.  All  the  mountains  in  Brazil  have  a 
general  tendency  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  except  the  transverse  chain  of 
the  Serra  dos  Vertentes,  which  begins  60  miles  south  of  Villa  Rica; 

1  Baron  Humboldt's  Personal  Narrative. 


106  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IX. 

and  runs  in  a  tortuous  line  to  its  termination  near  the  junction  of 
the  Mamore  and  Beni.  It  forms  the  watershed  of  the  tributaries 
of  the  San  Francisco  and  Amazon  on  the  north,  and  those  of  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata  on  the  south ;  its  greatest  height  is  3500  feet  above 
the  sea :  its  western  part,  the  Serra  Pareicis,  is  merely  a  succession 
of  detached  bills.  This  chain,  the  coast-chain  of  Venezuela,  and 
the  mountains  of  Parima,  are  the  only  ranges  in  the  continent  of 
America  that  do  not  entirely,  or  in  some  degree,  lie  in  the  direction 
of  the  meridians. 

Magnificent  forests  of  tall  trees,  bound  together  by  tangled  creep- 
ing and  parasitical  plants,  clothe  the  declivities  of  the  mountains 
and  line  the  borders  of  the  Brazilian  rivers,  where  the  soil  is  rich 
and  the  verdure  brilliant.  Many  of  the  plains  on  the  table-land 
bear  a  coarse  nutritious  grass  after  the  rains  only, Others  forests  of 
dwarf  trees ;  but  vast  undulating  tracts  are  always  verdant  with  ex- 
cellent pasture  intermixed  with  fields  of  corn :  some  parts  are  bare 
sand  and  rolled  quartz ;  and  the  Campos  Pareicis,  north  of  the  Serra 
dos  V^tentes,  in  the  province  of  Matto  Grosso,  is  a  sandy  desert 
of  unknown  extent,  similar  to  the  Great  Gobi  on  the  table-land  of 
Tibet.  [Matto  Grosso  is  the  most  western  of  the  provinces  of  Brazil. 
Its  surface,  estimated  at  540,000  square  miles,  is  abundantly  watered 
by  lakes  and  rivers.  It  includes  the  famous  diamond  district. 
Among  its  mineral  productions  are  gold,  iron,  clays  of  different 
colours,  salt,  nitre  and  various  gems.  Valuable  timber  abounds; 
plants  yielding  gum-elastic,  dragons'-blood,  gums,  balsams,  jalap, 
indigo  and  vanilla  grow  spontaneously,  and  in  quantities  almost 
without  limit.] 


CHAPTEE   IX. 

The  Low  Lands  of  South  America  —  Desert  of  Patagonia  —  The  Pampas 
of  Buenos  Ayres  —  The  Silvas  of  the  Amazon  —  The  Llanos  of  the  Ori- 
noco and  Venezuela  —  Geological  Notice. 

; 

THE  southern  plains  are  the  most  barren  of  the  three  great  tracts 
of  American  low  lands;  they  stretch  from  Tierra  del  Fuego  over  27 
degrees  of  latitude,  or  1900  miles,  nearly  to  Tucuman  and  the  moun- 
tains of  Brazil.  Palms  grow  at  one  end*  deep  snow  covers  the  other 
many  months  in  the  year.  This  enormous  plain,  of  1,620,000 
square  miles,  begins  on  the  eastern  side  of  Tierra  del  Fuego,  which 
is  a  flat  covered  with  trees,  and  therefore  superior  to  its  continuation 
on  the  continent  through  eastern  Patagonia,  which,  for  800  miles 


CHAP.  IX.  DESERT    OP    PATAGONIA.  107 

from  the  land's  end  to  beyond  the  Rio  Colorado,  is  a  desert  of 
shingle.1  It  is  occasionally  diversified  by  huge  boulders,  tufts  of 
brown  grass,  low  bushes  armed  with  spines,  brine-lakes,  incrustations 
of  salt,  white  as  snow,  and  by  black  basaltic  platforms,  like  plains 
of  iron,  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  barren  as  the  rest.  Eastern  Pa- 
tagonia, however,  is  not  one  universal  flat,  but  a  succession  of  shingly 
horizontal  plains  at  higher  and  higher  levels,  separated  by  long  lines 
of  cliffs  or  escarpments,  the  gable-ends  of  the  tiers  or  plains.  The 
ascent  is  small,  for  even  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes  the  highest  of 
these  platforms  is  only  3000  feet  above  the  ocean.  The  plains  are 
here  and  there  intersected  by  a  ravine  or  a  stream,  the  waters  of 
which  do  not  fertilize  the  blighted  soil.  The  transition  from  intense 
heat  to  intense  cold  is  rapid,  and  piercing  winds  often  rush  in  hurri- 
canes over  these  deserts,  shunned  even  by  the  Indian,  except  when 
he  crosses  them  to  visit  the  tombs  of  his  fathers.  The  shingle  ends 
a  few  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Rio  Colorado :  there  the  red  calca- 
reous earth  of  the  Pampas  begins,  monotonously  covered  with  coarse 
tufted  grass,  without  a  tree  or  bush.  This  country,  nearly  as  level 
as  the  sea  and  without  a  stone,  extends  almost  to  the  table-land  of 
Brazil,  and  for  1003  miles  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Andes,  in- 
terrupted only  at  vast  distances  by  a  solitary  umbii,  the  only  tree  of 
this  soil,  rising  like  a  great  landmark.  This  wide  space,  though 
almost  destitute  of  water,  is  not  all  of  the  same  description.  In  the 
Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  there  are  four  distinct  regions.  For  180 
miles  west  from  Buenos  Ayres  they  are  covered  with  thistles  and 
lucern  of  the  most  vivid  green  so  long  as  the  moisture  from  the  rain 
lasts.  In  spring  the  verdure  fades,  and  a  month  afterwards  the 
thistles  shoot  up  10  feet  high,  so  dense  and  so  protected  by  spines 
that  they  are  impenetrable.  During  the  summer  the  dried  stalks 
are  broken  by  the  wind,  and  the  lucern  again  spreads  freshness  over 
the  ground.  The  Pampas  for  430  miles  west  of  this  region  is  a 
thicket  of  long  tufted  luxuriant  grass,  intermixed  with  gaudy  flowers, 
affording  inexhaustible  pasture  to  thousands  of  horses  and  cattle; 
this  is  followed  by  a  tract  of  swamps  and  bogs,  to  which  succeeds  a 
region  of  ravines  and  stones,  and,  lastly,  a  zone,  reaching  to  the 
Andes,  of  thorny  bushes  and  dwarf  trees  in  one  dense  thicket.  The 
flat  plains  in  Entre  Rios  in  Uruguay,  those  of  Santa  Fe,  and  a  great 
part  of  Cordova  and  Tucuman,  are  of  sward,  with  cattle  farms.  The 
banks  of  the  Parana.,  and  other  tributaries  of  the  La  Plata,  are 
adorned  with  an  infinite  variety  of  tropical  productions,  especially 
the  graceful  tribe  of  palms  j  and  the  river  islands  are  bright  with 
orange-groves.  A  desert  of  sand,  called  El  Gran  Chaco,2  exists 

1  Captain  King,  R.N.,  and  Mr.  Darwin. 

'  [See,  Noticias  Historicas  y  Descriptivas  sobre  el  gran  pais  del  Chaco  y 
Rio  Bermejo.     Por  Jose"  Arenales,  Buenos  Aires,  1833.] 


108  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IX. 

west  of  the  Paraguay,  the  vegetable  produce  of  which  is  confined 
to  a  variety  of  the  aloe  and  cactus  tribes.  Adjoining  this  desert  are 
the  Bolivian  provinces  of  Chiquitos  and  Moxos,  covered  with  forests 
and  jungle,  the  scene  of  the  most  laborious  and  beneficent  exertions 
of  the  Jesuit  Missionaries  towards  the  civilization  of  the  aborigines 
of  South  America  in  the  last  century. 

The  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres,  1000  feet  above  the  sea,  sink  to  a 
low  level  along  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  where  the  streams  from  the 
mountains  collect  in  large  lakes,  swamps,  lagoons  of  prodigious  size, 
and  wide-spreading  salines.  The  swamp  or  lagoon  of  Ybera,  of 
1000  square  miles,  is  entirely  covered  with  aquatic  plants.  These 
swamps  are  swollen  to  thousands  of  square  miles  by  the  annual 
floods  of  the  rivers,  which  also  inundate  the  Pampas,  leaving  a  fer- 
tilizing coat  of  mud.  Multitudes  of  animals  perish  in  the  floods, 
and  the  drought  that  sometimes  succeeds  is  more  fatal.  Between 
the  years  1830  and  1832,  two  millions  of  cattle  died  from  want  of 
food.  Millions  of  animals  are  sometimes  destroyed  by  casual  and 
dreadful  conflagrations  in  these  countries  when  covered  with  dry 
grass  and  thistles.1 

The  Silvas  of  the  river  of  the  Amazon,  lying  in  the  centre  of 
the  continent,  form  the  second  division  of  the  South  American  low 
lands.  This  country  is  more  uneven  than  the  Pampas,  and  the 
vegetation  is  so  dense  that  it  can  only  be  penetrated  by  sailing  up 
the  river  or  its  tributaries.  The  forests  not  only  cover  the  basin  of 
the  Amazon  from  the  Cordillera  of  Chiquitos  to  the  mountains  of 
Parirna,  but  also  its  limiting  mountain-chains,  the  Serra  dos  Ver- 
tentes  and  Parima,  so  that  the  whole  forms  an  area  of  woodland 
more  than  six  times  the  size  of  France,  lying  between  the  18th 
parallel  of  south  latitude  and  the  7th  of  north ;  consequently  inter- 
tropical  and  traversed  by  the  equator.  There  are  some  marshy  sa- 
vannahs between  the  3d  and  4th  degrees  of  north  latitude,  and  some 
grassy  steppes  south  of  the  Pacaraiino  chain ;  but  they  are  insigni- 
ficant compared  with  the  Silvas,  which  extend  1500  miles  along  the 
river,  varying  in  breadth  from  350  to  800  miles,  and  probably  more. 
According  to  Baron  Humboldt,  the  soil,  enriched  for  ages  by  the 
spoils  of  the  forest,  consists  of  the  richest  mould.  The  beat  is  suf- 
focating in  the  deep  and  dark  recesses  of  these  primeval  woods, 
where  not  a  breath  of  air  penetrates,  and  where,  after  being  drenched 
by  the  periodical  rains,  the  damp  is  so  excessive  that  a  blue  mist 
rises  in  the  early  morning  among  the  huge  stems  of  the  trees,  and 
envelops  the  entangled  creepers  stretching  from  bough  to  bough.  A 
•  death-like  stillness  prevails  from  sunrise  to  sunset,  then  the  thou- 
sands of  animals  that  inhabit  these  forests  joiij  in  one  loud  discord- 

*  Sir  Woodbine  Parish  on  Buenos  Ayres,  and  Sir  Francis  Head's  Journey 
over  the  Pampas. 


CHAP.  IX.  THE    LLANOS.  109 

ant  roar,  not  continuous,  but  in  bursts.  The  beasts  seem  to  be 
periodically  and  unanimously  roused  by  some  unknown  impulse,  till 
the  forest  rings  in  universal  uproar.  Profound  silence  prevails  at 
midnight,  which  is  broken  at  the  dawn  of  morning  by  another  gene- 
ral roar  of  wild  chorus.  Nightingales  too  have  their  fits  of  silence 
and  song;  after  a  pause,  they 

all  burst  forth  in  choral  minstrelsy, 


As  if  some  sudden  gale  had  swept  at  once 

A  hundred  airy  harps."  Coleridge. 

The  whole  forest  often  resounds  when  the  animals,  startled  from 
their  sleep,  scream  in  terror  at  the  noise  made  by  bands  of  its  in- 
habitants flying  from  some  night-prowling  foe.  Their  anxiety  and 
terror  before  a  thunder-storm  is  excessive,  and  all  nature  seems  to 
partake  in  the  dread.  The  tops  of  the  lofty  trees  rustle  ominously, 
though  not  a  breath  of  air  agitates  them ;  a  hollow  whistling  in  the 
high  regions  of  the  atmosphere  comes  as  a  warning  from  the  black 
floating  vapour;  midnight  darkness  envelops  the  ancient  forests, 
which  soon  after  groan  and  creak  with  the  blast  of  the  hurricane. 
The  gloom  is  rendered  still  more  hideous  by  the  vivid  lightning  and 
the  stunning  crash  of  thunder.  Even  fishes  are  affected  with  the 
general  consternation ;  for  in  a  few  minutes  the  Amazon  rages  in 
waves  like  a  stormy  sea. 

The  Llanos  of  the  Orinoco  and  Venezuela,  covered  with  long 
grass,  form  the  third  department  of  South  American  low  lands,  and 
occupy  153,000  square  miles  between  the  deltas  of  the  Orinoco  and 
the  river  Coqueta,  flat  as  the  surface  of  the  sea.  It  is  possible  to 
travel  over  these  flat  plains  for  1100  miles  from  the  delta  of  the 
Orinoco  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes  of  Pasto ;  frequently  there  is  not 
an  eminence  a  foot  high  in  270  square  mi!6s.  They  are  twice  as 
long  as  they  are  broad ;  and  as  the  wind  blows  constantly  from  the 
east,  the  climate  is  the  more  ardent  the  farther  west.  These  steppes 
for  the  most  part  are  destitute  of  trees  or  bushes,  yet  in  some  places 
they  are  dotted  with  the  maurita  and  other  palm-trees.  Flat  as 
these  plains  are,  there  are  in  some  places  two  kinds  of  inequalities ; 
one  consists  of  banks  or  shoals  of  grit  or  compact  limestone,  five  or 
six  feet  high,  perfectly  level  for  several  leagues,  and  imperceptible 
except  on  their  edges :  the  other  inequality  can  only  be  detected  by 
the  barometer  or  levelling  instruments ;  it  is  called  a  Mesa,  and  is 
an  eminence  rising  imperceptibly  to  the  height  of  some  fathoms. 
Small  as  the  elevation  is,  a  mesa  forms  the  watershed  from  S.W.  to 
N.E.,  between  the  affluents  of  the  Orinoco  and  the  streams  flowing 
to  the  northern  coast  of  Terra  Firma.  In  the  wet  season,  from 
April  to  the  end  of  October,  the  tropical  rains  pour  down  in  torrents, 
and  hundreds  of  square  miles  of  the  Llanos  are  inundated  by  the 
floods  of  the  rivers.  The  water  is  sometimes  12  feet  deep  in  tho 
10 


110  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IX. 

hollows,  in  which  so  many  horses  and  other  animals  perish,  that  the 
ground  smells  of  musk,  an  odour  peculiar  to  many  South  American 
quadrupeds.  From  the  flatness  of  the  country  too,  the  waters  of 
some  affluents  of  the  Orinoco  are  driven  backwards  by  the  floods  of 
that  river,  especially  when  aided  by  the  wind,  and  form  temporary 
lakes.  When  the  waters  subside,  these  steppes,  manured  by  the 
sediment,  are  mantled  with  verdure,  and  produce  ananas,  with  occa- 
sional groups  of  fan  palm-trees,  and  mimosas  skirt  the  rivers.  When 
the  dry  weather  returns,  the  grass  is  burnt  to  powder;  the  air  is 
filled  with  dust  raised  by  currents  occasioned  by  difference  of  tem- 
perature, even  where  there  is  no  wind.  If  by  any  accident  a  spark 
of  fire  falls  on  the  scorched  plains,  a  conflagration  spreads  from  river 
to  river,  destroying  every  animal,  and  leaves  the  clayey  soil  sterile 
for  years,  till  vicissitudes  of  weather  crumble  the  brick-like  surface 
into  earth. 

The  Llanos  lie  between  the  equator  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer; 
the  mean  annual  temperature  is  about  84°  of  Fahrenheit  The  heat 
is  most  intense  during  the  rainy  season,  when  tremendous  thunder- 
storms are  of  common  occurrence. 

GEOLOGY  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

THE  most  r6markable  circumstance  in  the  geological  features  of 
the  South  American  continent  is  the  vast  development  of  volcanic 
force,  which  is  confined  to  the  chain  of  the  Andes,  where  it  has 
acquired  a  considerable  breadth,  as  in  the  Peru-Bolivian  portion,  to 
the  part  nearest  the  sea-coast.  It  would  be  wrong,  however,  to  say 
that  there  are  no  traces  of  modern  volcanic  action  at  a  great  distance 
from  the  sea  :l  it  is  one  of  those  theories  which  recent  discoveries 
in  both  continents  have  proved  the  fallacy  of.  The  volcanic  vents 
occur  in  the  Andes  in  linear  groups :  the  most  southern  of  these  is 
that  of  Chile,  extending  from  the  latitude  of  Chiloe  to  that  of  San- 
tiago, 42°  to  33°  S. :  in  this  space  exist  five  well-authenticated 

«  Mr.  Pentland  found  a  very  perfect  volcanic  crater,  with  well-marked 
currents  of  lava  issuing  from  it — a  rare  occurrence  in  the  higher  craters 
of  the  Andes — not  far  from  San  Pedro  de  Cacha  in  the  valley  of  the  Yucay 
(lat.  14°  12',  long.  71°  15/  W.,  and  at  an  elevation  of  12,000  feet),  near  to 
the  ruins  of  the  Temple  of  the  Inga  Viracocha,  a  monument  and  a  locality 
celebrated  in  Peruvian  legend,  the  nearest  point  of  the  sea -coast  being  175 
miles  distant.  It  is  probable  that  some  of  the  most  celebrated  mining  dis- 
tricts of  Alto  Peru — Potosi,  for  instance,  situated  in  a  porphyry — have 
been  upheaved  at  a  very  recent  period.  Modern  volcanic  rocks  are  not 
wanting  in  the  valley  of  the  Desaguadero ;  volcanic  conglomerates  exist  in 
the  deep  ravines  round  the  city  of  La  Paz,  lat.  16°  39';  and  the  mountain 
of  Litanias,  which  furnishes  the  building-stone  for  that  Bolivian  city  (lat. 
16°  42/,  long.  68°  19J').  is  composed  of  a  most  perfect  trachyte,  and  rises 
to  a  height  of  14,500  feet  above,  and  at  a  distance  of  160  miles  from  the 
Vacific. 


CHAP.  IX.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  Ill 

craters  in  ignition — the  most  southern  is  the  volcano  of  Llanquihue 
or  Osorno,  observed  by  M.  Gave,  and  the  most  northern  that  of 
Maypu,1  the  fires  of  which  are  sometimes  seen  from  the  capital  of 
Chile.  Between  the  83rd  parallel  and  the  Bolivian  frontier  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  a  single  volcanic  vent,  but  in  the  province  of 
Atacama  rises  the  volcano  of  San  Pedro  of  Atacama.  The  moun- 
tain of  Isluga,  in  the  province  of  Tarapaca,  is  said  to  be  an  active 
volcano;  but  the  great  centre  of  volcanic  action  in  this  part  of  the 
Western  Cordillera  extends  from  18°  10'  to  16°  20',  where  the 
Andes  have  changed  their  direction  from  being  parallel  to  the  me- 
ridian to  one  inclined  nearly  45  degrees  to  that  line.  The  trachytic 
giant  domes  of  the  Andes,  Sahama,  and  the  Nevado  of  Chuqui- 
bamba  mark  the  N.  and  S.  limits  of  this  line  of  vents :  the  former, 
one  of  the  most  perfect  trachytic  pyramids  in  the  Andes,  rises  to 
a  height  of  22,350  feet,  in  lat.  18°  7'  and  long.  68°,54'  W.  ;  near 
to  it  are  the  twin  Nevados  of  Pomarape  and  Parinacota,  one  of 
which  appears  to  emit  smoke.  The  group  of  snowy  peaks  seen  from 
Arica,  the  centre  of  which,  the  Nevado  of  Tacora,  is  in  lat.  17° 
43',  offers  a  broken-down  crater,  and  an  active  solfaterra,  on  one  of 
its  sides.  Between  this  point  and  the  volcano  of  Arequipa  no 
active  volcano  has  been  observed.  It  is  well  known  that  the  latter 
has  vomited  flames  and  ashes,  and  spread  desolation  around,  at  a 
comparatively  recent  period;2  the  crater  of  Uvinas,  active  in  the 
16th  century,  is  now  filled  up  and  completely  extinct.  Between  the 
latitude  of  Arequipa  (16°  24')  and  the  Equatorial  group  of  volca- 
noes, the  Andes  do  not  present  a  single  active  crater.  This  Equa- 
torial group  extends  over  a  meridional  line  of  8J  degrees — between 
the  Peak  of  Sangay  and  the  volcano  of  Los  Pastos.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  volcanic  vents  are  the  Sangay,  Tunguragua,  and 
Cotopaxi,  all  situated  in  the  Cordillera  most  remote  from  the  ocean. 
Pichincha  burned  as  recently  as  1831;  and  north  of  the  Equator, 
Imbaburu,  the  volcanoes  of  Chiles,  of  Cumbal,  of  Tuqueres  or  Los 
Pastos,  of  Sotara  and  Purace,  mark  the  extension  of  actual  volcanic 
action  into  our  hemisphere. 

Granite,  which  seems  to  be  the  base  of  the  whole  continent,  ia 
widely  spread  to  the  east  and  south  :  it  appears  in  Tierra  del  Fuego 
and  in  the  Patagonian  Andes  abundantly,  and  at  great  elevations, 
and  in  Chile  and  southern  Peru  forms  the  line  of  hills  parallel  to 

1  Between  the  volcanoes  of  Osorno  and  Maypu  are  situated  those  of  Vil- 
larica,  Antuco,  and  Chilian.     The  volcano  of  Antuco  was,  in  1845,  when 
visited  by  M.  Domeyko,  in  great  activity ;  its  height,  as  determined  ty  that 
naturalist,  8918  feet  only,  and  the  snow-line  on  its  sides  7996  feet  above 
the  sea;  the  volcano  of  Villarica  is  120  miles  S.,  and  that  of  Chilian  80 
miles  N.  of  the  volcano  of  Antuco. 

2  Dr.  Weddell,  in  1847,  visited  the  crater  of  this  volcano,  which  at  that 
period  only  emitted  masses  of  aqueous  vapour  from  its  fumaroles. 


112  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IX. 

the  Pacific,  -wherein  are  situated  the  mineral  riches  of  the  former 
republic;  but  it  comes  into  view  so  rarely  in  the  northern  parts  of 
the  chain,  that  Baron  Humboldt  says  a  person  might  travel  years  in 
the  Andes  of  Peru  and  Quito  without  falling  in  with  it.  He  never 
saw  it  at  a  greater  height  above  the  sea  than  11,500  feet.  Gneiss 
is  here  and  there  associated  with  the  granite,  but  mica  schist  is  by 
much  the  most  common  of  the  crystalline  rocks.  Quartz  rock, 
probably  of  the  Devonian  period,  is  much  developed,  generally 
mixed  with  mica,  and  rich  in  gold  and  specular  iron.  It  sometimes 
extends  several  leagues  in  the  western  declivities  of  Peru,  6000  feet 
thick.  Red  sandstone,  with  its  gypseous  and  saliferous  marls,  of 
the  age  of  our  English  red  marl,  of  vast  dimensions,  occurs  in  the 
Andes,  and  on  the  table-land  east  of  them,  where  in  some  places, 
as  in  Colombia,  it  spreads  over  thousands  of  square  miles  to  the 
shores  of  the  Atlantic.  It  is  widely  extended  at  altitudes  of  10,000 
and  12,000  feet— for  example,  on  the  plains  of  Tarqui  and  in  the 
valley  of  Cuen§a.  Coal  is  sometimes  associated  with  it,  and  is 
found  in  the  Andes  of  Pasco,  in  Peru,  17,450  feet  above  the  sea. 

Porphyry  abounds  all  over  the  Andes,  from  Patagonia  to  Colom- 
bia, at  every  elevation,  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the  mountains, 
rising  to  the  greatest  elevation,  but  of  very  different  ages  and  mine- 
ralogical  characters.  One  variety  which  frequently  occurs  is  rich 
in  metals,  and  hence  has  been  designated  as  metalliferous:  in  it  are 
situated  some  of  the  most  celebrated  silver-mines  of  Peru,  those  of 
Potosi,  Oruro,  Puno.  The  bare  and  precipitous  porphyry-rocks  give 
great  variety  to  the  colouring  of  the  Andes,  especially  in  Chile, 
where  purple,  tile-red,  and  brown  are  contrasted  with  the  snow  on 
the  summit  of  the  chain.1 

Trachyte,  often  so  difficult  to  distinguish  from  porphyry,  is  per- 
haps still  more  abundant  than  it  is  in  the  Andes ;  many  of  the  lof- 
tiest rocks,  and  all  the  great  dome-shaped  mountains,  are  formed  of 
it.  Masses  of  this  rock,  from  14,000  to  18,000  feet  thick,  form 
the  Chimborazo  and  the  Pichincha.  Prodigious  quantities  of  vol- 
canic products,  lava,  tufa,  and  obsidian,  occur  on  the  western  face 
of  the  Andes,  where  volcanoes  are  active.  On  the  eastern  side  there 
are  none.  This  is  especially  the  case  in  that  part  of  the  chain  lying 
between  the  equator  and  Chile.  The  Bolivian  Cordilleras,  which 
encircle  the  valley  of  Desaguadero,  furnish  a  striking  example.  The 
Cordillera  of  the  coast  is  composed  of  crystalline  and  stratified  rocks 
at  its  base,  and  of  trachytes,  obsidian,  and  trachytic  conglomerates 
at  greater  elevations,  while  the  eastern  Cordillera  consists  of  strati- 
fied rocks  of  the  Silurian  system,  with  granites,  quartziferous  por- 
phyries, and  syenites,  injected,  and  of  secondary  rocks  of  the  tri- 
assic  period,  red  marls,  containing  gypsum,  oolitic  limestone,  and 

1  Dr.  Poeppig. 


CHAP.  IX.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  113 

rock-salt  of  the  most  beautiful  colours.  Towards  Chile,  and  through- 
out the  Chilian  range,  the  case  is  different,  because  active  volcanoes 
are  there  in  the  centre  of  the  chain. 

Sea-shells  of  different  geological  periods  are  found  at  various  ele- 
vations, which  shows  that  many  upheavings  and  subsidences  have 
taken  place  in  the  chain  of  the  Andes.1  The  whole  range,  after 
twice  subsiding  some  thousand  feet,  was  brought  up  by  a  slow  move- 
ment in  mass  during  the  Eocene  period,  after  which  it  sank  down 
once  more  several  hundred  feet,  to  be  again  uplifted  to  its  present 
level  by  a  slow  and  often  interrupted  motion.  These  vicissitudes 
are  very  perceptible,  especially  at  its  southern  extremity.  Stems 
of  large  trees,  which  Mr.  Darwin  found  in  a  fossil  state  in  the  Us- 
pallata  range,  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  now 
700  miles  distant  from  the  Atlantic,  exhibit  a  remarkable  example 
of  such  vicissitudes.  These  trees,  with  the  volcanic  soil  on  which 
they  had  grown,  had  sunk  from  the  beach  to  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
ocean,  from  which,  after  fiye  alternations  of  sedimentary  deposits  and 
deluges  of  submarine  lava  of  prodigious  thickness,  the  whole  mass 
was  raised  up,  and  now  forms  the  Uspallata  chain.  Subsequently, 
by  the  wearing  of  streams,  the  embedded  trunks  have  been  brought 
into  view  in  a  silicified  state,  projecting  from  the  soil  in  which  they 
grew  —  now  solid  rock. 

"  Vast  and  scarcely  comprehensible  as  such  changes  must  ever 
appear,  yet  they  have  all  occurred  within  a  period  recent  when  com- 
pared with  the  history  of  the  Cordillera ;  and  the  Cordillera  itself 
is  absolutely  modern  compared  with  many  of  the  fossiliferous  strata 
of  Europe  and  America."2 

From  the'quantity  of  shingle  and  sand  in  the  valleys  in  the  lower 
ridges,  as  well  as  at  altitudes  from  7000  to  9000  feet  above  the  pre- 
sent level  of  the  sea",  it  appears  that  the  whole  area  of  the  Chilian 
Andes  has  been  rising  for  centuries  by  a  gradual  motion ;  and  the 
coast  is  now  rising  by  the  same  imperceptible  degrees,  though  it  is 
sometimes  suddenly  elevated  by  a  succession  of  small  upheavings 
of  a  few  feet  by  earthquakes  similar  to  that  which  shook  the  conti- 
nent for  1000  miles  on  the  20th  of  February,  1835. 

On  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  the  land  from  Tierra  del  Fuego 
to  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  has  been  raised  en  masse  by  one  great  ele- 
vating force,  acting  equally  and  imperceptibly  for  2000  miles,  within 
the  period  of  the  shell-fish  now  existing,  which,  in  many  parts  of 
these  plains,  even  still  retain  their  colours.  The  gradual  upward 
movement  was  interrupted  by  at  least  eight  long  periods  of  rest, 

1  Mr.  Pentland  found  fossil  shells  of  the  Silurian  period  at  a  height  of 
17,500  feet,  on  the  Bolivian  Nevado  of  Antakaua,  lat.  16°  21',  and  those 
of  the  carboniferous  limestone  as  high  as  14,200  in  several  parts  of  Upper 
Peru. 

a  Mr.  Darwin's  Journal  of  Travels  in  South  America. 
10* 


114  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  IX. 

marked  by  the  edges  of  the  successive  plains,  which,  extending  from 
south  to  north,  had  formed  so  many  lines  of  sea-coast,  as  they  rose 
higher  and  higher  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Andes.  It  appears, 
from  the  shingle  and  fossil  shells  found  on  both  sides  of  the  Cordil- 
lera, that  the  whole  south-western  extremity  of  the  continent  has 
been  rising  slowly  for  a  long  time,  and  indeed  the  whole  Andean 
chain.  The  rise  on  the  coast  of  Chile  has  been  at  the  rate  of  seve- 
ral feet  in  a  century;  but  it  has  diminished  eastward,  till,  in  the 
Patagonian  plains  and  Pampas,  it  has  been  only  a  few  inches  in  the 
same  line. 

The  instability  of  the  southern  part  of  the  continent  is  less  as- 
tonishing, if  it  be  considered  that  at  the  time  of  the  earthquake  of 
1835  the  volcanoes  in  the  Chilian  Andes  were  in  eruption  contem- 
poraneously for  720  miles  in  one  direction  and  400  in  another,  so 
that  in  all  probability  there  was  a  subterranean  lake  of  burning  lava 
below  this  end  of  the  continent  twice  as  large  as  the  Black  Sea.1 

The  terraced  plains  of  Patagonia,  which  extend  hundreds  of  miles 
along  the  coast,  are  tertiary  strata,  not  in  basins,  but  in  one  great 
deposit,  above  which  lies  a  thick  stratum  of  a  white  pumaceous  sub- 
stance, extending  at  least  five  hundred  miles,  a  tenth  part  of  which 
consists  of  marine  infusoria.  Over  the  whole  lies  the  shingle  already 
mentioned,  spread  over  the  coast  for  700  miles  in  length,  with  a 
mean  breadth  of  200  miles,  and  50  feet  thick.  These  myriads  of 
pebbles,  chiefly  of  porphyry,  have  been  torn  from  the  rocks  of  the 
Andes,  and  water-worn,  at  a  period  subsequent  to  the  deposition  of 
the-tertiary  strata — a  period  of  incalculable  duration.  All  the  plains 
of  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  Patagonia,  on  both  sides  of  the  Andes,  are 
strewed  with  huge  boulders,  which  are  supposed  to  have  been  trans- 
ported by  icebergs  which  had  descended  to  lower  latitudes  in  ancient 
times  than  they  do  now  —  observations  of  great  interest  which  we 
owe  to  Mr.  Darwin. 

The  stunted  vegetation  of  these  sterile  plains  was  sufficient  to 
nourish  large  animals,  now  extinct,  of  the  family  of  the  Pachyder- 
niata,  even  at  a  period  when  the  present  shell-fish  of  the  Patagonian 
seas  existed. 

The  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  are  partly  alluvial,  the  deposit  of 
the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  Granite  prevails,  to  the  extent  of  2000  miles 
along  the  coast  of  Brazil,  and  with  syenite  forms  the  base  of  the 
table-land.  The  superstructure  of  the  latter  consists  of  metamor- 
phic  and  old  igneous  rocks,  sandstone,  clay-slate,  limestone ;  in 
the  latter  are  large  caverns  containing  bones  of  several  species  of 
extinct  animals.  Gold  is  found  in  the  alluvial  soil  on  the  banks  of 
the  rivers,  and  in  the  slate  rocks  of  the  Palaeozoic  period,  from  the 
destruction  of  which  this  alluvium  has  been  derived,  and  diamonds, 

1  Mr.  Darwin's  Journal  of  Travels  in  South  America 


CHAP.  X.  CENTRAL    AM  ERICA,  115 

so  abundant  in  that  country,  in  a  ferruginous  conglomerate  of  a  very 
recent  period. 

The  fertile  soil  of  the  Silvas  has  travelled  from  afar  :  washed 
down  from  the  more  elevated  regions,  it  has  been  gradually  deposited 
and  manured  by  the  decay  of  a  thousand  forests.  Granite  again 
appears,  in  more  than  its  usual  ruggedness,  in  the  table-land  and 
mountains  of  the  Parima  system.  The  sandstone  of  the  Andes  is 
found  there  also ;  and  on  the  plains  of  Esmeralda  it  caps  the  granite 
of  the  solitary  prism-shaped  Duida,  the  culminating  mountain  of 
the  Parima  system.  Limestone  appears  in  the  Brigantine  or  Co- 
collar,  the  most  southern  of  the  three  ranges  of  the  coast-chain  of 
Venezuela;  the  other  two  are  of  granite,  metamorphic  rocks,  and 
crystalline  schists,  torn  by  earthquakes  and  worn  by  the  sea,  which 
has  deeply  indented  that  coast.  The  chain  of  islands  in  the  Spanish 
main  is  merely  the  wreck  of  a  more  northern  ridge,  broken  up  into 
detached  masses  by  these  irresistible  powers. 


CHAPTER   X. 

Central  America  —  West  Indian  Islands  —  Geological  Notice. 

TAKING  the  natural  divisions  of  the  continent  alone  into  consi* 
deration,  Central  America  may  be  regarded  as  lying  between  the 
Isthmus  of  Panama  and  Darien  and  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec, 
and  consequently  in  a  tropical  climate.  This  narrow  tortuous  strip 
of  land,  which  unites  the  continents  of  North  and  South  America, 
stretches,  from  S.E.  to  N.W.  about  1200  miles,  varying  in  breadth 
from  20  to  300  or  400  miles. 

As  a  regular  chain,  the  Andes  descend  suddenly  at  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,1  but  as  a  mass  of  high  land  they  continue  through  Cen- 
tral America  and  Mexico,  in  an  irregular  mixture  of  table-lands  and 
mountains.  The  mass  of  high  land  which  forms  the  central  ridge 
of  the  country,  and  the  watershed  between  the  two  oceans,  is  very 
steep  on  its  western  side,  arid  runs  near  the  coast  of  the  Pacific, 
where  Central  America  is  narrow;  but  to  the  north,  where  it  becomes 
wider,  it  recedes  to  a  greater  distance  from  the  shore  than  the  Andes 
do  in  any  other  part  between  Cape  Horn  and  Mexico. 

This  country  consists  of  three  distinct  groups,  divided  by  valleys 

1  From  the  American  survey  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panamd  by  Col.  Hughes, 
the  highest  point  to  be  traversed  by  the  projected  railroad  is  Baldwin's 
Summit,  299  feet  above  the  sea  —  which  the  road  is  to  cut  through  by  a 
tunnel  254  feet  above  the  same  level 


116  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  X. 

•which  run  from  sea  to  sea,  namely,  Costarica,  the  group  of  Hondu- 
ras and  Nicaragua,  and  the  group  of  Guatemala.1 

The  plains  of  Panama,  very  little  raised  above  the  sea,  and  in 
some  parts  studded  with  hills,  follow  the  direction  of  the  isthmus 
for  280  miles,  and  end  at  the  Bay  of  Parita.  From  thence  the 
forest-covered  Cordillera  of  Veragua,  supposed  to  be  9000  feet  high, 
extends  to  the  small  but  elevated  table-land  of  Costarica,  surrounded 
by  volcanoes,  and  terminates  at  the  plain  of  Nicaragua,  which,  toge- 
ther with  its  lake,  occupies  an  area  of  30,000  square  miles,  and  forms 
the  second  break  in  the  great  Andean  chain.  The  lake  is  only  128 
feet  above  the  Pacific,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  line  of  active 
volcanoes.  The  river  of  San  Juan  flows  from  its  eastern  end  into 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  at  its  northern  extremity  it  is  connected 
with  the  smaller  lake  of  Managua  or  Leon  by  the  river  Penaloya  or 
Tipitapa.  By  this  water-line  it  has  been  projected  to  unite  the  two 
seas.  The  high  land  begins  again,  after  an  interval  of  170  miles, 
with  the  Mosquito  country  and  Honduras,  which  mostly  consist  of 
table-lands  and  high  mountains,  some  of  which  are  volcanoes. 

Guatemala  is  a  table-land  intersected  by  deep  valleys,  which  lies 
between  the  plain  of  Comayagua  and  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec. 
It  spreads  to  the  east  in  the  peninsula  of  Yucatan,  which  terminates 
at  Cape  Catoche,  and  encompasses  the  Bay  of  Honduras  with  ter- 
races of  high  mountains.  The  table-land  of  Guatemala  consists  of 
undulating  verdant  plains  of  great  extent,  of  the  absolute  height  of 
5000  feet,  fragrant  with  flowers.  In  the  southern  part  the  cities  of 
Old  and  New  Guatemala  are  situate,  12  miles  apart.  The  portion 
of  the  plain  on  which  the  new  city  stands  is  bounded  on  the  west 
by  the  three  volcanoes  of  Pacaya,  Fuego,  and  Agua;  these,  rising 
from  7000  to  10,000  feet  above  the  plain,  lie  close  to  the  new  city 
on  the  west,  and  form  a  scene  of  wonderful  boldness  and  beauty. 
The  Volcano  de  Agua,  at  the  foot  of  which  Old  Guatemala  stands, 
is  a  perfect  cone,  verdant  to  its  summit,  which  occasionally  pours 
forth  torrents  of  boiling  water  and  stones.  The  old  city  has  been 
twice  destroyed  by  it,  and  is  now  nearly  deserted  on  account  of  earth- 
quakes. The  Volcano  del  Fuego  generally  emits  smoke  from  one 
of  its  peaks;  and  the  Volcano  de  Pacaya  is  only  occasionally  active. 
The  wide  grassy  plains  are  cut  by  deep  valleys  to  the  north,  where 
the  high  land  of  Guatemala  ends  in  parallel  ridges  of  mountains, 
called  the  Cerro  Pelado,  which  run  from  east  to  west  along  the  94th 
meridian,  filling  half  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  which  is  140 
miles  broad,  and  unites  the  table-land  of  Guatemala  with  that  of 
Mexico. 

Though  there  are  large  savannahs  on  the  high  plains  of  Guate- 
mala, there  are  also  magnificent  primeval  forests,  as  the  name  of  the 

1  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas. 


CHAP.  X.  WEST    INDIAN    ISLANDS.  117 

country  implies,  Guatemala  signifying,  in  the  Mexican  language,  a 
place  covered  with  trees.  The  banks  of  the  Rio  de  la  Papian,  or 
Usumasjnta,  a  tributary  of  which  rises  in  the  alpine  lake  of  Peten, 
and  flows  over  the  table-land  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  are  beautiful 
beyond  description. 

The  coasts  of  Central  America  are  generally  narrow,  and  in  some 
places  the  mountains  and  high  lands  come  close  to  the  water's  edge. 
The  sugar-cane  is  indigenous,  and  on  the  low  lands  of  the  eastern 
coast  all  the  ordinary  produce  of  the  West  Indian  islands  is  raised, 
besides  much  that  is  peculiar  to  the  country. 

As  the  climate  is  cool  on  the  high  lands,  the  vegetation  of  the 
temperate  zone  is  there  in  perfection.  On  the  low  lands,  as  in  other 
countries  where  heat  and  moisture  are  in  excess,  and  where  nature 
is  for  the  most  part  undisturbed,  vegetation  is  vigorous  to  rankness : 
forests  of  gigantic  timber  seek  the  pure  air  above  an  impenetrable 
undergrowth,  and  the  mouths  of  the  rivers  are  dense  masses  of 
jungle  with  mangroves  and  reeds  100  feet  high,  yet  delightful 
savannahs  vary  the  scene,  and  wooded  mountains  dip  into  the  water. 

Nearly  all  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  skirted  by  an  alluvial  plain, 
of  small  width,  and  generally  very  different  in  character  from  that 
on  the  Atlantic  side.  In  a  line  along  the  western  side  of  the  table- 
land and  the  mountains  there  is  a  continued  succession  of  volcanoes, 
at  various  distances  from  the  shore,  and  at  various  heights,  on  the 
declivity  of  the  table-land.  It  seems  as  if  a  great  crack  or  fissure 
had  been  produced  in  the  earth's  surface,  along  the  junction  of  the 
mountains  and  the  shore,  through  which  the  internal  fire  had  found 
a  vent.  There  are  more  than  20  active  volcanoes  in  succession  be- 
tween the  10th  and  20th  parallels  of  north  latitude ;  some  higher 
than  the  mountains  of  the  central  ridge,  and  several  subject  to  vio- 
lent eruptions.  Altogether  there  are  89  in  Central  America,  17  of 
which  are  in  Guatemala — a  greater  number  than  in  any  other  coun- 
try, Java  excepted. 

The  Colombian  Archipelago,  or  West  Indian  Islands,  which  may 
be  regarded  as  the  wreck  of  a  submerged  part  of  the  continent  of 
South  and  Central  America,  consists  of  three  distinct  groups, 
namely,  the  Lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbean  Islands,  the  Greater  An- 
tilles, and  the  Bahama  or  Lucay  Islands.  Some  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  are  flat,  but  their  general  character  is  bold,  with  a  single 
mountain  or  group  of  mountains  in  the  centre,  which  slopes  to  the 
sea  all  around,  more  precipitously  on  the  eastern  side,  which  is  exposed 
to  the  force  of  the  Atlantic  current.  Trinidad  is  the  most  southerly 
of  a  line  of  magnificent  islands,  which  form  a  semi-circle,  enclosing 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  with  its"  convexity  facing  the  east.  The  range 
is  single  to  the  island  of  Guadaloupe,  where  it  splits  into  two  chains, 
known  as  the  Windward  and  Leeward  Islands.  Trinidad,  Tobago, 
St.  Lucia,  and  Dominica  are  particularly  inountai- ">us,  and  the 


118  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  X. 

mountains  are  cut  by  deep  narrow  ravines,  or  gullies,  covered  by 
ancient  forests.  The  volcanic  islands,  which  are  mostly  in  the  single 
part  of  the  chain,  have  conical  mountains  bristled  with  rocks  of  a 
still  more  rugged  form ;  but  almost  all  the  islands  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles  have  a  large  portion  of  excellent  vegetable  soil  in  a  high 
state  of  cultivation.  Most  of  them  are  surrounded  by  coral  reefs, 
which  render  navigation  dangerous,  and  there  is  little  intercourse 
between  these  islands,  and  still  less  with  the  Greater  Antilles,  on 
account  of  the  prevailing  winds  and  currents,  which  make  it  difficult 
to  return.  The  Lesser  Antilles  terminate  with  the  group  of  the 
Virgin  Islands,  which  are  small  and  flat,  some  only  a  few  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  most  of  them  are  mere  coral  rocks. 

The  four  islands  which  form  the  group  of  the  Greater  Antilles 
are  the  largest  and  finest  in  the  Archipelago.  Porto  Rico,  Haiti  or 
San  Domingo,  and  Jamaica,  separated  from  the  Virgin  Islands  by 
a  narrow  channel,  lie  in  a  line  parallel  to  the  coast-chain  of  Vene- 
zuela, from  east  to  west ;  while  Cuba,  by  a  serpentine  bend,  separates 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  or  Sea  of  the  Antilles,  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Porto  Rico  is  90  miles  long  and  36  broad,  with  wooded  mountains 
passing  through  its  centre  nearly  from  east  to  west,  which  furnish 
abundance  of  water.  There  are  extensive  savannahs  in  the  interior, 
and  very  rich  soil  on  the  northern  coast,  but  the  climate  near  the 
sea  is  unhealthy. 

Haiti  or  San  Domingo,  340  miles  long  and  132  broad,  has  a  chain 
of  mountains  in  its  centre,  extending  from  east  to  west  like  all  the 
mountains  in  the  Greater  Antilles,  the  highest  point  of  which  is 
9000  feet  above  the  sea.  A  branch  diverges  from  the  main  stem 
to  Cape  Tiburon,  so  that  Haiti  contains  a  great  proportion  of  high 
land.  The  mountains  are  susceptible  of  cultivation  nearly  to  the 
summit,  and  are  clothed  with  undisturbed  tropical  forests.  The 
extensive  plains  are  well  watered,  and  the  soil,  though  not  deep,  is 
productive. 

Jamaica,  the  most  valuable  of  the  British  possessions  in  the  West 
Indies,  has  an  area  of  4256  square  miles,  of  which  110,000  acres 
are  cultivated,  chiefly  as  sugar-plantation.  The  principal  chain  of 
the  Blue  Mountains  lies  in  the  centre  of  the  island,  from  east  to 
west,  with  so  sharp  a  crest  that  in  some  places  it  is  only  four  yards 
across.  The  offsets  from  it  cover  all  the  eastern  part  of  the  island ; 
some  of  them  are  very  high.  The  more  elevated  ridges  are  flanked 
by  lower  ranges,  descending  to  verdant  savannahs.  The  escarp- 
ments are  wild,  the  declivities  steep,  and  mingled  with  stately  forests. 
The  valleys  are  very  narrow,  and  not  more  than  a  twentieth  part  of 
the  island  is  level  ground.  There  are  many  small  rivers,  and  the 
coast-line  is  500  miles  long,  with  at  least  30  good  harbours.  The 
mean  summer-heat  is  80°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  that  of  winter  is  75°. 


CHAP.  X.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  119 

The  plains  are  often  unhealthy,  but  the  air  in  the  mountains  is  salu- 
brious; fever  has  never  prevailed  at  the  elevation  of  2500  feet. 

Cuba,  the  largest  island  in  the  Colombian  Archipelago,  has  an 
area  of  8615  square  leagues,  and  200  miles  of  coast,  but  so  beset 
with  coral  reefs,  sandbanks,  and  rocks,  that  only  a  third  of  it  is  ac- 
cessible. Its  mountains,  which  attain  the  height  of  8000  feet 
occupy  the  centre,  and  fill  the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  in  a  great 
longitudinal  line.  No  island  in  these  seas  is  more  important  with 
regard  to  situation  and  natural  productions;  and  although  much  of 
the  low  ground  is  swampy  and  unhealthy,  there  are  vast  savannahs, 
and  about  a  seventh  part  of  the  island  is  cultivated. 

The  Bahama  Islands  are  the  least  valuable  and  least  interesting 
part  of  the  Archipelago.  The  group  consists  of  about  500  islands, 
many  of  them  mere  rocks,  lying  east  of  Cuba  and  the  coast  of 
Florida.  Twelve  are  rather  large,  and  are  cultivated ;  and,  though 
arid,  they  produce  Log-wood  and  Mahogany.  The  most  intricate 
labyrinth  of  shoals  and  reefs,  chiefly  of  corals,  madrepores,  and 
sand,  encompass  these  islands ;  some  of  them  rise  to  the  surface, 
and  are  adorned  with  groves  of  palm-trees.  The  Great  Bahama  is 
the  first  part  of  the  New  World  on  which  Columbus  landed — the 
next  was  Haiti,  where  his  ashes  rest. 

The  geology  of  Central  America  is  little  known ;  nevertheless  it 
appears,  from  the  confused  mixture  of  table-lands  and  mountain- 
chains  in  all  directions,  that  'the  subterraneous  forces  must  have 
acted  more  partially  and  irregularly  than  either  in  South  or  North 
America.  Granite,  gneiss,  and  mica-slate  form  the  substrata  of  the 
country ;  but  the  abundance  of  igneous  rocks  bears  witness  to  strong 
volcanic  action,  both  in  ancient  and  in  modern  times,  which  still 
maintains  its  activity  in  the  volcanic  groups  of  Guatemala  and 
Mexico. 

From  the  identity  of  the  fossil  remains  of  extinct  quadrupeds, 
there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  West  Indian  Archipelago 
was  once  part  of  South  America,  and  that  the  rugged  and  tortuous 
isthmus  of  Central  America,  and  the  serpentine  chain  of  islands 
winding  from  Cumana  to  the  peninsula  of  Florida,  are  but  tue  shat- 
tered remains  of  an  unbroken  continent.  The  powerful  volcanic 
action  in  Central  America  and  Mexico,  the  volcanic  nature  of  many 
of  the  West  Indian  Islands,  and  the  still-existing  fire  in  St.  Vin- 
cent's, together  with  the  tremendous  earthquakes  to  which  the 
whole  region  is  subject,  render  it  more  than  probable  that  the  Carib- 
bean Sea  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  are  one  great  area  of  subsidence, 
which  possibly  has  been  increased  by  the  erosion  of  the  Gulf-stream 
and  ground-swell — a  temporary  current  of  great  impetuosity,  com- 
mon among  the  West  Indian  Islands  from  October  to  May. 

The  subsidence  of  this  extensive  area  must  have  been  very  great, 
since  the  water  is  of  considerable  depth  between  the  islands.  It 


120  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  X. 

must  have  taken  place  after  the  destruction  of  the  great  quadrupeds, 
and  consequently  at  a  very  recent  geological  period.  The  elevation 
of  the  table-land  of  Mexico  may  have  been  a  contemporaneous  event. 
In  the  Colombian  Archipelago,  volcanic  action  is  confined  to  the 
smaller  islands,  which,  forming  a  line  in  a  meridional  direction,  ex- 
tend from  12°  to  18°  N.,  and  may  be  designated  as  the  Caribbean 
range :  it  begins  with  Grenada  and  ends  with  St.  Eustatius.  St. 
Vincent,  St.  Lucia,  Martinique,  a  great  portion  of  Guadaloupe, 
Montserrat,  Nevis,  and  St.  Kitts  are  volcanic;  most  of  them  pos- 
sess craters  recently  extinct,  which  have  vomited  ashes  and  lava 
within  historical  periods;  whilst  the  less  elevated  of  the  Leeward 
and  Windward  Islands,  Tobago,  Barbadoes,  Deseada,  Antigua,  Bar- 
buda, and  St.  Bartholomew's,  with  the  Virgin  Islands  and  Bahamas, 
are  composed  either  of  calcareous  or  coral  rocks. 


CHAPTER  XI. 

North  America — Table-Land  and  Mountains  of  New  Mexico  —  The  Rocky 
Mountains  —  The  Maritime  Chain  and  Mountains  of  Russian  America. 

ACCORDING  to  the  natural  division'  of  the  continent,  North  Ame- 
rica begins  about  the  20th  degree  of  north  latitude,  and  terminates 
in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  It  is  longer  than  South  America,  but  the  ir- 
regularity of  its  outline  renders  it  impossible  to  estimate  its  area. 
Its  greatest  length  is  about  3100  miles,  and  its  breadth  at  the  widest 
part  is  3500  miles. 

The  general  structure  of  North  America  is  still  more  simple  than 
that  of  the  southern  part  of  the  continent.  The  table-land  of  Mexico 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  are  the  continuation  of  the  high 
land  of  the  Andes,  run  along  the  western  side,  but  at  so  great  a  dis- 
tance from  the  Pacific  as  to  admit  of  another  system  of  mountains 
along  the  coast.  The  immense  plains  to  the  east  are  divided  longi- 
tudinally by  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  which  stretch  from  the  Caro- 
linas  to  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence,  parallel  to  the  Atlantic,  and  at 
no  great  distance  from  it.  Although  the  general  direction  of  the 
mountains  is  from  south  to  north,  yet,  as  they  maintain  a  degree  of 
parallelism  to  the  two  coastss,  they  diverge  towards  the  north  —  one 
inclining  towards  the  north-west  and  the  other  towards  the  north- 
east. The  long  narrow  plain  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Allegha- 
pies  is  divided,  throughout  its  length,  by  a  line  of  cliffs  not  more 
than  200  or  300  feet  above  the  Atlantic  plain,  the  outcropping  edge 
of  the  Second  Terrace,  or  Atlantic  slope,  whose  rolling  surface  goes 
west  to  the  foot  of  the  mountains. 


CHAP.  XL  MEXICAN    VOLCANOES.  121 

An  enormous  table-land  occupies  the  greater  part  of  Mexico  or 
Anahuac.  It  begins  at  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec,  and  extends 
north-west  to  the  42nd  parallel  of  north  latitude  —  a  distance  of 
1600  miles,  which  is  nearly  equal  to  the  distance  from  the  northern 
extremity  of  Scotland  to  Gibraltar.  It  is  narrow  towards  the  south, 
and  expands  towards  the  north-west  till  about  the  latitude  of  the 
city  of  Mexico,  where  it  attains  its  greatest  breadth  of  360  miles, 
and  there  also  it  is  highest.  The  most  easterly  part  in  that  parallel 
is  about  5000  feet  above  the  sea,  from  whence  it  rises  towards  the 
west  to  the  height  of  7482  feet  at  the  city  of  Mexico,  and  then 
gradually  diminishes  to  4000  feet  towards  the  Pacific. 

Its  height  in  California  is  not  known,  but  it  still  bears  the  charac- 
ter of  a  table-land,  and  maintains  an  elevation  of  6000  feet  along 
the  east  side  of  the  Serra  Madre,  even  to  the  32nd  degree  of  north 
latitude,  where  it  sinks  to  a  lower  level  before  joining  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  The  descent  from  this  plateau  to  the  low  lands  is  very 
steep  on  all  sides ;  on  the  east,  especially,  it  is  so  precipitous  that, 
seen  from  a  distance,  it  is  like  a  range  of  high  mountains.  There 
are  only  two  carriage-roads  to  it  from  the  Mexican  Gulf,  by  passes 
500  miles  asunder  —  one  at  Xalapa,  near  Vera  Cruz,  the  other  at 
Santilla,  west  of  Monterey.  The  descent  to  the  shores  of  the  Pa- 
cific is  almost  equally  rapid,  and  that  to  the  south  no  less  so,  where, 
for  300  miles  between  the  plains  of  Tehuantepec  and  the  Rio  Yo- 
pez,  it  presses  on  the  shores  of  the  Pacific,  and  terminates  in  high 
mountains,  leaving  only  a  narrow  margin  of  hilly  maritime  coast. 
Where  the  surface  of  the  table-land  is  not  traversed  by  mountains, 
it  is  as  level  as  the  ocean.  There  is  a  carriage-road  over  it  for  1500 
miles,  without  hills,  from  the  city  of  Mexico  to  Santa  F6. 

The  southern  part  of  the  plateau  is  divided  into  four  parts  or 
distinct  plains,  surrounded  by  hills  from  500  to  1000  feet  high.  In 
one  of  these,  the  plain  of  Tenochtitlan,  surrounded  by  a  wall  of  por- 
phyritic  mountains,  stands  the  city  of  Mexico,  once  the  capital  of 
the  empire  of  Montezuma,  which  must  have  far  surpassed  the  mo- 
dern city  in  extent  and  splendour,  as  many  remains  of  its  ancient 
glory  testify.  It  is  7482  feet  above  the  sea. 

One  of  the  singular  crevices  through  which  the  internal  fire  finds 
a  vent,  stretches  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  to  the  Pacific,  directly 
across  the  table-land,  in  a  line  about  16  miles  south  of  the  city  of 
Mexico.  A  very  remarkable  row  of  active  volcanoes  occurs  along 
this  parallel;  Tuxtla,  the  most  eastern  of  them,  is  in  the  95th  de- 
gree of  west  longitude,  near  the  Mexican  Gulf,  in  a  low  range  of 
wooded  hills.  More  to  the  west  stands  the  snow-shrouded  cone  of 
Orizaba,  with  its  ever-fiery  crater,  seen  like  a  star  in  the  darkness- 
of  the  night,  which  has  obtained  it  the  name  of  Citlaltepetl  —  the 
"  Mountain  of  the  Star."  Popocatepetl,  the  loftiest  mountain  in 
Mexico,  17,720  feet  above  the  sea,  lies  still  farther  west,  and  is  in 


122  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XI. 

a  state  of  constant  eruption,  which,  with  the  peaks  of  Iztacihuatl 
and  of  Toluca,  form  a  kind  of  volcanic  circus,  in  the  midst  of  which 
the  city  of  Mexico  and  its  lake  are  situated.  A  chain  of  smaller 
volcanoes  unites  the  three.  On  a  plain  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
table-land,  and  about  70  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  the  Pacific,  is 
the  volcanic  cone  of  Jorullo.1  It  suddenly  appeared,  and  rose  1683 
feet  above  the  plain,  on  the  night  of  the  29th  of  September,  1759, 
and  is  the  highest  of  six  mountains  which  have  been  thrown  up  on 
this  part  of  the  table-land  since  the  middle  of  last  century.  The 
great  cone  of  Colima,  the  last  of  this  volcanic  series,  stands  insu- 
lated in  the  plain  of  that  name,  between  the  western  declivity  of 
the  table-land  and  the  Pacific. 

A  high  range  of  mountains  extends  along  the  eastern  margin  of 
the  table-land  to  the  Real  de  Catorce,  and  the  surface  of  the  plain 
is  divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Serra  Madre,  which  begins  at  21° 
of  N.  lat. ;  and,  after  running  north  about  60  miles,  its  continuity 
is  broken  into  the  insulated  ridges  of  the  Serra  Altamina,  and  the 
group  containing  the  celebrated  silver-mines  of  Fresnillo  and  Zaca- 
tecas :  it  soon  after  resumes  its  character  of  a  regular  chain,  and, 
with  a  breadth  of  100  miles,  proceeds  in  parallel  ridges  and  longi- 
tudinal valleys  to  New  Mexico,  where  it  skirts  both  banks  of  the 
Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  and  joins  the  Serra  Verde,  the  most  southern 
part  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  40°  of  N.  lat. 

To  the  south,  some  points  of  the~  Sierra  Madre  are  said  to  be 
10,000  feet  high  and  4000  feet  above  their  base ;  and  between  the 
parallels  of  36°  and  42°,  where  the  chain  is  the  watershed  between 
the  Rio  Colora'do  and  the  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  they  are  still  higher, 
and  perpetually  covered  with  snow.  The  mountains  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  last-mentioned  river  are  the  eastern  ridges  of  the  Serra 
Madre,  and  contain  the  sources  of  the  innumerable  affluents  of  the 
Missouri  and  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mississippi  and  Mexican 
Gulf. 

Deep  cavities,  called  Barancas,  are  a  characteristic  feature  of  the 
table-lands  of  Mexico :  they  are  long  rents,  two  or  three  miles  in 
breadth,  and  many  more  in  length,  often  descending  1000  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  plain,  with  a  brook  or  the  tributary  of  some  river 
flowing  through  them.  Their  sides  are  precipitous  and  rugged,  with 
overhanging  rocks  covered  with  large  trees.  The  intense  heat  adds 
to  the  contrast  between  these  hollows  and  the  bare  plains,  where  the 
air  is  more  cool. 

Vegetation  varies  with  the  elevation ;  consequently  the  splendour 
which  adorns  the  low  lands  vanishes  on  the  high  plains,  which, 
though  producing  much  grain  and  pasture,  are  often  saline,  sterile, 

1  Baron  Humboldt. 


CHAP.  XI.  THE    ROCKY    MOUNTAINS.  123 

and  treeless,  except  in  some  places  where  oaks  grow  to  an  enormous 
size,  free  of  underwood. 

The  Rocky  Mountains  run  1800  miles  in  two  parallel  chains  from 
the  mountains  of  Anahuac  in  latitude  40°  N.  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Mackenzie  river  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  sometimes  united  by  a  trans- 
verse ridge.  In  some  places  the  eastern  range  rises  to  the  snow- 
line,  and  even  far  above  it,  as  in  Mounts  Hooker  and  Brown,  15,700 
and  15,990  feet  high ;  but  the  general  elevation  is  only  above  the 
line  of  trees.  The  western  range  is  not  so  high  till  north  of  the 
55th  parallel,  where  both  ranges  are  of  the  same  height,  and  fre- 
quently higher  than  the  snow-line.  They  are  generally  barren, 
though  the  transverse  valleys  have  fertile  spots  with  grass,  and 
sometimes  trees.  Their  only  ofiset  in  the  south  is  the  Saba  and 
Ozark  mountains,  which  fun  through  Texas  to  the  Mississippi.  The 
long  valley  between  the  two  rows  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  which  is 
100  miles  wide,  must  have  considerable  elevation  in  the  south,  since 
the  tributaries  of  the  Colombia  river  descend  from  it  in  a  series  of 
rapids  and  cataracts  for  nearly  100  miles;  and  it  is  probably  still 
higher  towards  the  sources  of  the  Peace  river,  where  the  mountains, 
only  1500  feet  above  it,  are  perpetually  covered  with  snow.  The 
Serra  Verde  is  490  miles  from  the  Pacific,  but  as  the  coast  trends 
due  north  to  the  Sound  of  Juan  de  Fuca,  the  western  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains  maintains  a  distance  of  380  miles  from  the  ocean, 
from  that  point  to  the  latitude  of  Behring's  Sea,  in  60°  of  N.  lat. 

The  mountains  on  the  west  coast  consist  of  two  chains,  one  of 
which,  beginning  in  Mexico,  about  the  same  latitude  with  the  Sierra 
Madre,  skirts  the  Gulf  of  California  on  the  east,  and  maintains 
rather  an  inland  course  till  north  of  the  Oregon  river,  where  it  forms 
the  Sea  Alps  of  the  coast ;  and  then,  increasing  in  breadth  as  it 
passes  through  Russian  America,  it  ends  at  Nootka  Sound. 

The  other  chain,  known  as  the  Sea  Alps  of  California,  begins  at 
the  extremity  of  the  peninsula,  and,  running  northward  with  in- 
creasing height  close  to  the  Pacific,  it  passes  through  the  island  of 
Quadra  at  Vancouver,  and  after  joining  the  Alps  of  the  north-west 
coast,  it  terminates  at  Mount  St.  Elias,  which  is  17,860  feet  high. 
A  range  of  very  high  snowy  mountains,  which  begins  at  Cape  Men- 
docino,  goes  directly  across  both  of  these  coast-chains,  and  unites 
them  to  the  Rocky  Mountains.  It  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Colorado,  which  goes  to  the  Gulf  of  California,  and  the  affluents 
of  the  Oregon  or  Columbia  river,  which  flows  into  the  Pacific,  and 
is  continued  to  the  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  at  a  less  elevation, 
under  the  name  of  the  Black  Mountains,  which  stretch  to  the  Mis- 
souri. Prairies  extend  between  this  coast-chain  and  the  Rocky 
Mountains  from  California  to  the  north  of  the  Oregon  river.  The 
Oregon  coast,  for  200  miles,  is  a  mass  of  undisturbed  forest-thickets 
and  marshes ;  and  north  from  it,  with  few  exceptions,  is  a  mountain- 


124  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

ous  region  of  bold  aspect,  often  reaching  above  the  snow-line.  A 
branch  of  the  Sea  Alps,  which  runs  Westward  to  Bristol  Bay,  has 
many  active  volcanoes,  and  so  has  that  which  fills  the  promontory 
of  Aliaska. 

•  Archipelagoes  and  islands  along  the  coast,  from  California  to  the 
promontory  of  Aliaska,  have  the  same  bold  character  as  the  main- 
land, and  may  be  regarded  as  the  tops  of  a  submarine  chain  of  table- 
lands and  mountains  which  constitute  the  most  westerly  ridge  of 
the  maritime  chains.  Prince  of  Wales's  Archipelago  contains  seven 
active  volcanoes. 

The  mountains  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific  and  the  islands  are  in 
many  places  covered  with  colossal  forests,  but  wide  tracts  in  the 
south  are  sandy  deserts. 


CHAPTER   XII. 

North  America,  continued — The  Great  Central  Plains,  or  Valley  of  the 
Mississippi — The  Alleghany  Mountains — The  Atlantic  Slope — The  Atlan- 
tic Plain — Geological  Notice  —  The  Mean  Height  of  the  Continents. 

THE  great  central  plain  of  North  America,  lying  between  the 
Rocky  and  Alleghany  Mountains,  and  reaching  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  includes  the  valleys  of  the  Mississippi, 
St.  Lawrence,  Nelson,  Churchill,  and  most  of  those  of  the  Missouri, 
Mackenzie,  and  Coppermine  rivers.  It  has  an  area  of  8,245,000 
square  miles,  which  is  245,000  square  miles  more  than  the  central 
plain  of  South  America,  and  about  half  the  size  of  the  great  plain 
of  the  old  continent,  which  is  less  fertile ;  for  although  the  whole 
of  America  is  not  more  than  half  the  size  of  the  old  continent,  it 
contains  at  least  as  much  productive  soil. 

The  plain,  5000  miles  long,  becomes  wider  towards  the  north,  and 
has  no  elevations  except  a  low  table-land  which  crosses  it  at  the  line 
of  the  Canadian  lakes  and  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  and  is 
nowhere  above  1500  feet  high,  and  rarely  more  than  700  :  it  is  the 
watershed  between  the  streams  that  go  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  and 
those  that  flow  to  the  Misssissippi.  The  character  of  the  plain  is 
that  of  perfect  uniformity,  rising  by  a  gentle  regular  ascent  from 
the  Grulf  of  Mexico  to  the  sources  of  the  Mississippi,  which  river 
is  the  great  feature-  of  the  North  American  low  lands.  The  ground 
rises  in  the  same  equable  manner  from  the  right  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  foot  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  but  its  ascent  from  the 


CHAP.  XII.     VALLEY    OP    THE    MISSISSIPPI.  125 

left  bank  to  the  Alleghanies  is  broken  into  hill  and  dale,  containing 
the  most  fertile  territory  in  the  United  States.  Under  so  wide  a 
range  of  latitude  the  plain  embraces  a  great  variety  of  soil,  climate, 
and  productions ;  but,  being  almost  in  a  state  of  nature,  it  is  char- 
acterized in  its  middle  and  southern  parts  by  interminable  grassy 
savannahs,  or  prairies,  and  enormous  forests,  and  in  the  far  north 
by  deserts  which  rival  those  of  Siberia  in  dreariness. 

In  the  south  a  sandy  desert,  400  or  500  miles  wide,  stretches 
along  the  base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  to  the  41st  degree  of  N.  lat. 
The  dry  plains  of  Texas  and  the  upper  region  of  the  Arkansas  have 
all  the  characteristics  of  Asiatic  table-lands;  more  to  the  north  the 
bare  treeless  steppes  on  the  high  grounds  of  the  far  west  are  burned 
up  in  summer,  and  frozen  in  winter  by  biting  blasts  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains  ;  but  the  soil  improves  toward  the  Mississippi.  At  its 
mouth,  indeed,  there  are  marshes  which  cover  35,000  square  miles, 
bearing  a  rank  vegetation,  and  its  delta  is  a  labyrinth  of  streams 
and  lakes,  with  dense  brushwood.  There  are  also  large  tracts  of 
forest  and  saline  ground,  especially  the  Grand  Saline  between  the 
rivers  Arkansas  and  Nesuketonga,  which  is  often  covered  two  or 
three  inches  deep  with  salt  like  a  fall  of  snow.  All  the  cultivation 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  is  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  in 
the  adjacent  provinces,  and  is  entirely  tropical,  consisting  of  sugar- 
cane, cotton,  and  indigo.  The  prairies,  so  characteristic  of  North 
America,  then  begin. 

To  the  right  of  the  Mississippi  these  savannahs  are  sometimes 
rolling,  but  oftener  level,  and  interminable  as  the  ocean,  covered 
with  long  rank  grass  of  tender  green,  blended  with  flowers  chiefly 
of  the  liliaceous  kind,  which  fill  the  air  with  their  fragrance.  In 
the  southern  districts  they  are  sometimes  interspersed  with  groups 
of  magnolia,  tulip,  and  cotton  trees,  and  in  the  north  with  oak  and 
black  walnut.  These  are  rare  occurrences,  as  the  prairies  may  be 
traversed  for  many  days  without  finding  a  shrub,  except  on  the 
banks  of  the  streams,  which  are  beautifully  fringed  with  myrtles, 
azaleas,  kalmias,  andromedas,  and  rhododendrons.  On  the  wide 
plains  the  only  objects  to  be  seen  are  countless  herds  of  wild  horses, 
bisons,  and  deer.  The  country  assumes  a  more  severe  aspect  in 
higher  latitudes.  It  is  still  capable  of  producing  rye  and  barley  in 
the  territories  of  the  Assiniboine  Indians,  and  round  Lake  Winne- 
peg  there  are  great  forests ;  a  low  vegetation  with  grass  follows,  and 
towards  the  Icy  Ocean  the  land  is  barren  and  covered  with  numerous 
lakes. 

East  of  the  Mississippi  there  is  a  magnificent  undulating  country 
about  300  miles  broad,  extending  1000  miles  from  south  to  north 
between  that  great  river  and  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  mostly  cov- 
ered with  trees.  When  America  was  discovered,  one  uninterrupted 
forest  spread  over  the  country,  from  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence  and 
11* 


126  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

the  Canadian  lakes  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  it  crossed  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  descended  into  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi  on  the  north,  but  on  the  south  it  crossed  the 
main  stream  of  that  river  altogether,  forming  an  ocean  of  vegetation 
of  more  than  1,000,000  of  square  miles,  of  which  the  greater  part 
still  remains.  Although  forests  occupy  so  much  of  the  country, 
there  are  immense  prairies  on  the  east  side  of  the  river  also.  Pine 
barrens,  stretching  far  into  the  interior,  occupy  the  whole  coast  of 
the  Mexican  Gulf  eastward  from  the  Pearl  river,  through  Alabama 
and  a  great  part  of  Florida. 

These  vast  monotonous  tracts  of  sand,  covered  with  forests  of 
gigantic  pine-trees,  are  as  peculiarly  a  distinctive  feature  of  the  con- 
tinent of  North  America  as  the  prairies,  and  are  not  confined  to  this 
part  of  the  United  States ;  they  occur  to  a  great  extent  in  North 
Carolina,  Virginia,  and  elsewhere.  Tennessee  and  Kentucky,  though 
much  cleared,  still  possess  large  forests,  and  the  Ohio  flows  for  hun- 
dreds of  miles  among  magnificent  trees,  with  an  undergrowth  of 
azaleas,  rhododendrons,  and  other  beautiful  shrubs,  matted  together 
by  creeping  plants.  There  the  American  forests  appear  in  all  their 
glory :  the  gigantic  deciduous  cypress,  and  the  tall  tulip-tree,  over- 
topping the  forest  by  half  its  height,  a  variety  of  noble  oaks,  black 
walnuts,  American  plane,  hickory,  sugar-maple,  and  the  lireoden- 
dron,  the  most  splendid  of  the  magnolia  tribe,  the  pride  of  the  forest. 

The  Illinois  waters  a  country  of  prairies  ever  fresh  and  green, 
and  five  new  states  are  rising  round  the  great  lakes,  whose  territory 
of  280,000  square  miles  contains  180,000,000  of  acres  of  land  of 
excellent  quality.  These  states,  still  mostly  covered  with  wood,  lie 
between  the  Lakes  and  the  Ohio,  and  they  reach  from  the  United 
States  to  the  Upper  Mississippi — a  country  twice  as  large  as  France, 
and  six  times  the  size  of  England. 

The  quantity  of  water  in  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  central 
plain  greatly  preponderates  over  that  of  the  land ;  the  five  principal 
lakes,  Huron,  Superior,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  cover  an  area 
equal  to  Great  Britain  [and  Ireland],  without  reckoning  small  lakes 
and  rivers  innumerable. 

[The  north-west  country,  or  Upper  Mississippi  valley,  compre- 
hends about  ten  degrees  of  latitude,  from  39°  to  49°  north,  and 
about  fourteen  degrees  of  longitude,  from  87°  to  101°  (from  10° 
to  24°  from  the  meridian  of  Washington),  and  contains  about 
300,000  square  miles.  A  large  part  of  this  tract,  consisting  of  the 
northern  portion,  is  still  held  by  the  aborigines. 

This  country  has  some  very  peculiar  natural  features.  The  most 
remarkable  of  these  is  the  numberless  lakes  which  spangle  its  north- 
ern surface,  the  remains,  no  doubt,  of  a  vast  sea  that  once  covered 
the  whole  country,  extending  north  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  pos- 
sibly to  Hudson's  Bay. 


CHAP.  XII.      VALLEY    OP    THE     MISSISSIPPI.  127 

The  country  from  the  outlets  of  the  Illinois  and  Missouri  rivers 
to  St.  Peter's,  and  from  Lake  Michigan  to  Council  Bluffs,  and 
beyond  that  point  westerly,  is  a  vast  gently-inclined  plane,  ascend- 
ing to  the  north  and  to  the  west.  Between  the  Mississippi  and  the 
lake  elevation  above  the  Atlantic,  has  been  found  to  be  a  little  more 
than  500  feet ;  and  west  of  the  river  on  the  same  parallel,  towards 
the  Missouri,  something  more  than  700  feet.  At  St.  Peter's  it  is 
about  700  feet.  Nicollet  states  that  Council  Bluffs  is  1037  feet 
above  the  Gulf;  and  the  elevation  of  Rock  Island,  in  the  same  lati- 
tude on  the  Mississippi,  he  says,  is  528 ;  and  the  height  of  Fort 
Pierre  Chouteau,  on  the  Missouri,  on  the  same  authority,  is  1456; 
the  lower  end  of  Lake  Pepin,  in  the  same  latitude  (44°  24'  north), 
is  710  feet,  and  the  mouth  of  the  St.  Peter's,  in  about  latitude  45°, 
is  744  feet.  There  are  few  elevations  above  the  general  range,  called 
mounds;  but  with  the  exception  of  these,  the  surface  is  marked 
only  by  ravines  running  down  to  the  beds  of  the  streams,  which  are 
usually  from  one  to  two  hundred  feet  lower. 

There  are  large  tracts  of  this  north-west  country  wholly  destitute 
of  tree  or  shrub,  and  covered  only  with  a  luxuriant  growth  of  wild 
grass,  and  beautifully  interspersed  with  flowers  of  every  hue,  each 
successively  making  the  prairie  to  look  gay  with  their  presence  from 
April  till  October.  This  beautiful  natural  meadow  yields  bountiful 
returns  for  culture  and  toil  bestowed  upon  it.  It  consists  of  a  very 
dark-brown  vegetable  mould,  and  is  mellow  beyond  the  conception 
of  those  who  are  acquainted  only  with  the  hard,  stiff  soils  of  the 
Atlantic  slope.  This  mould  is  from  one  and  a  half  to  two  feet  deep, 
and  entirely  free  from  gravel.  The  subsoil  is  yellow  light  clay  or 
clay  loams,  which  resembles  the  soil  of  timbered  lands.  The  coun- 
try is  a  limestone  formation.  Timber  is  found  only  along  the 
streams :  it  consists  of  elm,  ash,  black  walnut,  butternut,  maple, 
mulberry,  and  iron-wood,  on  the  bottoms ;  and  on  the  upland,  white, 
red,  black  and  burr-oaks,  shell-bark  arid  common  hickory,  with,  oc- 
casionally, linden,  birch,  wild  plum  and  cherry,  locust,  and  some 
other  trees.  On  the  Wisconsin  and  St.  Croix  Rivers  are  heavy 
growths  of  pine,  from  which  supplies  of  lumber  are  carried  down 
the  Mississippi  River.1 

The  mighty  rivers  of  this  region  must  be  measured  by  travel,  the 
prairies  must  be  crossed,  and  the  lakes  seen,  before  the  mind  fully 
comprehends  a  description  of  them.  "  To  look  at  a  prairie  up  or 
down,"  says  Nicollet,  "  to  ascend  one  of  its  undulations ;  to  reach 
a  small  plateau,  or,  (as  the  voyageurs  call  it,  a  prairie  planche), 
moving  from  wave  to  wave  over  alternate  swells  and  depressions ; 
and,  finally,  to  reach  the  vast  interminable  low  prairie  that  extends 

1  [Notes  on  the  North-West,  or  Valley  of  the  Upper  Mississippi.  By 
W.  J.  A.  Bradford,  New  York,  1846.] 


128  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

itself  in  front,  —  be  it  for  hours,  days,  or  weeks,  one  never  tires ; 
pleasurable  and  exhilarating  sensations  are  all  the  time  felt;  ennui 
is  never  experienced.  Doubtless  there  are  moments  when  excessive 
heat,  a  want  of  fresh  water,  and  other  privations,  remind  one  that 
life  is  toil ;  but  these  drawbacks  are  of  short  duration.  There  is 
almost  always  a  breeze  over  them.  The  security  that  one  feels  in 
knowing  that  there  are  no  concealed  dangers — so  vast  is  the  extent 
the  eye  takes  in  —  no  difficulties  of  road ;  a  far-spreading  verdure, 
relieved  by  a  profusion  of  variously-coloured  flowers ;  the  azure  of 
the  sky  above,  or  the  tempest  that  can  be  seen  from  its  beginning  to 
its  end;  the  beautiful  modifications  of  the  changing  clouds;  the 
curious  looming  of  objects  between  the  earth  and  sky,  tasking  the 
ingenuity  every  moment  to  rectify ;  —  all,  every  thing,  is  calculated 
to  excite  the  perceptions  and  keep  alive  the  imagination.  In  the 
summer  season,  especially,  every  thing  upon  the  prairies  is  cheerful, 
graceful,  and  animated.  The  Indians,  with  herds  of  deer,  antelope 
and  buffalo,  give  life  and  motion  to  them.  It  is  then  they  should  be 
visited;  and  I  pity  the  man  whose  soul  could  remain  unmoved  under 
such  a  scene  of  excitement."] 

The  Canadas  contain  millions  of  acres  of  good  soil,  covered  with 
immense  forests.  Upper  Canada  is  the  most  fertile,  and  in  many 
respects  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  British  colonies  in  the 
West :  every  European  grain,  and  every  plant  that  requires  a  hot 
summer  and  can  endure  a  cold  winter,  thrives  there.  The  forest 
consists  chiefly  of  black  and  white  spruce,  the  Weymouth  and  other 
pines — trees  which  do  not  admit  of  undergrowth :  they  grow  to  great 
height,  like  bare  spars,  with  a  tufted  crown,  casting  a  deep  gloom 
below.  The  fall  of  large  trees  from  age  is  a  common  occurrence, 
and  not  without  danger,  as  it  often  causes  the  destruction  of  those 
adjacent;  and  an  ice-storm  is  awful. 

After  a  heavy  fall  of  snow,  succeeded  by  rain  and  a  partial  thaw, 
a  strong  frost  coats  the  trees  and  all  their  branches  with  transparent 
ice  often  an  inch  thick ;  the  noblest  trees  bend  under  the  load,  icicles 
hang  from  every  bough,  which  come  down  in  showers  with  the  least 
breath  of  wind.  The  hemlock-spruce  especially,  with  its  long 
drooping  branches,  is  then  like  a  solid  mass.  If  the  wind  freshens, 
the  smaller  trees  become  like  corn  beaten  down  by  the  tempest, 
while  the  large  ones  swing  heavily  in  the  breeze.  The  forest  at  last 
gives  way  under  its  load,  tree  comes  down  after  tree  with  sudden 
and  terrific  violence,  crushing  all  before  them,  till  the  whole  is  one 
wild  uproar,  heard  from  afar  like  successive  discharges  of  artillery. 
Nothing,  however,  can  be  imagined  more  brilliant  and  beautiful  than 
the  effect  of  sunshine  in  a  calm  day  on  the  frozen  boughs,  where 
every  particle  of  the  icy  crystals  sparkles,  and  nature  seems  decked 
in  diamonds.1 

1  Mr.  Taylor. 


CHAP.  XII.  THE    ALLEGHANIES.  129 

Although  the  subsoil  is  perpetually  frozen  at  the  depth  of  a  few 
feet  below  the  surface  beyond  the  56th  degree  of  north  latitude,  yet 
trees  grow  in  some  places  up  to  the  64th  parallel.  Farther  north 
the  gloomy  and  majestic  forests  cease,  and  are  succeeded  by  a  bleak, 
barren  waste,  which  becomes  progressively  more  dreary  as  it  ap- 
proaches the  Arctic  Ocean.  Four-fifths  of  it  are  like  the  wilds  of 
Siberia  in  surface  and  climate,  covered  many  months  in  the  year 
with  deep  snow.  During  the  summer  it  is  the  resort  of  herds  of 
rein-deer  and  bisons,  which  come  from  the  south  to  browse  on  the 
tender  short  grass  which  then  springs  up  along  the  streams  and 
lakes. 

The  Alleghany  or  Appalachian  chain,  which  constitutes  the  second 
or  subordinate  system  of  North  American  mountains,  separates  the 
great  central  plain  from  that  which  lies  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Its  base  is  a  strip  of  table-land,  from  1000  to  3000  feet  high,  lying 
between  the  sources  of  the  rivers  Alabama  and  Yazoo,  in  the  south- 
ern states  of  the  Union,  and  New  Brunswick,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  St.  Lawrence.  This  high  land  is  traversed  throughout  1000 
miles,  between  Alabama  and  Vermont,  by  from  three  to  five  parallel 
ridges  of  low  mountains,  rarely  more  than  3000  or  4000  feet  high, 
and  separated  by  fertile  longitudinal  valleys,  which  occupy  more  than 
two-thirds  of  its  breadth  of  100  miles.  In  Virginia  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, the  only  part  of  the  chain  to  which  the  name  of  the  Alle- 
ghany mountains  properly  belongs,  it  is  150  miles  broad,  and  the 
whole  is  computed  to  have  an  area  of  20,000  square  miles.  The 
parallelism  of  the  ridges,  and  the  uniform  level  of  their  summits, 
are  the  characteristics  of  this  chain,  which  is  lower  and  less  wild 
than  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  uniformity  of  outline  in  the  south- 
ern and  middle  parts  of  the  chain  is  very  remarkable,  and  results 
from  their  peculiar  structure.1  These  mountains  have  no  central 
axis,  but  consist  of  a  series  of  convex  and  concave  flexures,  forming 
alternate  hills  and  longitudinal  valleys,  running  nearly  parallel 
throughout  their  length,  and  cut  transversely  by  the  rivers  that  flow 
to  the  Atlantic  on  one  hand,  and  to  the  Mississippi  on  the  other. 
The  watershed  nearly  follows  the  windings  of  the  coast  from  the 
point  of  Florida  to  the  north-western  extremity  of  the  State  of 
Maine. 

The  picturesque  and  peaceful  scenery  of  the  Appalachian  moun- 
tains is  well  known ;  they  are  generally  clothed  with  a  luxuriant 
vegetation,  and  their  western  slope  is  considered  one  of  the  finest 
countries  in  the  United  States.  To  the  south  they  maintain  a  dis- 
tance of  200  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  but  approach  close  to  the  coast 
in  the  south-eastern  part  of  the  State  of  New  York,  from  whence 
their  general  course  is  northerly  to  the  river  St.  Lawrence.  But 

1  Sir  Charles  LyelPs  Travels  in  North  America. 


130  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

the  Blue  Mountains,  which  form  the  most  easterly  ridge,  are  con- 
tinued in  the  double  range  of  the  Green  Mountains  to  Gaspe"  Point 
in  the  Gulf  of  St.  Lawrence.  They  fill  the  Canadas,  Maine,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia  with  branches  as  high  as  the  mean  ele- 
vation of  the  principal  chain,  and  extend  even  to  the  dreary  regions 
of  Baffin's  Bay.  The  chief  Canadian  branches  are  parallel  to 
'the  river  St.  Lawrence.  One  goes  N. E.  from  Quebec;  and  the 
;  Mealy  Mountains,  which  are  of  much  greater  length,  extend  from 
Ottawa  River  to  Sandwich  Bay,  and,  though  low,  are  always  covered 
with  snow.  Little  is  known  of  the  high  lands  within  the  Arctic 
circle,  except  that  they  probably  extend  from  S.E.  to  N.W. 

The  country  between  Hudson's  Bay,  the  mouths  of  the  Churchill 
and  that  of  the  Mackenzie  River,  is  also  an  unknown  region ;  on 
the  east  it  descends  steeply  to  the  coast,  but  the  western  part,  known 
as  the  Barren  Ground,  is  low  and  destitute  of  wood,  except  on  the 
banks  of  the  streams.  The  whole  is  covered  with  low  precipitous 
hills.  Not  only  the  deep  forests,  but  vegetation  in  general,  dimin- 
ish as  the  latitude  increases,  till  on  the  arctic  shores  the  soil  be- 
comes incapable  of  culture,  and  the  majestic  forest  is  superseded  by 
the  arctic  birch,  which  creeps  on  the  ground.  Many  of  the  islands 
along  the  north-eastern  coasts,  though  little  favoured  by  nature,  pro- 
duce flax  and  timber ;  and  Newfoundland,  as  large  as  England  and 
Wales,  maintains  a  population  of  70,000  souls  by  its  fisheries :  it  is 
nearer  to  Britain  than  any  part  of  America — the  distance  from  the 
port  of  St.  John  to  the  harbour  of  Valentia  in  Ireland  is  only  1626 
geographical  miles. 

The  long  aud  comparatively  narrow  plain  which  lies  between  the 
Appalachian  mountains  and  the  Atlantic  extends  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  to  the  eastern  coast  of  Massachusetts.  At  its  southern  ex- 
tremity it  joins  the  plain  of  the  Mississippi,  and  gradually  becomes 
narrower  in  its  northern  course  to  New  England,  where  it  merely 
includes  the  coast  islands.  It  is  divided  throughout  its  length  by  a 
line  of  cliffs  from  200  to  300  feet  high,  which  begins  in  Alabama 
and  ends  on  the  coast  of  Massachusetts.  This  escarpment  is  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  terrace  known  as  the  Atlantic  Slope,  which  rises 
above  the  Maritime  or  Atlantic  Plain,  and  undulates  westward  to 
the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  the  most  eastern  ridge  of  the  Ap- 
palachian chain.  It  is  narrow  at  its  extremities  in  Alabama  and 
New  York,  but  in  Virginia  and  the  Carolinas  it  is  200  miles  wide. 
The  surface  of  the  slope  is  of  great  uniformity ;  ridges  of  hills  and 
long  valleys  run  along  it  parallel  to  the  mountains,  close  to  which 
it  is  600  feet  high.  It  is  rich  in  soil  and  cultivation,  and  has  an 
immense  water-power  in  the  streams  and  rivers  flowing  from  the 
mountains  across  it,  which  are  precipitated  over  its  rocky  edge  to  the 
plains  on  the  west.  More  than  twenty-three  rivers  of  considerable 


CHAP.  XII.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  131 

size  fall  in  cascades  down  this  ledge  between  New  York  and  the 
Mississippi,  affording  scenes  of  great  beauty.1 

Both  land  and  water  assume  a  new  aspect  on  the  Atlantic  Plain. 
The  rivers,  after  dashing  over  the  rocky  barrier,  run  in  tranquil 
streams  to  the  ocean,  and  the  plain  itself  is  a  monotonous  level,  not 
more  than  100  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea.  Along  the  coast 
it  is  scooped  into  valleys  and  ravines,  with  innumerable  creeks. 

The  greater  part  of  the  magnificent  countries  east  of  the  Allegha- 
nies  is  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation  and  commercial  prosperity,  with 
natural  advantages  not  surpassed  in  any  country.  Nature,  however, 
still  maintains  her  sway  in  some  parts,  especially  where  pine-barrens 
and  swamps  prevail.  [The  area  of  the  thirty-one  states  which  now 
form  the  Union  (1853)  is  1,485,870  square  miles,  with  an  average 
population  of  15-48  to  the  square  mile.  The  total  area  of  the  ter- 
ritory of  the  United  States  is  3,220,595  square  miles,  with  an  ave- 
rage population  of  7'219  to  the  square  mile.  The  areas  of  the  great 
lakes  which  lie  on  the  north,  and  the  bays  which  indent  the  Atlantic 
and  Pacific  coasts,  are  not  included  in  this  statement.  The  total 
population  on  the  1st  of  June  1850,  according  to  the  late  census, 
was  23,246,301 ;  and  of  this  number  19,619,366  are  white.  The 
rate  of  decennial  increase  of  the  white  population  is  37-14  per  cent., 
and  the  rate  of  annual  increase  of  the  total  population  is  3|  per 
cent.]  The  territory  of  the  United  States  is  capable  of  producing 
everything  that  is  useful  to  man,  but  not  more  than  a  twenty-sixth 
part  of  it  has  been  cleared.  [According  to  recent  statements, 
1,400,000,000  acres  of  the  public  lands  remain  to  be  sold.]  The 
climate  is  generally  healthy,  the  soil  fertile,  abounding  in  mineral 
treasures,  and  it  possesses  every  advantage  from  navigable  rivers 
and  excellent  harbours.  The  'outposts  of  Anglo-Saxon  civilization 
have  already  reached  the  Pacific,  and  the  tide  of  white  men  is  con- 
tinually and  irresistibly  pressing  onwards  to  the  ultimate  extinction 
of  the  original  proprietors  of  the  soil — a  melancholy,  but  not  a  soli- 
tary, instance  of  the  rapid  extinction  of  a  whole  race. 

Crystalline  and  Palaezoic  rocks,  rich  in  precious  and  other  metals, 
form  the  substratum  of  Mexico,  for  the  most  part  covered  with  plu- 
tonic  and  volcanic  formations  and  secondary  limestone ;  granite 
comes  to  the  surface  on  the  coast  of  Acapulco,  and  occasionally  on 
the  plains  and  mountains  of  the  table-land.  The  Rocky  Mountaina 
are  mostly  Silurian,  except  the  eastern  ridge,  which  is  of  stratified 
crystalline  rocks,  amygdaloid  and  ancient  volcanic  productions.  The 
coast-chain  has  the  same  character,  with  immense  tracts  of  volcanic 

1  The  author  is  indebted  to  the  '  Physical  Geography  of  North  America,' 
by  H.  D.  Rogers,  Esq.,  and  to  the  very  interesting  '  Travels '  of  Sir  Charles 
Lyell  in  the  United  States,  for  the  greater  part  of  what  she  has  said  on  the 
Physical  Geography  and  Geology  of  that  portion  of  the  New  World. 


132  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

rocks,  both  ancient  and  modern,  especially  obsidian,  which  is  no- 
where developed  on  a  greater  scale,  except  in  Mexico  and  the 
Andes. 

In  North  America,  as  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent,  vol- 
canic action  is  entirely  confined  to  the  coast  and  high  land  along  the 
Pacific.  The  numerous  vents  in  Mexico  and  California  pn  which 
there  are  five]  are  often  in  great  activity,  and  hot  springs  abound. 
Though  a  considerable  interval  occurs  north  of  them,  where  the  fire 
is  dormant,  the  country  is  full  of  igneous  productions,  and  it  again 
finds  vent  in  Prince  of  Wales's  Archipelago,  which  has  seven  active 
volcanoes.  From  Mount  St.  Elias  westward  through  the  whole 
southern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Russian  America  and  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  which  form  a  semicircle  between  Cape  Aliaska,  in  America, 
and  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka,  volcanic  vents  occur,  and  in  the 
latter  peninsula  there  are  three  of  great  height. 

From  the  similar  nature  of  the  coasts  and  the  identity  of  the 
fossil  mammalia  on  each  side  of  Behring's  Strait,  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  the  two  continents  were  united,  even  since  the  sea  was 
inhabited  by  the  existing  species  of  animals.  Some  of  the  gigantic 
quadrupeds  of  the  old  continent  are  supposed  to  have  crossed,  either 
over  the  land  or  over  the  ice,  to  America;  and  to  have  wandered 
southward  through  the  longitudinal  valleys  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, Mexico,  and  Central  America,  and  to  have  spread  over  the 
vast  plains  of  both  continents,  even  to  their  utmost  extremity.1  An 
extinct  species  of  horse,  the  mastodon,  a  species  of  elephant,  three 
gigantic  edentata,  and  a  hollow-horned  ruminating  animal  roamed 
over  the  prairies  of  North  America — certainly  since  the  sea  was 
peopled  by  its  present  inhabitants,  probably  even  since  the  existence 
of  the  Indians.  The  skeletons  of  these  creatures  are  found  in  great 
numbers  in  the  saline  marshes  on  the  prairies  called  the  Licks, 
which  are  still  the  resort  of  the  existing  races.2 

There  were,  however,  various  animals  peculiar  to  America,  as  well 
as  to  each  part  of  that  continent,  at  least  so  far  as  yet  known. 
South  America  still  retains  in  many  cases  the  type  of  its  ancient 
inhabitants,  though  on  a  very  reduced  scale.  But  on  the  Patago- 
nian  plains,  and  on  the  Pampas,  skeletons  of  creatures  of  gigantic 
size  and  anomalous  forms  have  been  found,  one  a  quadruped  of 
great  magnitude,  covered  with  a  prodigious  coat  of  mail  similar  to 
that  of  the  armadillo ;  others  like  rats  or  mice,  as  large  as  the  hip- 
popotamus—  all  of  which  had  lived  on  vegetables,  and  had  existed 
at  the  same  time  with  those  already  mentioned.  These  animals 
were  not  .destroyed  by  the  agency  of  man,  since  creatures  not  larger 
than  a  rat  disappeared  from  Brazil  within  the  same  period. 

1  Dr.  Richardson  on  the  Fauna  of  the  High  Latitudes  of  North  America. 
*  Sir  Charles  Lyell. 


CHAP.  XII.  GEOLOGICAL    NOTICE.  133 

The  geological  outline  of  the  United  States,  the  Canadas,  and  all 
the  country  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  though  highly  interesting  in  itself, 
becomes  infinitely  more  so  when  viewed  in  connection  with  that  of 
northern  and  middle  Europe.  A  remarkable  analogy  exists  in  the 
structure  of  the  land  on  each  side  of  the  North  Atlantic  basin. 
Gneiss,  mica-schist,  and  occasional  granite,  prevail  over  wide  areas 
in  the  Alleghanies,  on  the  Atlantic  Slope,  and  still  more  in  the 
northern  latitudes  of  the  American  continent;  and  they  range  also 
through  the  greater  part  of  Scandinavia,  Finland,  and  Lapland.  In 
the  latter  countries,  and  in  the  more  northern  parts  of  America,  Sir 
Charles  Lyell  has  observed  that  the  fossiliferous  rocks  belong  either 
to  the  most  ancient  or  to  the  newest  formations,1  to  the  Silurian 
strata,  or  to  such  as  contain  shells  of  recent  species  only,  no  inter- 
mediate formation  appearing  through  immense  regions.  Palaeozoic 
strata  extend  over  2000  miles  in  the  middle  and  high  latitudes  of 
North  America ;  they  occupy  a  tract  nearly  as  great  between  the 
most  westerly  headlands  of  Norway  and  those  that  separate  the 
White  Sea  from  the  Polar  Ocean;  Sir  Roderick  Murchison  has 
traced  them  through  central  and  eastern  Europe,  and  the  Ural 
Mountains,  even  to  Siberia;  Messrs.  Abich  and  Thiatcheff  through 
the  Caucasus  and  Altai.  They  have  been  seen  also  by  Messrs. 
Dorbigny  and  Pentland  to  constitute  the  most  elevated  pinnacles  of 
the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes,  and  Lieut.  Strachey  has  recently  disco- 
vered them  at  great  elevations  in  the  Himalaya,  where  they  form 
the  summits  of  the  gigantic  Junnotri,  and  with  fossils  analogous  to 
those  found  in  the  Ural,  and  the  Andes.  Throughout  these  vast 
regions,  both  in  America  and  in  the  old  continent,  the  Silurian 
strata  are  followed  in  ascending  order  by  the  Devonian  and  carbon- 
iferous formations,  which  are  developed  on  a  stupendous  scale  in  the 
United  States,  chiefly  in  the  Alleghany  mountains  and  on  the  At- 
lantic Slope.  The  Devonian  and  carboniferous  strata  together  are  a 
mile  and  a  half  thick  in  the  State  of  New  York,  [in  which  there 
is  no  coal,]  and  three  times  as  much  in  Pennsylvania,  where  one 
[continuous]  coal-field,  [extending]  between  the  northern  limits  of 
that  State  and  [the  northern  sections  of]  Alabama,  occupies  63,000 
square  miles.  [What  is  termed  the  Pittsburg  seam,  a  part  of  the 
great  Appalachian  coal-field,  according  to  the  surveys  of  the  Pro- 
fessors Rogers,  measures  14,000  square  miles ;  but  the  anthracite 
coal-bed  does  not  probably  exceed  2000  square  miles.]  There  are 
many  others  of  great  magnitude,  both  in  the  United  States  and  to 
the  north  of  them,  so  that  most  valuable  of  all  minerals  is  inex- 
haustible, which  is  not  the  least  of  the  many  advantages  enjoyed 

1  This  remarkable  analogy  between  the  fossil  remains  of  the  Palasozoic 
systems  in  the  Old  and  New  World  has  been  more  particularly  shown  by 
the  researches  of  Messrs,  de  Verneuil  and  Sharpe. 

12 


134  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

by  that  flourishing  country.  The  coal  formation  is  also  developed 
in  New  Brunswick,  and  traces  of  it  are  found  on  the  shores  and  in 
the  islands  of  the  Polar  Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Greenland,  and 
even  in  Spitzbergen. 

A  vast  carboniferous  basin  exists  in  Belgium,  above  the  Silurian 
strata ;  two  or  three  of  less  importance  in  France ;  and  a  great  por- 
tion of  Britain  is  perfectly  similar  in  structure  to  North  America. 
The  Silurian  rocks  in  many  instances  are  the  same,  and  the  coal- 
fields of  New  England  are  precisely  similar  to  those  in  Wales,  3000 
miles*off. 

In  all  the  more  northern  countries  that  have  been  mentioned,  so 
very  distant  from  one  another,  the  general  range  of  the  rocks  is  from 
north-east  to  south-west;  and  in  northern  Europe,  the  British  isles, 
and  North  America,  great  lakes  are  formed  along  the  junction  of  the 
strata,  the  whole  analogy  affording  a  proof  of  the  wide  diffusion  of  the 
same  geological  conditions  in  the  northern  regions  at  a  very  remote 
period.  At  a  later  time  those  erratic  blocks,  which  are  now  scattered 
over  the  higher  latitudes  of  both  continents,  were,  most  likely, 
brought  from  the  north  by  drift  ice  or  currents,  while  the  land  was 
still  covered  by  the  deep.  Volcanic  agency  has  not  been  wanting 
to  complete  the  analogy.  The  Silurian  and  overlying  strata  have 
been  pierced  in  many  places  by  trappean  rocks  on  both  continents, 
and  they  appear  also  in  the  islands  of  the  North  Atlantic  and  Polar 
Seas.  Even  now  the  volcanic  fires  are  in  great  activity  in  the  very 
centre  of  that  basin  in  Iceland,  and  in  the  very  distant  and  less- 
known  island  of  Jan  Meyen. 

The  average  height  of  the  continents  above  the  level  of  the  sea 
is  the  mean  between  the  height  of  all  the  high  lands  and  all  the  low. 
Baron  Humboldt,  by  whom  the  computation  was  effected,  found  that 
the  table-lands,  with  their  slopes,  on  account  of  their  great  extent 
and  mass,  have  a  much  greater  influence  upon  the  result  than  moun- 
tain-chains. For  example,  if  the  range  of  the  Pyrenees  were  pul- 
verized, and  strewed  equally  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  it  would 
only  raise  the  soil  6  feet ;  the  Alps,  which  occupy  an  area  four  times 
as  great  as  that  on  which  the  Pyrenees  stand,  would  only  raise  it  22 
feet ;  whereas  the  compact  plateau  of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  which 
has  only  1920  feet  of  mean  height,  would  elevate  the  soil  of  Europe 
76  feet;  so  that  the  table-land  of  the  Spanish  peninsula  would  pro- 
duce an  effect  four  times  as  great  as  the  whole  system  of  the  Alps.1 

1  A  chain  of  mountains  is  assumed  to  be  a  three-sided  horizontal  prism, 
•whose  height  is  the  mean  elevation  of  the  chain,  and  the  base  the  mean 
length  and  breadth  of  the  same,  or  the  area  on  which  the  chain  stands, 
and  thus  its  mass  may  be  computed  approximately.  It  is  evident  that  a 
table-land  must  have  a  greater  effect  on  the  mean  height  of  a  continent  than 
a  chain  of  mountains,  for,  supposing  both  to  be  of  the  same  base  and  alti- 
tude, one  would  be  exactly  double  the  other ;  and  even  if  the  mountains  be 
the  higher  of  the  two,  their  upper  parts  contain  much  less  solid  matter  than 
theii  lower,  on  account  of  the  intervals  and  deep  valleys  between  the  peaks. 


CHAP.  XII.       MEAN    HEIGHT   OF   CONTINENTS.  135 

A  great  extent  of  low  land  necessarily  compensates  for  the  high 
—  at  least  it  diminishes  its  effect.  The  mean  elevation  of  France, 
including  the  Pyrenees,  Jura,  Vosges,  and  all  the  other  French 
mountains,  is  870  feet,  while  the  mean  height  of  the  whole  Euro- 
pean continent,  of  1,720,000  square  miles,  is  only  670  feet,  because 
the  vast  European  plain,  which  is  nine  times  as  large  as  France, 
has  a  mean  altitude  of  but  380  feet,  although  it  has  a  few  intumes- 
cences, which,  however,  are  not  much  above  1000  feet  high,  so  that 
it  is  200  feet  lower  than  the  mean  height  of  France.1 

The  great  table-land  of  Eastern  Asia,  with  its -colossal  mountain- 
chains,  has  a  much  less  effect  on  the  mean  height  of  Asia  than 
might  have  been  expected,  on  account  of  the  depression  round  the 
Caspian  Sea ;  and  still  more  from  the  very  low  level  and  the  enor- 
mous extent  of  Siberia,  which  is  a  third  larger  than  all  Europe. 
The  intumescences  in  these  vast  plains  are  insignificant  in  comparison 
with  their  vast  area,  for  Tobolsk  is  only  115  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea ;  and  even  on  the  Upper  Angora,  at  a  point  nearer  the  In- 
dian than  the  Arctic  Sea,  the  elevation  is  only  830  feet,  which  is 
not  half  the  height  of  the  city  of  Munich,  and  the  third  part  of 
Asia  has  a  mean  height  of  only  255  feet.  The  effect  of  the  Great 
Gobi,  that  part  of  the  table-land  lying  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the 
wall  of  China,  is  diminished  by  a  vast  hollow  2560  feet  deep,  the 
dry  basin  of  an  ancient  sea  of  considerable  extent  near  Erge,  so  that 
this  great  desert  has  a  mean  height  of  but  4220  feet,  and  conse- 
quently it  only  raises  the  general  level  of  the  Asiatic  continent  128 
feet,  though  it  is  twice  as  large  as  Germany.  The  table-land  of 
Tibet,  whose  mean  elevation,  according  to  Baron  Humboldt,  is 
11,600  feet,  together  with  the  chains  of  the  Himalaya  and  Kuen- 
lun,  which  enclose  it,  only  produces  an  effect  of  358  feet.  On  the 
whole,  the  mean  level  of  Asia  above  the  sea  is  1150  feet.2 

Notwithstanding  the  height  and  length  of  the  Andes,  their  mass 
has  little  effect  on  the  continent  of  South  America  on  account  of  the 
extent  of  the  eastern  plains,  which  are  one-third  larger  than  Europe. 
For  if  these  mountains  were  reduced  to  powder  and  strewn  equally 
over  them,  it  would  not  raise  them  above  518  feet;  but  when  the 
minor  mountain  systems  and  the  table-land  of  Brazil  are  added  to 

'  According  to  Mr.  Charpentier,  the  area  of  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees  is 
1720  square  English  miles.  As  the  mean  elevation  of  the  passes  gives  the 
mean  height  of  the  mountains,  Baron  Humboldt  estimated  from  the  height 
of  23  passes  over  the  Pyrenees  that  the  mean  crest  of  that  chain  is  7990 
feet  high,  which  is  800  feet  higher  than  the  mean  height  of  the  Alps,  though 
the  peaks  in  the  Alps  have  a  greater  elevation  than  those  of  the  Pyrenees 
in  the  ratio  1-4  to  1. 

2  The  Russian  Academicians  MM.  Fuss  and  Bunge  found  by  barometri- 
cal measurement  the  mean  height  of  that  part  of  the  Eastern  Asiatic  table- 
land lying  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the  Great  Wall  of  China  to  be  only 
about  6960  feet.  The  smallness  of  this  mean  is  owing  to  hollows  in  the 
table-land,  especially  in  the  desert  of  the  Great  Gobi. 


136  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XII. 

the  Andes,  the  mean  height  of  the  whole  of  South  America  is  1130 
feet.  North  America,  whose  mountain-chains  are  far  inferior  to 
those  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent,  has  its  mean  elevation 
increased  hy  the  table-land  of  Mexico,  so  that  it  has  750  feet  of 
mean  height. 

The  mean  elevation  of  the  whole  of  the  New  World  is  930  feet, 
and  of  the  continental  masses  of-  Europe  and  Asia  above  the  level 
of  the  sea,  1010  feet.  Thus  it  appears  that  the  internal  action  in 
ancient  times  has  been  most  powerful  under  Asia,  somewhat  less 
under  South  America,  considerably  less  under  North  America,  and 
least  of  all  under  Europe.  In  the  course  of  ages  changes  will  take 
place  in  these  results,  on  account  both  of  the  sudden  and  gradual 
rise  of  the  land  in  some  parts  of  the  earth,  and  its  depression  in 
others.  The  continental  masses  of  the  north  are  the  lowest  portions 
of  our  hemisphere,  since  the  mean  heights  of  Europe  and  North 
America  are  670  and  750  feet.1 

So  little  is  known  of  the  bed  of  the  ocean  that  no  inference  can 
be  drawn  with  regard  to  its  heights  and  hollows,  and  what  relation 
its  mean  depth  bears  to  the  mean  height  of  the  land.  From  its 
small  influence  on  the  gravitating  force,  La  Place  assumed  it  to  be 
about  four  miles.2  As  the  mean  height  of  the  continents  is  about 
1000  feet,  and  their  extent  only  about  a  fourth  of  that  of  the  sea, 
they  might  be  easily  submerged,  were  it  not  that,  in  consequence  of 
the  sea  being  only  one-fifth  of  the  mean  density  of  the  earth,  and 
the  earth  itself  increasing  in  density  towards  its  centre,  La  Place 
has  proved  that  the  stability  of  the  equilibrium  of  the  ocean  can 

1  By  the  mensuration  and  computation  of  Baron  Humboldt  and  Mr.  Pent- 
land,  the  elevation  of  the  highest  peaks,  and  the  mean  heights  of  the  Hima- 
laya, of  the  Equatorial  and  Bolivian  Andes  and  the  Alps,  are  as  follows : — 

Peaks.  Mean  Height. 

Himalaya 28,178 15,670 

Andes  between  5°  N.  and  2°  S.  lat 21,424 11,380 

Eastern  Cordillera  \  Between  18°   S 21,300 15,250 

Western  Cordillera  /  and  15°  S.  lat.  1 22,350 14,900 

Alps 15,739 7,353 

The  Peak  of  Dhawalaghiri  is  26,862  feet  high,  and  the  Kunchinginga  in 
Sikim  28,178.  Captain  Gerard  gives  18,000  or  19,000  feet  as  the  height 
of  the  snow-line  on  the  mountains  in  the  middle  of  the  Asiatic  table-land, 
and  30,000  feet  as  the  absolute  elevation  of  the  Kuenlun,  but  Colonel  Sabine 
observes  that  the  latter  figures  require  confirmation,  no  direct  measures  of 
the  peaks  of  the  Kuenlun  having  been  ever  executed. 

a  The  greatest  depth  hitherto  attained  by  soundings  was  six  statute  miles, 
or  about  10,500  yards,  in  the  North  Atlantic,  by  the  American  expedition 
lately  sent  to  ascertain  the  existence  of  the  false  Bermudas.  [The  deepest 
soundings  ever  made  prior  to  the  experiment  referred  to,  was  4000  fathoms 
or  24,000  feet,  by  an  officer  of  the  British  navy,  but  it  was  not  considered 
to  be  very  satisfactory.]  See  official  despatch  of  Lieut.  Maury,  in  a  Wash- 
ington paper  of  November  8,  1850. 


CHAP.  XIII.  SOUNDINGS     IN     THE    ATLANTIC.  137 

never  be  subverted  by  any  physical  cause  :  a  general  inundation  from 
the  mere  instability  of  the  ocean  is  therefore  impossible. 

[On  the  15th  of  November  1849,  in  latitude  31°  59'  north,  lon- 
gitude 58°  43'  west,  Lieut.  J.  C.  Walsh,  U.S.  Navy,  (under  the 
instructions  of  Lieut.  M.  F.  Maury,  Superintendent  of  the  National 
Observatory  at  Washington),  sounded  with  5700  fathoms  of  wire 
without  reaching  the  bottom.  The  inference  from  this  experiment 
is  that  the  depth  of  the  ocean  exceeds,  at  that  place,  34,200  feet,  or 
more  than  six  statute  miles. 

Commander  Barron,  on  board  the  U.  S.  Ship  John  Adams,  reports, 
in  May  1851,  deep  sea  soundings  made  while  crossing  the  Atlantic. 
They  are  as  follows  : — 

North  West 

Date.  Latitude.  Longitude.  Fathoms.  Feet. 

May  3  33°  50 52°  34' 2,500  =  15,000 

9  32°  06' 44°  47 5,500  ==  33,000  got  bottom 

10  31°  01 44°  31 2,300  =  13,800  got  bottom 

17  Peak  of  Pico  in  sight 670  =    4,020  got  bottom 

21  35°  07' 25°  43' 1,040  =    6,240  got  bottom 

These  soundings  indicate  that  the  great  basin  which  holds  the 
waters  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  has  a  surface  broken  into  irregular 
depressions  and  elevations  analogous  to  the  deep  valleys  and  cloud- 
capped  mountains  of  the  dry  land.  The  persevering  efforts  of  Lieut. 
Maury  to  ascertain  the  laws  which  regulate  the  motions  of  the  sea 
and  of  the  air  will  result  in  adding  largely  to  the  knowledge  of 
many  phenomena  which  have  hitherto  been  deemed  mysteries,  and 
eluded  the  satisfactory  investigation  of  physicists.  And  amongst 
the  inquiries  not  the  least  interesting  are  those  relating  to  the  depth 
of  the  ocean,  and  the  form  of  its  bottom.1] 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

The  Continent  of  Australia — Tasmania,  or  Van  Diemen's  Land — Islands — 
Continental  Islands  —  Pelasgic  Islands  —  New  Zealand  —  New  Guinea  — 
Borneo — Atolls — Encircling  Reefs  —  Coral  Reefs — Barrier  Keefs — Vol- 
canic Islands  —  Areas  of  Subsidence  and  Elevation  in  the  Bed  of  tho 
Pacific — Active  Volcanoes—  Earthquakes — Secular  Changes  in  the  Level 
of  the  Land. 

THE  continent  of  Australia  situate  in  the  Eastern  Pacific  Ocean 
is  so  destitute  of  large  navigable  rivers  that  probably  no  very  high 

[l  See   Maury's  Explanations  and  Sailing  Directions  to  accompany  the 
Wind  and  Current  Charts.     Washington,  1851.] 
12* 


138  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

land  exists  in  its  interior,  which,  as  far  as  it  has  been  explored, 
seems  to  be  singularly  flat  and  low,  but  it  is  still  so  little  known 
that  no  idea  can  be  formed  of  its  mean  elevation.  It  is  2400  miles 
from  east  to  west,  and  1700  from  north  to  south,  and  is  divided  into 
two  unequal  parts  by  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn ;  consequently  it  has 
both  a  temperate  and  a  tropical  climate.  New  Guinea,  separated 
from  Australia  by  Torres  Straits,  and  traversed  by  the  same  chain 
of  mountains  with  New  Holland  and  Van  Diemen's  Land,  is  so 
perfectly  similar  in  structure,  that  it  forms  but  a  detached  member 
of  the  adjacent  continent. 

The  coasts  of  Australia  are  indented  by  very  large  bays,  and  by 
harbours  that  might  give  shelter  to  all  the  navies  in  Europe.  The 
most  distinguishing  feature  of  the  eastern  side,  which  is  chiefly  occu- 
pied by  the  British  colony  of  New  South  Wales,  is  a  long  chain  of 
mountains  which  never  retires  far  from  the  coast,  and,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  short  deviations  in  its  southern  part,  maintains  a 
meridional  direction  through  35  degrees  of  latitude.  It  is  continued 
at  one  extremity  from  Torres  Straits,  at  the  north  of  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  far  into  the  interior  of  New  Guinea;  and  at  the  other 
it  traverses  the  whole  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  It  is  low  in  the 
northern  parts  of  New  Holland,  being  in  some  places  merely  a  high 
land ;  but  about  the  30th  degree  of  south  latitude  it  assumes  the 
form  of  a  regular  mountain-chain,  and  running  in  a  very  tortuous 
line  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  terminates  its  visible  course  at  Wilson's 
Promontory,  the  southern  extremity  of  the  continent.  It  is  con- 
tinued, however,  by  a  chain  of  mountainous  islands  across  Bass's 
Straits  to  Cape  Portland,  in  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  from  thence  the 
range  proceeds  in  a  zigzag  line  of  high  and  picturesque  mountains 
to  South  Cape,  where  it  ends,  having,  in  its  course  of  1500  miles, 
separated  the  drainage  of  both  countries  into  eastern  and  western 
waters. 

The  distance  of  the  chain  from  the  sea  in  New  South  Wales  is 
from  50  to  100  miles,  but  at  the  32nd  parallel,  it  recedes  to  150, 
yet  soon  returns,  and  forms  the  wild  group  of  the  Corecudgy  Peaks, 
from  whence,  under  the  names  of  the  Blue  Mountains  and  Austra- 
lian Alps,  its  highest  part,  it  proceeds  in  a  general  westerly  direc- 
tion to  the  land's  end. 

The  average  height  of  these  mountains  is  only  from  2400  to 
4700  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  even  Mount  Kosciusko, 
the  loftiest  of  the  Australian  Alps,  is  not  more  than  6500  feet  high  ; 
yet  its  position  is  so  favourable,  that  the  view  from  its  snowy  and 
craggy  top  sweeps  over  an  area  of  7000  square  miles.  The  rugged 
and  savage  character  of  these  mountains  far  exceeds  what  might  be 
expected  from  their  height :  in  some  places,  it  is  true,  their  tops  are 
rounded  and  covered  with  forests :  but  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the 
chain,  though  wooded  along  the  flanks,  is  crowned  by  naked  needles, 


CHAP.  XIII.  AUSTRALIA.  139 

tooth-formed  peaks,  and  flat  crests  of  granite  or  porphyry,  mingled 
with  patches  of  snow.  The  spurs  give  a  terrific  character  to  these 
mountains,  and  in  many  places  render  them  altogether  inaccessible, 
both  in  New  South  Wales  and  Van  Diemen's  Land.  These  shoot 
right  and  left  from  the  ridgy  axis  of  the  main  range,  equal  to  it  in 
height,  and  separated  from  it  and  from  one  another,  by  dark  and 
almost  subterraneous  gullies,  like  rents  in  the  bosom  of  the  earth, 
^iron-bound  by  impracticable  precipices,  and  streams  flowing  through 
them  in  black  silent  eddies,  or  foaming  torrents.  The  intricate  char- 
acter of  these  ravines,  the  danger  of  descending  into  them,  and  the 
difficulty  of  getting  out  again,  render  this  mountain-chain,  in  New 
South  Wales  at  least,  almost  a  complete  barrier  between  the  country 
on  the  coast  and  that  in  the  interior  —  a  circumstance  very  unfa- 
vourable to  the  latter.1 

In  New  South  Wales  the  country  slopes  westward  from  these 
mountains  to  a  low,  flat,  unbroken  plain.  On  the  east  side,  darkly 
verdant  and  round-topped  hills  and  ridges  are  promiscuously  grouped 
together,  leading  to  a  richly-wooded  undulating  country,  which 
gradually  descends  to  the  coast,  and  forms  the  valuable  lands  of  the 
British  colony.  Discovered  by  Cook  in  the  year  1770,  it  was  not 
colonized  till  1788.  It  has  become  a  prosperous  country;  and  al- 
though new  settlers  in  the  more  remote  parts  suffer  the  privations 
and  difficulties  incident  to  their  position,  yet  there  is  educated  society 
in  the  towns,  with  the  comforts  and  luxuries  of  civilized  life. 

The  coast-belt  on  the  western  side  of  Australia  is  generally  of 
inferior  land,  with  richer  tracts  interspersed  near  the  rivers,  and 
bounded  on  the  east  by  a  range  of  primary  mountains  from  8000  to 
4000  feet  high,  in  which  granite  occasionally  appears.  Beyond  this 
the  country  is  level,  and  the  land  better,  though  nowhere  very  pro- 
ductive except  in  grass. 

None  of  the  rivers  of  Australia  are  navigable  to  any  great  distance 
from  their  mouths.  The  want  of  water  is  severely  felt  in  the  inte- 
rior, which,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  is  a  treeless  desert  of  sand,  swamps, 
and  jungle ;  yet  a  belief  prevails  that  there  is  a  large  sea  or  fresh- 
water lake  in  its  centre ;  and  this  opinion  is  founded  partly  on  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  and  also  because  all  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the 
sea  on  the  northern  coast,  between  the  Gulfs  of  Van  Diemen  and 
Carpentaria,  converge  towards  their  sources,  as  if  they  served  for 
drains  to  some  large  body  of  water. 

However  unpropitious  the  centre  of  the  continent  may  be  —  and 
the  shores  generally  have  the  same  barren  character — there  is  abun- 
dance of  fine  country  inland  from  the  coast.  On  the  north  all  tropi- 
cal productions  might  be  raised,  and  in  so  large  a  continent  there 
must  be  extensive  tracts  of  arable  land,  though  its  peculiar  character 

1  Memoirs  of  Count  Strzelecki. 


140  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    XIII. 

is  pastoral.  There  are  large  forests  on  the  mountains  and  elsewhere, 
yet  that  moisture  is  wanting  which  clothes  other  countries  in  the 
same  latitude  with  rank  vegetation.  In  the  colonies,  the  clearing 
of  a  great  extent  of  land  has  modified  in  some  degree  the  mean 
annual  temperature,  so  that  the  climate  has  become  hotter  and  drier, 
and  not  thereby  improved. 

Van  Diemen's  Land,  of  triangular  form,  has  an  area  of  27,200 
square  miles,  and  is  very  mountainous.  No  country  has  a  greater 
number  of  deep,  commodious  harbours;  and  as  most  of  the  rivers, 
though  not  navigable  to  any  distance,  end  in  arms  of  the  sea,  they 
afford  secure  anchorage  for  ships  of  any  size.  The  mountain  chain 
that  traverses  the  colony  of  New  South  Wales  and  the  islands  in 
Bass's  Straits,  rises  again  from  Cape  Portland,  and,  winding  through 
Van  Diemen's  Land  in  the  form  of  the  letter  Z,  separates  it  into 
two  nearly  equal  parts,  with  a  mean  height  of  3750  feet,  and  at  an 
average  distance  of  40  miles  from  the  sea.  It  encloses  the  basins 
of  the  Derwent  and  Heron  rivers,  and,  after  sending  a  branch  be- 
tween them  to  Hobart  Town,  ends  at  South  Cape.  The  offsets  which 
shoot  in  all  directions  are  as  savage  and  full  of  impassable  chasms  as 
it  is  itself.  There  are  cultivable  plains  and  valleys  along  the  nume- 
rous rivers  and  large  lakes  by  which  the  country  is  well  watered ; 
so  that  Van  Diemen's  Land  is  more  agricultural  and  fertile  than  the 
adjacent  continent,  but  its  climate  is  wet  and  cold.  The  uncleared 
soil  of  both  countries,  however,  is  far  inferior  to  that  in  the  greater 
part  of  North  or  South  America.1 

Granite  constitutes  the  entire  floor  of  the  western  portion  of  New 
South  Wales,  and  extends  far  into  the  interior  of  the  continent, 
bearing  a  striking  resemblance  in  character  to  a  similar  portion  of 
the  Altai  chain  described  by  Baron  Humboldt.  The  central  axis 
of  the  mountain-range,  in  New  South  Wales  and  in  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  is  of  granite,  syenite,  and  quartz  rock;  but  in  early  times 
there  had  been  great  invasions  of  volcanic  substances,  as  many  parts 
of  the  main  chain,  and  most  of  its  offsets,  are  of  the  older  igneous 
rocks.  The  fossiliferous  strata  of  the  two  colonies  are  mostly  of  the 
Palaeozoic  period,  but  their  fossil  fauna  is  poor  in  species.  Some 
are  identical  with,  and  others  are  representatives  of,  the  species  of 
other  countries,  even  of  England.  It  appears  from  their  coal-mea- 
sures that  the  flora  of  these  countries  was  as  distinct  in  appearance 
from  that  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  previous  to  the  carboniferous 
period,  as  it  is  at  the  present  day. 

["  Geological  researches  into  the  structure  of  the  globe  show  that 
a  succession  of  physical  changes  have  modified  its  surface  from  the 
earliest  period  up  to  the  present  time;  and  that  these  changes  have 
been  accompanied  with  variations,  not  only  in  the  phases  of  animal 

1  Count  Strzelecki. 


CHAP.  XT!!.    CLASSIFICATION    OP    ISLANDS.  141 

and  vegetable  life,  but  often  in  the  development  also  of  organization ; 
and  as  these  changes  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  been  operating 
uniformly  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  globe  in  the  same  periods 
of  time,  we  should  naturally  be  prepared  for  finding  the  now- 
existing  fauna  of  some  regions  exhibiting  a  higher  state  of  de- 
velopment than  that  of  others :  accordingly,  if  we  contrast  the 
old  continents  of  geographers  with  the  zoology  of  Australia  and 
New  Zealand,  we  find  a  wide  difference  in  the  degree  of  organization 
which  creation  has  reached  in  these  respective  regions.  In  New 
Zealand,  with  the  exception  of  a  vespertilis  (bat),  and  a  mus 
(mouse,)  which  latter  is  said  to  exist  there,  but  which  has  not  yet 
been  sent  to  England,  the  most  highly  organized  animal  hitherto 
discovered,  either  fossil  or  recent,  is  a  bird.  In  Australia,  if  com- 
pared with  New  Zealand,  creation  appears  to  have  considerably 
advanced,  but  even  here  the  order  of  Rodentia  (the  gnawing  ani- 
mals), is  the  highest  in  the  scale  of  its  indigenous  animal  produc- 
tions ;  the  great  majority  of  its  quadrupeds  being  the  Marsupiata 
(kangaroo^,  &c.,)  and  the  Monotremata,  (Echidna,  and  Orniihoryn- 
chus),  which  are  the  very  lowest  of  the  mammalia ;  and  its  ornitho 
logy  being  characterized  by  the  presence  of  certain  peculiar  genera 
—  Talegalla,  Leipoa,  Megapodius, —  birds  which  do  not  incubate 
their  own  eggs,  and  which  are  perhaps  the  lowest  representatives  of 
their  own  class ;  while  the  low  organization  of  its  botany  is  indicated 
by  the  remarkable  absence  of  its  fruit-bearing  trees,  the  Cerealia, 
(wheat,  rye,  barley,  &c.,)  "] ' 

Though  the  innumerable  islands  that  are  scattered  through  the 
ocean  and  seas  differ  much  in  size,  form,  and  character,  they  have 
been  grouped  by  M.  Von  Buch  into  the  two  distinct  classes  of  "Con- 
tinental and  Pelasgic  islands,  most  of  the  latter  being  either  of 
volcanic  or  coral  formation.  Continental  islands  are  long  in  propor- 
tion to  their  breadth,  and  follow  each  other  in  succession  along  the 
margin  of  the  continents,  as  if  they  had  been  formed  during  the 
elevation  of  the  mainland,  or  had  subsequently  been  separated  from 
it  by  the  action  of  the  sea,  and  still  mark  its  ancient  boundary. 
These  islands,  which  follow  one  another  in  their  elongated  dimen- 
sions, generally  run  parallel  to  the  maritime  chains  of  mountains, 
and  are  mostly  of  the  same  structure,  so  that  they  suggest  the  idea 
of  a  submarine  portion  of  the  maritime  range  that  has  not  yet  com- 
**  pletely  emerged  from  the  deep — -or,  if  sinking,  has  not  yet  disap- 
peared below  the  waves. 

America  offers  numerous  examples  of  this  kind  of  island.  On 
the  north-western  coast  there  is  a  long  chain  of  them,  beginning 
with  the  New  Norfolk  group,  and  ending  with  Vancouver's  Island, 
all  similar  and  parallel  to  the  maritime  chain.  Another  range  of 

1  Gould. —  Birds  of  Australia. 


142  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

Continental  islands  occurs  at  the  southern  extremity  of  America, 
extending  from  Chiloe  to  Cape  Horn,  evidently  an  exterior  range 
of  the  Patagonian  Andes,  and  the  southern  prolongation  of  the 
granitic  or  coast  chain  of  Chile ;  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  ancient 
margin  of  the  mainland  is  marked  by  the  curved  group  of  Porto 
Rico,  San  Domingo,  Jamaica,  and  Cuba,  which  nearly  joins  the 
peninsula  of  Yucatan.  The  various  islands  along  the  American 
coast  of  the  Polar  Ocean  are  the  shattered  fragments  of  the  continent. 

The  old  continent  also  affords  innumerable  examples ;  along  the 
whole  coast  of  Norway,  from  North  Cape  southwards,  there  is  a 
continuous  chain  of  rocky  islands  similar  and  parallel  to  the  great 
range  of  the  Scandinavian  Alps ;  Great  Britain  itself,  with  the  He- 
brides, Orkney,  and  Zetland  islands,  are  remarkable  instances  of 
Continental  islands.  It  would  be  superfluous  to  mention  the  various 
instances  which  occur  in  the  Mediterranean,  where  many  of  the 
islands  are  merely  the  prolongations  of  the  mountain-chains  of  the 
mainland  rising  above  the  sea,  as  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  which  are  a 
continuation  of  the  Maritime  Alps. 

The  great  central  chain  of  Madagascar  and  its  elongated  form, 
parallel  to  the  Lupata  Mountains  and  south-eastern  margin  of  the 
great  African  table-land,  show  that  the  island  once  formed  part  of 
the  continent.  Asia,  also,  abounds  in  instances,  as  Sumatra,  Java, 
and  the  Moluccas,  and  another  vast  chain  extends  along  the  western 
coast  of  Asia  from  Formosa  to  Kamtchatka. 

Pelasgic  islands  have  risen  from  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  indepen- 
dently of  the  continents,  and  generally  far  from  land.  They  are 
mostly  volcanic,  altogether  or  in  part ;  often  very  lofty  j  sometimes 
single,  and  frequently  in  groups,  and  each  group  has,  or  formerly 
has  had,  a  centre  of  volcanic  action  in  one  or  more  of  the  islands, 
round  which  the  others  have  been  formed.  Many  have  craters  of 
elevation,  that  is  to  say,  they  have  been  raised  up  in  great  hollow 
domes  by  the  internal  elastic  vapours,  and  have  either  remained  so, 
have  become  rent  at  the  surface  into  gigantic  fissures,  or  have  col- 
lapsed into  hollow  cups,  in  which  craters  have  formed,  by  the  erup- 
tion of  loose  incoherent  matter,  or  of  lava  currents,  when  the  pres- 
sure from  below  was  removed :'  a  considerable  number  have  active  vents. 

The  small  islands  and  groups  scattered  at  enormous  distances 
from  one  another,  within  the  Antarctic  Circle,  are  all  of  volcanic 
formation,  though  none  are  active.  In  the  Atlantic,  Tristan  da 
Cunha,  St.  Helena,  Ascension,  and  Madeira  are  volcanic,  though 
not  now  actively  so;  whereas  the  Cape  de  Verde,  Canaries,  and 
Azores  have  each  volcanic  vents  :2  the  peak  of  Teyde,  in  Teneriffe, 
is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  volcanic  cones  in  the  world. 

1  M.  Von  Buch. 

a  These  two  last  groups  of  islands  have  been  admirably  illustrated,  since 
ihe  publication  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work,  by  the  beautiful  charts  by 


CHAP.  Xm.       CLASSIFICATION   OP  ISLANDS.  143 

The  labyrinth  of  islands  scattered  over  the  Pacific  Ocean  for  more 
than  30  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  from  the  180th 
eastern  meridian  to  Sumatra,  which  all  but  unites  this  enormous 
archipelago  to  the  continent  of  Asia,  has  the  group  of  New  Zealand 
or  Tasmania,  and  the  continent  of  Australia,  with  its  appendage, 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  on  the  south,  and  altogether  forms  a  region 
which,  from  the  unstable  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  is 
partly  the  wreck  of  a  continent  that  has  been  engulfed  by  the  ocean, 
and  partly  the  summits  of  a  new  one  rising  above  the  waves.  This 
extensive  portion  of  the  globe  is  in  many  parts  terra  incognita ;  the 
Indian  Archipelago  has  been  little  explored,  and,  with  the  exception 
of  our  colonies  in  New  Holland  and  New  Zealand,  is  little  known. 

M.  Von  Buch  conceives  that  the  enormous  circuit,  beginning 
with  New  Zealand  and  extending  through  Norfolk  Island,  New 
Caledonia,  New  Hebrides,  Solomon's  Island,  New  Britain,  New 
Hanover,  New  Ireland,  Louisiade,  and  New  Guinea,  onc<3  formed 
the  western  and  northern  boundary  of  the  Australian  continent. 

New  Zealand,  divided  into  three  islands,  by  rocky  and  dangerous 
channels,  is  superior  to  Australia  in  richness  of  soil,  feitility,  and 
beauty;  it  abounds  in  a  variety  of  vegetable  and  mineia]  produc- 
tions. High  mountains,  of  volcanic  origin,  run  through  die  islands, 
which,  in  the  most  northerly,  rise  to  nearly  10,000  feet'  above  the 
stormy  ocean  around,  buried  two-thirds  of  their  height  in  permanent 
snow  and  glaciers,  exhibiting  on  the  grandest  scale  all  the  alpine 
characters,  with  the  addition  of  active  volcanoes  on  the  eastern  and 
western  coasts :  that  of  Tangariro  pours  forth  deluges  of  boiling 
water,  which  deposit  vast  quantities  of  siliceous  sinter  like  the  Gey- 
sers in  Iceland;  and  such  is  the  vitality  of  the  vegetation  that 
plants  grow  richly  on  the  banks,  and  even  in  water  too  hot  to  be 
endured.2  The  coast  is  a  broken  country,  overspread  with  a  most 
luxuriant  but  dark  and  gloomy  vegetation.  There  are  undulating 
tracts  and  table-lands  of  great  extent  without  a  tree,  overrun  by 
ferns  and  a  low  kind  of  myrtle ;  but  the  mountain-ridges  are  clothed 
with  dense  and  gigantic  forests.  There  is  much  good  land  and 
many  lakes,  with  navigable  rivers,  the  best  of  harbours,  and  a  mild 
climate ;  so  that  no  country  is  better  suited  for  a  prosperous  and 
nourishing  colony.  It  may  be  considered,  even  at  this  early  period 
of  its  colonial  existence,  as  the  Great  Britain  of  the  southern  hemis 
phere. 

Captains  Arlett  and  Vidal,  published  at  the  Admiralty  under  Sir  Francis 
Beaufort's  directions.  They  are  equally  interesting  to  the  geologist  and 
to  the  navigator. 

1  The  highest  peaks  hitherto  measured  are  Mount  Egmont,  8840,  and 
Mount  Edgecumbe,  a  very  perfect  cone,  near  the  settlement  of  New  Ply- 
mouth, 9630  feet  above  the  sea. 

a  —  Mansel,  Esq. 


144  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP. 

A  very  different  scene  from  the  stormy  seas  of  New  Zealand  pre- 
sents itself  to  the  north  of  Australia.  There,  vivified  by  the  glow- 
ing sun  of  the  equator,  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  are 
of  matchless  beauty,  crowned  by  lofty  mountains,  loaded  with  aro- 
matic verdure,  that  shelve  to  the  shore,  or  dip  into  a  transparent 
glassy  sea.  Their  coasts  are  cut  by  deep  inlets,  and  watered  by  the 
purest  streams,  which  descend  in  cascades  rushing  through  wild  cre- 
vices. Tlae  whole  is  so  densely  covered  with  palms  and  other  beau- 
tiful forms  of  tropical  vegetation  that  they  seem  to  realize  a  terres- 
trial paradise. 

Papua  or  New  Guinea,  the  largest  island  in  the  Pacific  after  New 
Holland,  is  1100  miles  long  and  400  in  width,  with  mountains 
rising  above  mountains,  till  in  the  west  they  attain  the  height  of 
16,000  feet,  capped  with  snow.  From  its  position  so  near  the  equa- 
tor it  is  probable  that  New  Guinea  has  the  same  vegetation  with 
the  Spice  Islands  to  the  east,  and,  from  the  little  that  is  known  of 
it,  must  be  one  of  the  finest  countries  in  existence.  Storms  are  fre- 
quent; rain  falls  in  torrents;  earthquakes  are  rare  and  not  violent.1 

Borneo,  next  in  size  to  New  Guinea,  is  a  noble  island,  divided 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  equator,  and  traversed  through 
its  whole  length  by  magnificent  chains  of  mountains,  which  end  in 
three  branches  at  the  Java  Sea.  Beautiful  rivers  flow  from  them 
to  the  plains,  and  several  of  these  spring  from  a  spacious  lake  on 
the  table-land  in  the  interior,  among  the  peaks  of  Keni-balu,  the 
highest  point -of  the  island.  Diamonds,  gold,  and  antimony  are 
among  its  minerals ;  gums,  gutta  percha,  precious  woods,  and  all 
kinds  of  spices  and  tropical  fruits  are  among  its  vegetable  produc- 
tions. 

Situate  in  the  centre  of  a  vast  archipelago,  and  in  the  direct  line 
of  an  extensive  and  valuable  commerce,  it  will  in  the  course  of  time 
become  the  seat  of  a  great  nation,  whose  civilization  and  prosperity 
will  hand  down  to  posterity  the  name  of  the  enterprising,  philan- 
thropic Sir  James  Brooke,  Kajah  of  Sarawak,  with  the  highest 
honour  to  which  man  can  aspire.  The  climate  is  healthy,  tempered 
by  sea-breezes,  and  in  some  parts  even  European  ;  the  small  island 
of  Labuan  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  Borneo  being  rich  in  coal, 
situated  in  the  route  of  steam-vessels  between  India  and  China,  are 
likely  to  exercise  a  very  great  influence  on  the  trade  between  Europe 
and  the  Celestial  empire,  and  on  the  civilization  of  the  barbarous 
and  piratical  tribes  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago. 

A  volume  might  be  written  on  the  beauty  and  riches  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago.  Many  of  the  islands  are  hardly  known;  the  interior 
of  the  greater  number  has  never  been  explored,  so  that  they  offer  a 
wide  field  of  discovery  to  the  enterprising  traveller,  as  they  are  now 

1  Moniteur  des  Indes  Orientales,  ii.  p.  45. 


CHAP.  XIII.  BORNEO.  1 45 

of  easier  access  since  the  seas  have  been  cleared  of  pirates  by  the 
exertions  of  Sir  Jarnes  Brooke  and  the  officers  of  Her  Majesty's 
Navy. 

They  have  become  of  much  importance  since  our  relations  with 
China  have  been  extended,  on  which  account  surveys  of  their  coasts 
have  been  already  made,  and  are  going  on,  under  the  able  direction 
of  the  Hydrographer  of  the  Navy,  Sir  F.  Beaufort.  The  great 
intertropical  islands  of  the  Pacific,  likewise  other  large  islands,  as 
Ceylon  and  Madagascar,  in  the  Indian  Seas,  which  by  the  way  do 
not  differ  in  character  from  the  preceding,  are  really  continents  in 
miniature,  with  their  mountains  and  plains,  their  lakes  and  rivers ; 
and  in  the  climate  they  vary,  like  the  main  land,  with  the  latitude, 
only  that  continental  climates  are  more  extreme  both  as  to  heat  and 
cold. 

It  is  a  singular  circumstance,  arising  from  the  instability  of  the 
crust  of  the  earth,  that  all  the  smaller  tropical  pelasgic  islands  in 
the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans  are  either  volcanic  or  coralline,  except 
New  Caledonia  and  the  Seychelles ;  and  it  is  a  startling  fact,  that 
in  most  cases  where  there  are  volcanoes  the  land  is  rising  by  slow 
and  almost  imperceptible  degrees  above  the  ocean,  whereas  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  those  vast  spaces,  studded  with  coral 
islands  or  atolls,  are  actually  sinking  below  it,  and  have  been  for 
ages.1 

There  are  four  different  kinds  of  coral  formations  in  the  Pacific 
and  Indian  Oceans,  all  entirely  produced  by  the  growth  of  organic 
being,  and  their  detritus,  namely,  lagoon  islands  or  atolls,  encircling 
reefs,  barrier  reefs,  and  coral  fringes.  They  are  all  nearly  confined 
to  the  tropical  regions ;  the  atolls  to  the  Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans 
alone. 

An  atoll  or  lagoon  island  consists  of  a  chaplet  or  ring  of  coral, 
enclosing  a  lagoon  or  portion  of  the  ocean  in  its  centre.  The  ave- 
rage breadth  of  the  part  of  the  ring  above  the  surface  of  the  sea  is 
about  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  oftener  less,  and  it  seldom  rises  higher 
than  from  6  to  10  or  12  feet  above  the  waves.  Hence  the  lagoon 
islands  are  not  discernible,  even  at  a  very  small  distance,  unless 
when  they  are  covered  with  cocoa-nut,  palm,  or  the  pandanus,  which 
is  frequently  the  case.  On  the  outer  side  this  ring  or  circlet  shelves 
down  to  the  distance  of  100  or  200  yards  from  its  edge,  so  that  the 
sea  gradually  deepens  to  25  fathoms,  beyond  which  the  sides  plunge 
at  once  into  the  unfathomable  depths  of  the  ocean,  with  a  more 
rapid  descent  than  the  cone  of  any  volcano.  Even  at  the  small 
distance  of  some  hundred  yards  no  bottom  has  been  found  with  a 
sounding-line  a  mile  and  a  half  long.  All  the  coral  at  a  moderate 
depth  below  water  is  alive  —  all  above  is  dead,  being  the  detritus  of 

'  Mr.  Darwin  on  Coral  Reefs.     Dana  on  Corals  and  Corallines. 
13 


146  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

the  living  part,  washed  up  by  the  surf,  which  is  so  tremendous  on 
the  windward  side  of  the  tropical  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
Oceans,  that  it  is  often  heard  miles  off,  and  is  frequently  the  first 
warning  to  seamen  of  their  approach  to  an  atoll. 

On  the  lagoon  side,  where  the  water  is  calm,  the  bounding  ring 
or  reef  shelves  into  it  by  a  succession  of  ledges,  also  of  living  coral, 
though  not  of  the  same  species  with  those  which  build  the  exterior 
wall  and  the  foundations  of  the  whole  ring.  The  perpetual  change 
of  water  brought  into  contact  with  the  external  coral  by  the  breakers 
probably  supplies  them  with  more  food  than  they  could  obtain  in  a 
quieter  sea,  which  may  account  for  their  more  luxuriant  growth. 
At  the  same  time,  they  deprive  the  whole  of  the  coral  in  the  inte- 
rior of  the  most  nourishing  part  of  their  food,  because  the  still  water 
in  the  lagoon,  being  supplied  from  the  exterior  by  openings  in  the 
ring,  ceases  to  produce  the  hardier  corals ;  and  species  of  more  deli- 
cate forms,  and  of  much  slower  growth,  take  their  place.1  The 
depth  of  the  lagoon  varies,  in  different  atolls,  from  20  to  50  fathoms, 
the  bottom  being  partly  detritus  and  partly  live  coral.  By  the 
growth  of  the  coral,  some  few  of  the  lagoons  have  been  filled  up ; 
but  the  process  is  very  slow  from  the  causes  assigned,  and  also  be- 
cause there  are  marine  animals  that  feed  on  the  living  coral,  and 
prevent  its  indefinite  growth.  In  all  departments  of  nature,  the 
exuberant  increase  of  any  one  class  is  checked  and  limited  by  others. 
The  coral  is  of  the  most  varied  and  delicate  structure,  and  of  the 
most  beautiful  tints:  dark  brown,  vivid  green,  rich  purple,  pink, 
deep  blue,  peach  colour,  yellow,  with  dazzling  white,  contrasted  with 
deep  shadows,  shine  through  the  limpid  water;  while  fish  of  the 
most  gorgeous  hues  swim  among  the  branching  coral,  which  are  of 
many  different  kinds,  though  all  combine  in  the  structure  of  thes? 
singular  islands.  Lagoon  islands  are  sometimes  circular,  but  more 
frequently  oval  or  irregular  in  their  form.  Sometimes  they  are  soli- 
tary or  in  groups,  but  they  occur  most  frequently  in  elongated  archi- 
pelagoes, with  the  atolls  elongated  in  the  same  direction.  The 
grouping  of  atolls  bears  a  perfect  analogy  to  the  grouping  of  the 
archipelagoes  of  ordinary  islands. 

The  size  of  these  fairy-rings  of  the  ocean  varies  from  2  to  90 
miles  in  diameter,  and  islets  are  frequently  formed  on  the  coral  rings 
by  the  washing  up  of  the  detritus,  for  they  are  so  low  that  the  waves 
break  over  them  in  high  tides  or  storms.  They  have  openings  or 
channels  in  their  circuit,  generally  on  the  leeward  side,  where  the 
tide  enters,  and  by  these  ships  may  sail  into  the  lagoons,  which  are 
excellent  harbours,  and  even  on  the  surface  of  the  circlet  or  reef 
itself  there  are  occasionally  boat-channels  between  islets. 

1  Supplement  to  the  Observations  on  the  Temple  of  Serapis,  by  Charles 
Babbage,  Esq. 


CHAP.  XIII.  CORAL    REEFS.  147 

Dangerous  Archipelago,  lying  east  of  the  Society  Islands,  is  one 
of  the  most  remarkable  assemblages  of  atolls  in  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
There  are  80  of  them,  generally  in  a  circular  form,  surrounding  very 
deep  lagoons,  and  separated  from  each  other  by  profound  depths. 
The  reefs  or  rings  are  about  half  a  mile  wide,  and  seldom  rise  more 
than  10  feet  above  the  edge  of  the  surf,  which  beats  upon  them 
with  such  violence  that  it  may  be  heard  at  the  distance  of  8  miles ; 
and  yet  on  that  side  the  coral  insects  build  more  vigorously,  and 
vegetation  thrives  better,  than  on  the  other.  Many  of  the  islets  are 
inhabited. 

The  Caroline  Archipelago,  the  largest  of  all,  lies  north  of  the 
equator,  and  extends  its  atolls  in  60  groups  over  1000  miles.  Many 
are  of  great  size,  and  all  are  beat  by  a  tempestuous  sea  and  occa- 
sional hurricanes.  The  atolls  in  the-  Pacific  Ocean  and  China  Sea 
are  beyond  enumeration.  Though  less  frequent  in  the  Indian 
Ocean,  none  are  more  interesting,  or  afford  more  perfect  specimens 
of  this  peculiar  formation,  than  the  Maldive  and  Laccadive  archi- 
pelagoes, both  nearly  parallel  to  the  coast  of  Malabar,  and  elongated 
in  that  direction.  The  former  is  470  miles  long  and  about  50  miles 
broad,  with  atolls  arranged  in  a  double  row,  separated  by  an  un- 
fathomable sea,  into  which  their  sides  descend  with  more  than  ordi- 
nary rapidity.  The  largest  atoll  is  88  miles  long,  and  somewhat 
less  than  20  broad ;  Suadiva,  the  next  in  size,  is  44  miles  by  23, 
with  a  large  lagoon  in  its  centre,  to  which  there  is  access  by  42 
openings.  There  are  inhabited  islets  on  most  of  the  chaplets  or 
rings  not  higher  than  20  feet,  while  the  reefs  themselves  are  nowhere 
more  than  6  feet  above  the  surge. 

The  Laccadives  run  to  the  north  of  this  archipelago  in  a  double 
line  of  nearly  circular  atolls,  on  which  are  low  inhabited  islets. 

Encircling  reefs  differ  in  no  respect  from  atoll-reefs,  except  that 
they  have  one  or  more  islands  in  their  lagoon.  They  commonly  form 
a  ring  round  mountainous  islands,  at  a  distance  of  two  or  three  miles 
from  the  shore,  rising  on  the  outside  from  a  very  deep  ocean,  and 
separated  from  the  land  by  a  lagoon  or  channel  200  or  300  feet  deep. 
These  reefs  surround  the  submarine  base  of  the  island,  and,  rising 
by  a  steep  ascent  to  the  surface,  they  encircle  the  island  itself.  The 
Caroline  Archipelago  exhibits  good  examples  of  this  structure  in  the 
encircled  islands  of  Hogoleu  and  Siniavin ;  the  narrow  ring  or  en- 
circling reef  of  the  former  is  135  miles  in  its  very  irregular  circuit, 
on  which  are  a  vast  number  of  islets  :  six  or  eight  islands  rise  to  a 
considerable  height  from  its  lagoon,  which  is  so  deep,  and  the  open- 
ing to  it  so  large,  that  a  frigate  might  sail  into  it.  The  encircling 
reef  of  Siniavin  is  narrow  and  irregular,  and  its  lagoon  is  so  nearly 
filled  by  a  lofty  island,  that  it  leaves  only  a  strip  of  water  round  it 
from  2  to  5  miles  wide  and  30  fathoms  deep. 

Tahiti,  the  largest  of  th«  Society  group,  is  another  instance  of  an 


148  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

encircled  island  of  the  most  beautiful  kind :  it  rises  in  mountains 
7000  feet  high,  with  only  a  narrow  plain  along  the  shore,  and,  except 
•where  cleared  for  cultivation,  it  is  covered  with  forests  of  cocoa-nut, 
palms,  bananas,  bread-fruit,  and  other  productions  of  a  tropical  cli- 
mate. The  lagoon,  which  encompasses  it  like  an  enormous  moat,  is 
30  fathoms  deep,  and  is  hemmed  in  from  the  ocean  by  a  coral  band 
of  the  usual  kind,  at  a  distance  varying  from  half  a  mile  to  three 
miles. 

Barrier-reefs  are  of  precisely  the  same  structure  as  the  two  pre- 
ceding classes,  from  which  they  only  differ  in  their  position  with 
regard  to  the  land.  A  barrier-reef  off  the  north-east  coast  of  the 
continent  of  Australia  is  the  grandest  coral  formation  existing. 
Rising  at  once  from  an  unfathomable  ocean,  it  extends  1000  miles 
along  the  coast,  with  a  breadth  varying  from  200  yards  to  a  mile, 
and  at  an  average  distance  of  from  20  to  30  miles  from  the  shore, 
increasing  in  some  places  to  60  and  even  70  miles.  The  great  arm 
of  the  sea  included  between  it  and  the  land  is  nowhere  less  than  10, 
occasionally  60  fathoms  deep,  and  is  safely  navigable  throughout  its 
whole  length,  with  a  few  transverse  openings  by  which  ships  can 
enter.  The  reef  is  really  1200  miles  long,  because  it  stretches 
nearly  across  Torres  Straits.  It  is  interrupted  off  the  southern  coast 
of  New  Guinea  by  muddy  water,  which  destroys  the  coral  animals, 
probably  from  some  great  river  on  that  island.  There  are  also  ex- 
tensive barrier-reefs  on  the  islands  of  Louisiade  and  New  Caledonia, 
which  are  exactly  opposite  to  the  great  Australian  reef;  and  as  atolls 
stud  that  part  of  the  Pacific  which  lies  between  them,  it  is  called 
the  Coralline  Sea.  The  rolling  of  the  billows  along  the  great  Aus- 
tralian reef  has  been  admirably  described.  "  The  long  ocean-swell, 
being  suddenly  impeded  by  this  barrier,  lifted  itself  in  one  great 
continuous  ridge  of  deep  blue  water,  which,  curling  over,  fell  on  the 
edge  of  the  reef  in  an  unbroken  cataract  of  dazzling  white  foam. 
Each  line  of  breaker  ran  often  one  or  two  miles  in  length  with  not 
a  perceptible  gap  in  its  continuity.  There  was  a  simple  grandeur 
and  display  of  power  and  beauty  in  this  scene  that  rose  even  to  sub- 
limity. The  unbroken  roar  of  the  surf,  with  its  regular  pulsation 
of  thunder,  as  each  succeeding  swell  fell  first  on  the  outer  edge  of 
the  reef,  was  almost  deafening,  yet  so  deep-toned  as  not  to  interfere 

with  the  slightest  nearer  and  sharper  sound Both  the 

sound  and  sight  were  such  as  to  impress  the  spectator  with  the  con- 
sciousness of  standing  in  the  presence  of  an  overwhelming  majesty 
and  power."1 

Coral-reefs  are  distinct  from  all  the  foregoing ;  they  are  merely 
iringes  of  coral  along  the  margin  of  a  shore,  and,  as  they  line  the 

1  By  Mr.  Jukes,  Naturalist  to  the  Surveying  Voyage  of  Captain  Black- 
wood,  R.N.,  in  Torres  Straits. 


CHAP.  XIII.  LAGOON    ISLANDS.  149 

shore  itself,  they  have  no  lagoons.  A  vast  extent  of  coast,  both  on 
the  continents  and  islands,  is  fringed  by  these  reefs,  and,  as  they 
frequently  surround  shoals,  they  are  very  dangerous. 

Lagoon  islands  are  the  work  of  various  species  of  coral  animals; 
but  those  particular  zoophytes  which  build  the  external  wall,  the 
foundation  and  support  of  the  whole  ring  or  reef,  are  most  vigorous 
when  most  exposed  to  the  breakers;  they  cannot  exist  at  a  greater 
depth  than  25  or  30  fathoms  at  most,  and  die  immediately  when  left 
dry;  yet  the  coral  wall  descends  precipitously  to  unfathomable 
depths ;  and  although  the  whole  of  it  is  not  the  work  of  these  ani- 
mals, yet  the  perpendicular  thickness  of  the  coral  is  known  to  be 
very  great,  extending  hundreds  of  feet  below  the  depth  at  which 
these  polypi  cease  to  live.  From  an  extensive  survey  of  the  Coral- 
line Seas  of  the  tropics,  Mr.  Darwin  has  found  an  explanation  of 
these  singular  phenomena  in  the  instability  of  the  crust  of  the 
earth. 

Since  there  are  certain  proofs  that  large  areas  of  the  dry  land  are 
gradually  rising,  and  others  sinking  down,  so  the  bottom  of  the 
ocean  is  not  exempt  from  the  general  change  that  is  slowly  bringing 
about  a  new  state  of  things ;  and  as  there  is  evidence,  on  multitudes 
of  the  volcanic  islands  in  the  Pacific,  of  a  rise  in  certain  parts  of 
the  basis  of  the  ocean,  so  the  lagoon  islands  indicate  a  subsidence  in 
others — changes  arising  from  the  expansion  and  contraction  of  the 
strata  under  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

There  are  strong  reasons  for  believing  that  a  continent  once  occu- 
pied a  great  part  of  the  tropical  Pacific,  some  part  of  which  sub- 
sided by  slow  and  imperceptible  degrees.  As  portions  of  it  gradu- 
ally sank  down  below  the  surface  of  the  deep,  the  tops  of  moun- 
tains and  table-lands  would  remain  as  islands  of  different  magnitude 
and  elevation,  and  would  form  archipelagoes  elongated  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  mountain-chains.  Now,  the  coral-animal,  which  con- 
structs the  outward  wall  and  mass  of  the  reefs,  never  builds  laterally, 
and  cannot  exist  at  a  greater  depth  than  25  or  30  fathoms.  [It  is 
asserted  that  the  coral  animal  cannot  exist  at  any  depth  of  water 
which  is  beyond  the  reach  or  penetration  of  the  light  of  the  sun.] 
Hence,  if  it  began  to  lay  the  foundation  of  its  reef  on  the  sub- 
merged flanks  of  an  island,  it  would  be  obliged  to  build  its  wall 
upwards  in  proportion  as  the  island  sank  down,  so  that  at  length  a 
lagoon  would  be  formed  between  it  and  the  land.  As  the  subsidence 
continued,  the  lagoon  would  increase,  the  island  would  diminish, 
and  the  base  of  the  coral-reef  would  sink  deeper  and  deeper,  while 
the  animal  would  always  keep  its  top  just  below  the  surface  of  the 
ocean,  till  at  length  the  island  would  entirely  disappear,  and  a  per- 
fect atoll  would  be  left.  If  the  island  were  mountainous,  each  peak 
would  form  a  separate  island  in  the  lagoon,  ^nd  the  encircled  islands 
would  have  different  forms,  which  the  reefs  would  follow  continu- 
13* 


150  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIIT. 

ously.  This  theory,  perfectly  explains  the  appearances  of  the 
lagoon  islands  and  barrier-reefs,  the  continuity  of  the  reef,  the 
islands  in  the  middle  of  the  lagoons,  the  different  distances  of  the 
reefs  from  them,  and  the  forms  of  the  archipelago,  so  exactly  similar 
to  the  archipelagoes  of  ordinary  islands,  all  of  which  are  but  the 
tops  of  submerged  mountain-chains,  and  generally  partake  of  their 
elongated  forms.1 

Every  intermediate  form  between  an  atoll  and  an  encircling  reef 
exists  :  New  Caledonia  is  a  link  between  them.  A  reef  runs  along 
the  north-western  coast  of  that  island  400  miles,  and  for  many  leagues 
never  approaches  within  8  miles  of  its  shore,  and  the  distance  in- 
creases to  16  miles  near  the  southern  extremity.  At  the  other  end 
the  reefs  are  continued  on  each  side  150  miles  beyond  the  sub-ma- 
rine prolongation  of  the  land,  marking  the  former  extent  of  the 
island.  In  the  lagoon  of  Keeling  Atoll,  situate  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
600  miles  south  of  Sumatra,  many  fallen  trees  and  a  ruined  store- 
house show  that  it  has  subsided  :  these  movements  take  place  during 
the  earthquakes  at  Sumatra,  which  are  also  felt  in  this  atoll.  Vio- 
lent earthquakes  have  lately  been  felt  at  Vanikora  (celebrated  for 
the  wreck  of  La  Perouse),  a  lofty  island  of  the  Queen  Charlotte 
group,  with  an  encircling  reef  in  the  western  part  of  the  South 
Pacific,  and  on  which  there  are  marks  of  recent  subsidence.  Other 
proofs  are  not  wanting  of  this  great  movement  in  the  beds  of  the 
Pacific  and  Indian  Oceans. 

The  extent  of  the  atoll  formations,  including  under  this  name  the 
encircling  reefs,  is  enormous.  In  the  Pacific,  from  the  southern  end 
of  Low  Archipelago  to  the  northern  extremity  of  Marshall  or  Ra- 
dick  Archipelago,  a  distance  of  4500  miles,  and  many  degrees  of 
latitude  in  breadth,  atolls  alone  rise  above  the  ocean.  The  same  may 
be  said  of  the  space  in  the  Indian  Ocean  between  Saya  de  Matha 
and  the  end  of  the  Laccadives,  which  include  25  degrees  of  latitude 
—  such  are  the  enormous  areas  that  have  been,  and  probably  still 
are,  slowly  subsiding.  Other  spaces  of  great  extent  may  also  be 
mentioned,  as  the  large  archipelago  of  the  Carolinas,  that  in  the 

1  Another  theory  relative  to  the  formation  of  the  lagoon  islands  is  that 
the  coral  circuit  is  but  the  edge  of  a  submarine  elevation  crater,  on  which 
-the  coral  animals  have  raised  their  edifice.  This  view,  which  has  been 
adopted  by  Von  Buch  and  Captain  Beechey,  to  whom  we  are  indebted  more 
than  to  any  other  navigator  for  positive  information  and  admirable  surveys 
of  the  coral  islands  of  the  Pacific,  receives  corroboration  from  the  perfect- 
conformity  in  shape  between  many  of  the  lagoon  islands  of  the  Gambier 
group  and  the  known  elevation  craters,  and  from  the  circumstance  of  a 
lagoon  island  having  been  seen  to  rise  in  1825,  in  lat.  30°  14',  accompanied 
with  smoke,  and  communicating  so  high  a  temperature  to  the  surrounding 
sea  as  rendered  it  impossible  to  land. — See  Beechey's  Voyages,  and  Poep- 
pig'a  Reise. 


CHAP.  XIII.  VOLCANIC    ISLANDS.  Ifl 

Coralline  Sea  off  the  north-west  coast  of  Australia,  and  an  extensive 
one  in  the  China  Sea. 

Though  the  volcanic  islands  in  the  Pacific  are  so  numerous,  there 
is  not  one  within  the  areas  mentioned,  and  there  is  not  an  active 
volcano  within  several  hundred  miles  of  an  archipelago,  or  even 
group  of  atolls.  This  is  the  more  interesting,  as  recent  shells  and 
fringes  of  dead  coral,  found  at  various  heights  on  their  surfaces,  show 
that  the  volcanic  islands  have  been  rising  more  and  more  above  the 
surface  of  the  ocean  for  a  very  long  time. 

The  volcanic  islands  also  occupy  particular  zones  in  the  Pacific, 
and  it  is  found  from  extensive  observation  that  all  the  points  of 
eruption  fall  on  the  areas  of  elevation.1 

One  of  the  most  terribly  active  of  these  zones  begins  with  the 
Banda  group  of  islands,  and  extends  through  the  Sunda  group  of 
Timor,  Sumbawa,  Bali,  Java,  and  Sumatra,  separated  only  by  nar- 
row channels,  and  altogether  forming  a  gently  curved  line  2000 
miles  long ;  but  as  the  volcanic  zone  is  continued  through  Barren 
Island  and  Narcondam  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  northward  through 
the  islands  along  the  coast  of  Aracan,  the  entire  length  of  this  vol- 
canic range  is  a  great  deal  more.  During  the  last  hundred  years 
all  the  islands  and  rocks  for  100  miles  along  the  coast  of  Aracan 
have  been  gradually  rising.  The  greatest  elevation  of  22  feet  has 
taken  place  about  the  centre  of  the  line  of  upheaval,  in  the  north- 
west end  of  the  island  of  Cheduba,  containing  two  mud  volcanoes, 
and  is  continued  through  Foul  Island  and  the  Terribles.2 

The  little  island  of  Gonung-Api,  belonging  to  the  Banda  group, 
contains  a  volcano  of  great  activity ;  and  such  is  the  elevating  pres- 
sure of  the  submarine  fire  in  that  part  of  the  ocean,  that  a  mass  of 
black  basalt  rose  up,  of  such  magnitude  as  to  fill  a  bay  60  fathoms 
deep,  so  quietly  that  the  inhabitants  were  not  aware  of  what  was 
going  on  till  it  was  nearly  done.  Timor  and  the  other  adjacent 
islands  also  bear  marks  of  recent  elevation. 

There  is  not  a  spot  of  its  size  on  the  face  of  the  earth  that  con- 
tains so  many  volcanoes  as  the  island  of  Java.3  A  range  of  volcanic 
mountains,  from  5000  to  14,000  feet  high,  forms  the  central  crest 
of  the  island,  and  ends  to  the  east  in  a  series  of  38  separate  volca- 
noes with  broad  bases,  rising  gradually  into  cones.  They  all  stand 
on  a  plain  but  little  elevated  above  the  sea,  and  each  individual 
mountain  seems  to  have  been  formed  independently  of  the  rest. 

1  Few  books  have  more  interest  than  Mr.  Darwin's  on  Coral  Reefs  and 
Volcanic  Islands,  to  which  the  author  is  much  indebted.  Consult  also 
Captain  Beechey's  Voyages,  and  his  beautiful  charts  of  the  Coral  Islands 
in  the  Pacific.  [Also,  the  United  States'  Exploring  Expedition  under  Com- 
mander Charles  Wilkes.] 

'By  the  Nautical  Survey  in  1848. 

*  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  on  Java. 


152  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

Most  of  them  are  of  great  antiquity,  and  are  covered  with  thick 
vegetation.  Some  are  extinct,  or  only  emit  smoke;  from  others 
sulphurous  vapours  issue  with  prodigious  violence ;  one  has  a  large 
crater  filled  with  boiling  water ;  and  a  few  have  had  fierce  eruptions 
of  late  years.  The  island  is  covered  with  volcanic  spurs  from  the 
main  ridge,  united  by  cross  chains,  together  with  other  chains  of 
less  magnitude,  but  not  less  active. 

In  1772  the  greater  part  of  one  of  the  largest  volcanic  mountains 
was  swallowed  up  after  a  short  but  severe  combustion;  a  luminous 
cloud  enveloped  the  mountain  on  the  llth  of  August,  and  soon  after 
the  huge  mass  actually  disappeared  under  the  earth  with  tremendous 
noise,  carrying  with  it  about  90  square  miles  of  the  surrounding 
country,  40  villages,  and  2957  of,  their  inhabitants. 

The  northern  coast  of  Java  is  flat  and  swampy,  but  the  southern 
provinces  are  beautiful  and  romantic ;  yet  in  the  lovely  peaceful  val- 
leys the  stillness  of  night  is  disturbed  by  the  deep  roaring  of  the 
volcanoes,  many  of  which  are  perpetually  burning  with  slow  but 
terrific  action. 

Separated  by  narrow  channels  of  the  sea,  Bali  and  Sumbawa  are 
but  a  continuation  of  Java,  the  same  in  nature  and  structure,  but 
on  a  smaller  scale,  their  mountains  being  litttle  more  than  8000  feet 
high. 

The  intensity  of  the  volcanic  force  under  this  part  of  the  Pacific 
may  be  imagined  from  the  eruption  of  Tomboro  in  Sumbawa  in 
1815,  which  continued  from  the  5th  of  April  till  July.  The  ex- 
plosions were  heard  at  the  distance  of  970  miles;  and  in  Java,  at 
the  distance  of  300  miles,  the  darkness  during  the  day  was  like  that 
of  deep  midnight,  from  the  quantity  of  ashes  that  filled  the  air : 
they  were  carried  to  Bencoolen,  a  distance  of  1100  miles,  which, 
with  regard  to  distance,  is  as  if  the  ashes  of  Vesuvius  had  fallen  at 
Birmingham.  The  country  round  was  ruined,  and  the  town  of  Tom- 
boro was  submerged  by  heavy  rollers  from  the  ocean. 

In  Sumatra  the  extensive  granitic  formations  of  Eastern  Asia 
join  the  volcanic  series  which  occupies  so  large  a  portion  of  the  Pa- 
cific. This  most  beautiful  of  islands  presents  the  boldest  aspect ;  it 
is  indented  by  arms  of  the  most  transparent  sea,  and  watered  by 
innumerable  streams;  it  displays  in  its  vegetation  all  the  bright 
1  colouring  of  the  tropics.  Here  the  submarine  fire  finds  vent  in 
three  volcanoes  on  the  southern,  and  one  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
island.  A  few  atolls,  many  hundreds  of  miles  to  the  south,  show 
that  this  volcanic  zone  alternates  with  an  area  of  subsidence. 

More  to  the  north,  and  nearly  parallel  to  the  preceding  zone,  ano- 
ther line  of  volcanic  islands  begins  to  the  north  of  New  Guinea,  and 
passes  through  New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  Solomon  Islands,  and  the 
New  Hebrides,  containing  many  open  vents.  This  range  or  area  of 
elevation  separates  the  Coralline  sea  from  the  great  chain  of  atolls 


CHAP.  XIII.  VOLCANIC    ISLANDS.  153 

on  the  north  between  Ellice's  group  and  the  Caroline  Islands,  so 
that  it  lies  between  two  areas  of  subsidence. 

The  third  and  greatest  of  all  the  zones  of  volcanic  islands  includes 
Gilolo,  one  of  the  Molucca  group,  which  is  bristled  with  volcanic 
cones ;  and  from  thence  it  may  be  traced  northwards  through  the 
Philippine  Islands  and  Formosa :  bending  thence  to  the  north-east, 
it  passes  through  Loo-Choo,  the  Japan  Archipelago,  and  is  continued 
by  the  Kurile  Islands  to  the  peninsula  of  Kamtchatka,  where  there 
are  several  volcanoes  of  great  elevation. 

The  Philippine  Islands  and  Formosa  form  the  volcanic  separation 
between  the  atoll  region  in  the  China  Sea,  and  that  of  the  Caroline 
and  Pellew  groups. 

There  are  six  islands  east  of  Jephoon  in  the  Japan  Archipelago 
which  are  subject  to  eruptions,  and  the  internal  fire  breaks  through 
the  Kurile  Islands  in  18  vents,  besides  having  raised  two  new 
islands  in'  the  beginning  of  this  century,  one  4  miles  round,  and  the 
other  3000  feet  high,  though  the  sea  there  is  so  deep  that  the  bot- 
tom has  not  been  reached  with  a  line  200  fathoms  long. 

Thus  some  long  rent  in  the  earth  had  extended  from  the  tropics 
to  the  gelid  seas  of  Ochotsk,  probably  connected  with  the  peninsula 
of  Kamtchatka :  a  new  one  begins  to  the  east  of  the  latter  in  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  which  are  of  the  most  barren  and  desolate  aspect, 
perpetually  beaten  by  the  surge  of  a  restless  ocean,  and  bristled  by 
the  cones  of  24  volcanoes ;  they  sweep  in  a  half-moon  round  Behr- 
ing's  Sea,  till  they  join  the  volcanic  peninsula  of  Russian  America. 

The  line  of  volcanic  agency  has  been  followed  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  coral-working  animals,  which  extend  but  a  short  way 
on  each  side  of  the  tropics ;  but  it  has  been  shown  that  in  the  equa- 
torial regions  immense  areas  of  elevation  alternate  with  as  great 
areas  of  subsidence :  north  of  New  Holland  they  are  so  mixed  that 
it  indicates  a  point  of  convergence.1 

On  the  other  side  of  the  Pacific  the  whole  chain  of  the  Andes, 
and  the  adjacent  islands  of  Juan  Fernandez  and  the  Galapagos,  form 
a  vast  volcanic  area,  which  is  actually  now  rising;  and  though  there 
are  few  volcanic  islands  north  of  the  zone  of  atolls,  yet  those  that 
be  indicate  great  internal  activity,  especially  in  the  Sandwich  Islands, 
where  the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii  or  Owhyhee  are  inferior  to  none  in 
awful  sublimity.  That  of  Kirawah,  a  lateral  crater  of  eruption  of 
the  great  volcano  of  Mauna  Loa,  was  seen  in  high  activity  by  Mr. 
Douglas  in  1834;  and  subsequently  by  Mr.  Dana.  The  former 
traveller  describes  it  as  a  deep  sunken  pit,  occupying  five  square 
miles,  covered  with  masses  of  lava  which  had  been  in  a  state  of  re- 
cent fusion.  In  the  midst  of  these  were  two  lakes  of  liquid  lava  : 
in  both  there  was  a  vast  caldron  in  furious  ebullition,  occasionally 
spouting  to  the  height  of  from  20  to  70  feet,  whence  streams  of 

1  Mr.  Darwin  on  Volcanic  Islands. 


154  PHYSIQAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

lava,  hurrying  along  in  fiery  waves,  were  finally  precipitated  down 
an  ignited  arch,  where  the  force  of  the  lava  was  partly  arrested  by 
the  escape  of  gases,  which  threw  back  huge  blocks,  and  literally 
spun  them  into  threads  of  glass,  which  were  carried  by  the  wind 
'  like  the  refuse  of  a  flax-mill.  He  says  the  noise  could  hardly  be 
described  —  that  of  all  the  steam-engines  in  the  world  would  be  a 
whisper  to  it ;  and  the  heat  was  so  overpowering,  and  the  dryuess 
of  the  air  so  intense,  that  the  very  eyelids  felt  scorched  and  dried 
up.1 

It  may  be  observed  that,  where  there  are  coral  fringes,  the  land 
is  either  rising  or  stationary ;  for,  were  it  subsiding,  lagoons  would 
be  formed.  On  the  contrary,  there  are  many  fringing  reefs  on  the 
shores  of  volcanic  islands  along  the  coasts  of  the  Red  Sea,  the  Per- 
sian Gulf,  and  the  West  Indian  Islands,  all  of  which  are  rising. 
Indeed,  this  occurrence,  in  numberless  instances,  coincides  with  the 
existence  of  upraised  organic  remains  on  the  land. 

As  the  only  coral  formations  of  the  Atlantic  are  fringing  reefs, 
and  as  there  is  not  one  in  its  central  expanse,  except  in  Bermuda, 
it  may  be  concluded  that  the  bed  of  the  ocean  is  nod  sinking;  and 
with  the  exception  of  the  Leeward  Islands,  the  Canaries,  the  Azores, 
and  the  Cape  de  Verd  groups,  there  are  no  active  volcanoes  in  the 
islands  or  on  the  coasts  of  that  ocean. 

At  present  the  great  continent  has  few  centres  of  volcanic  action 
in  comparison  with  what  it  once  had.  The  Mediterranean  is  still 
undermined  by  fire,  which  occasionally  finds  vent  in  Vesuvius  and 
the  stately  cone  of  Etna.  Though  Stromboli  constantly  pours  forth 
inexhaustible  showers  of  incandescent  matter,  and  a  temporary 
island  now  and  then  starts  up  from  the  sea,  the  volcanic  action  is 
diminished,  and  Italy  has  become  comparatively  more  tranquil. 

The  table-land  of  Western  Asia,  especially  Azerbijan,  had  once 
been  the  seat  of  intense  commotion,  now  spent,  as  evidenced  by  the 
volcanic  peaks  of  the  Seiban  Dagh,  Ararat,  and  by  the  still  smoking 
cone  of  Deinavend.  The  table-land  of  Eastern  Asia  furnishes  the 
solitary  instance  of  igneous  explosion  at  a  distance  of  1500  miles 
from  the  sea,  in  the  volcanic  chain  of  the  Thean-Tchan. 

Besides  the  two  active  volcanoes  of  the  Pe-shan  and  Ho-tcheou 
in  the  chain  itself,  at  the  distance  of  670  miles  from  each  other, 
with  a  solfatara  between  them,  it  is  the  centre  of  a  most  extensive 
volcanic  district,  extending  northward  to  the  Altai  Mountains,  in 
which  there  are  many  points  of  connexion  between  the  interior  of 
the  earth  and  the  atmosphere,  not  by  volcanoes,  but  by  solfataras 

1  Mr.  Douglas's  Voyage  to  the  Sandwich  Islands  in  1833-4. — Journal  of 
the  Royal  Geographical  Society  of  London.  [Commander  Charles  Wilkes 
describes  the  crater  of  Mauna  Loa,  p.  Ill,  Vol.  IV.,  Narrative  of  the  United 
States  Exploring  Expedition :  he  says  he  was  surprised  not  to  hear  more 
noise.] 


CHAP.  XIII.  ACTIVE    VOLCANOES.  155 

hot  springs,  and  vapours.  In  the  range  of  Targatabai,  in  the  coun- 
try of  the  Kirghiz,  there  is  a  mount  said  to  emit  smoke  and  even 
flame,  which  produces  sulphur  and  sal-ammoniac  in  abundance.  It 
is  not  ascertained  that  there  are  many  mountains  in  China  that  eject 
lava,  but  there  are  many  fire-hills  and  fire-springs ;  the  latter  are 
real  Artesian  wells,  five  or  six  inches  wide,  and  from  1500  to  3000 
feet  deep  :  from  some  of  these  water  rises  containing  a  great  quan- 
tity of  common  salt ;  from  others  gases  issue  :  and  when  a  flame  is 
applied,  fire  rushes  out  with  great  violence,  rising  20  or  30  feet  high, 
with  a  noise  like  thunder.  The  gas,  conducted  in  tubes  of  bamboo 
cane,  is  used  in  the  evaporation  of  salt  water  from  the  neighbouring 
springs. 

There  are  altogether  about  270  active  volcanoes,  of  which  190 
are  on  the  shores  and  islands  of  the  Pacific.  They  are  generally 
disposed  in  lines  or  groups.  The  chain  of  the  Andes  furnishes  a 
magnificent  example  of  linear  volcanoes.  The  peak  of  Teneriffe, 
encompassed  by  the  volcanic  islands  of  Palma  and  Lancerote,  is  an 
equally  good  specimen  of  a  central  group.  Eruptions  are  much 
more  frequent  in  low  than  in  high  volcanoes ;  that  in  the  island  of 
Stromboli  is  in  constant  activity;  whereas  Cotopaxi,  18,875  feet 
high,  and  Tungaragua,  16,424,  in  the  Andes,  have  only  been  active 
once  in  a  hundred  years.  On  account  of  the  force  requisite  to  raise 
lava  to  such  great  elevations,  it  rarely  flows  from  very  elevated  cones. 
Antisana  is  the  only  instance  to  the  contrary  among  all  the  lofty 
volcanoes  of  Equatorial  America.  In  Etna  also  the  pressure  is  so 
great  that  the  lava  forces  its  way  through  the  sides  of  the  mountain, 
or  at  the  base  of  the  cone. 

An  explosion  begins  by  a  dense  volume  of  smoke  issuing  from 
the  crater,  mixed  with  aqueous  vapour  and  gases,  then  masses  of 
rock  and  molten  matter  in  a  half-fluid  state  are  ejected  with  tre- 
mendous explosion  and  violence ;  after  which  lava  begins  to  flow, 
and  the  whole  terminates  by  a  shower  of  ashes  from  the  crater  — 
often  the  most  formidable  part  of  the  phenomenon,  as  was  expe- 
rienced at  the  destruction  of  Pompeii.  There  are  several  volcanoes 
which  eject  only  streams  of  boiling  water,  as  the  Volcano  de  Agua 
in  Guatemala ;  others  pour  forth  boiling  mud,  as  in  the  islands  of 
Trinidad,  Java,  and  Cheduba  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  A  more  feeble 
effort  of  the  volcanic  force  appears  in  the  numerous  solfataras.  Hot 
springs  show  that  the  volcanic  fire  is  not  extinguished,  though  not 
otherwise  apparent.  To  these  may  be  added  acidulous  springs,  those 
of  naphtha,  petroleum,  and  various  kinds  of  gas,  as  carbonic  acid 
gas,  the  food  of  plants — and,  when  breathed,  the  destruction  of  ani- 
mals, as  is  fearfully  seen  in  the  Gruero  Upas,  or  "  Valley  of  Death," 
in  Java :  it  is  half  a  mile  in  circumference  and  about  35  feet  deep, 
with  a  few  large  stones,  and  not  a  vestige  of  vegetation  on  the  bottom, 
which  is  covered  with  the  skeletons  of  human  beings  and  the  bones 


156  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIII. 

of  animals  and  birds  blanched  white  as  ivory.  On  approaching  the 
edge  of  the  valley,  which  is  situate  on  the  top  of  a  hill,  a  nauseous 
sickening  sensation  is  felt  j  and  nothing  that  has  life  can  enter  its 
precincts  without  being  immediately  suffocated.1 

The  seat  of  activity  has  been  perpetually  changing,  but  there 
always  has  been  volcanic  action,  possibly  more  intense  in  former 
times,  but  even  at  present  it  extends  from  pole  to  pole. 

Notwithstanding  the  numerous  volcanic  vents  in  the  globe,  many 
places  are  subject  to  violent  earthquakes,  which  ruin  the  works  of 
man,  and  often  change  the  configuration  of  the  country.  The  most 
extensive  district  of  earthquakes  "comprises  the  Mediterranean  and 
the  adjacent  countries,  Asia  Minor,  the  Caspian  Sea,  Caucasus,  and 
the  Persian  mountains.  It  joins  a  vast  volcanic  district  in  Central 
Asia,  whose  chief  focus  seems  to  be  the  Thean-Tchan,  which  includes 
Lake  Baikal  and  the  neighbouring  regions.  A  great  part  of  the 
continent  of  Asia  is  more  or  less  subject  to  shocks ;  but,  with  the 
exception  of  the  shores  of  the  Hed  Sea  and  the  northern  parts  of 
Barbary,  Africa  is  entirely  free  from  these  tremendous  scourges; 
and  it  is  singular  that,  notwithstanding  the  terrible  earthquakes 
which  shake  the  countries  west  of  the  Andes,  the  Andean  chain 
itself,  and  all  the  countries  round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  they  are  extremely  rare  in  the  great  eastern  plains  of 
South  America.  For  the  most  part  the  shocks  are  transmitted  in 
tho  line  of  the  primary  mountain-chains,  and  seem  often  to  be  limited 
by  them  in  the  other  direction. 

There  must  be  some  singular  volcanic  action  underneath  part  of 
Great  Britain,  which  has  occasioned  255  slight  shocks  of  earthquake, 
of  which  139  took  place  in  Scotland  :  the  most  violent  of  them  have 
been  felt  at  Comrie,  in  Perthshire,  in  1839 ;  of  the  rest,  14  took 
place  on  the  borders  of  Yorkshire  and  Derbyshire,  30  in  Wales,  and 
31  on  the  south  coast  of  England :  they  were  preceded  by  a  sudden 
fall  of  the  barometer,  fogs,  and  unusual  sultriness ;  the  two  latter 
phenomena  are  said  to  indicate  these  convulsions  about  Sienna,  and 
in  the  Maremma  of  Tuscany,  where  they  have  of  late  years  been 
attended  with  very  disastrous  effects. 

Earthquakes  are  probably  produced  by  fractures  and  sudden  heavings 
and  subsidences  in  the  elastic  crust  of  the  globe,  from  the  pressure 
of  the  liquid  fire,  vapour,  and  gases  in  its  interior,  which  there  find 
vent,  relieve  the  tension  which  the  strata  acquire  during  their  slow 
refrigeration,  and  restore  equilibrium.  But  whether  the  initial  im- 
pulse be  eruptive,  or  a  sudden  pressure  upwards,  the  shock  origi- 
nating in  that  point  is  propagated  through  the  elastic  surface  of  the 
earth  in  a  series  of  circular  or  oval  undulations,  similar  to  those 

1  Letter  from  Alex.  Loudon,  Esq.,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Geographical 
Society  of  London. 


CHAP.  XIII.  EARTHQUAKES.  157 

produced  by  dropping  a  stone  into  a  pool,  and  like  them  they  become 
broader  and  lower  as  the  distance  increases,  till  they  gradually  sub- 
side ;  in  this  manner  the  shock  travels  through  the  land,  becoming 
weaker  and  weaker  till  it  terminates.  When  the  impulse  begins  in 
the  interior  of  a  continent,  the  elastic  wave  is  propagated  through 
the  solid  crust  of  the  earth,  as  it  is  in  sound  through  the  air,  and 
is  transmitted  from  the  former  to  the  ocean,  where  it  is  finally  spent 
and  lost,  or,  if  very  powerful,  is  continued  in  the  opposite  land. 
Almost  all  the  great  earthquakes,  however,  have  their  origin  in  the 
bed  of  the  ocean,  far  from  land,  whence  the  shocks  travel  in  undu- 
lations to  the  surrounding  shores. 

No  doubt  many  of  small  intensity  are  imperceptible :  it  is  only 
the  violent  efforts  of  the  internal  forces  that  can  overcome  the  pres- 
sure of  the  ocean's  bed,  and  that  of  the  superincumbent  water. 
The  internal  pressure  is  supposed  to  find  relief  most  readily  in  a 
belt  of  great  breadth  that  surrounds  the  land  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  the  coast,  and,  being  formed  of  the  debris,  the  internal 
temperature  is  in  a  perpetual  state  of  fluctuation,  which  would  seem 
to  give  rise  to  sudden  flexures  and  submarine  eruptions. 

When  the  original  impulse  is  a  fracture  or  eruption  of  lava  in  the 
bed  of  the  deep  ocean,  two  kinds  of  waves  or  undulations  are  pro- 
duced and  propagated  simultaneously  —  one  through  the  bed  of  the 
ocean,  which  is  the  true  earthquake  shock,  and  coincident  with  this 
a  wave  is  formed  and  propagated  on  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  which 
rolls  to  the  shore,  and  reaches  it  in  time  to  complete  the  destruction 
long  after-  the  shock  or  wave  through  the  solid  ocean-bed  has  arrived 
and  spent  itself  on  the  land.  The  sea  rose  50  feet  at  Lisbon  and 
60  at  Cadiz  after  the  great  earthquake ;  it  rose  and  fell  18  times  at 
Tangier  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  15  times  at  Funchal  in  Madeira. 
At  Kinsale  a  body  of  water  rushed  into  the  harbour,  and  the  water 
in  Loch  Lomond  in  Scotland  rose  two  feet  four  inches — so  extensive 
was  the  oceanic  wave.1  The  height  to  which  the  surface  of  the 
ground  is  elevated,  or  the  vertical  height  of  the  shock-wave,  varies 
from  one  inch  to  two  or  three  feet.  This  earth-wave,  on  passing 
under  deep  water,  is  imperceptible;  but  when  it  comes  to  sound- 
ings, it  carries  with  it  to  the  land  a  long,  flat,  aqueous  wave ;  on 
arriving  at  the  beach,  the  water  drops  in  arrear  from  the  superior 
velocity  of  the  shock,  so  that  at  that  moment  the  sea  seems  to  recede 
before  the  great  ocean-wave  arrives. 

It  is  the  small  forced  wave  that  gives  the  shock  to  ships,  and  not 
the  great  wave ;  but  when  ships  are  struck  in  very  deep  water,  the 
centre  of  disturbance  is  either  immediately  under,  or  very  nearly 
under,  the  vessel. 

1  Mitchell  on  the  Causes  of  Earthquakes,  in  Philosophical  Transactions 
for  1760. 

14 


158  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    XIII. 

Three  other  series  of  undulations  are  formed  simultaneously  with 
the  preceding,  by  which  the  sound  of  the  explosion  is  conveyed 
through  the  earth,  the  ocean,  and  the  air,  with  different  velocities. 
That  through  the  earth  travels  at  the  rate  of  from  7000  to  10,000 
feet  in  a  second  in  hard  rock,  somewhat  less  in  looser  materials,  and 
arrives  at  the  coast  a  short  time  before,  or  at  the  same  moment  with, 
the  shock,  and  produces  the  hollow  sounds  that  are  the  harbingers 
of  ruin ;  then  follows  a  continuous  succession  of  sounds,  like  the 
rolling  of  distant  thunder,  formed  first,  by  the  noise  propagated  in 
undulations  through  the  water  of  the  sea,  which  travels  at  the  rate 
of  4700  feet  in  a  second,  and,  lastly,  by  that  passing  through  the 
air,  which  only  takes  place  when  the  origin  of  the  earthquake  is  a 
submarine  explosion,  and  travels  with  the  velocity  of  1123  feet  in 
a  second.  The  rolling  sounds  precede  the  arrival  of  the  great 
oceanic  wave  on  the  coasts,  and  are  continued  after  the  terrific  catas- 
trophe when  the  eruption  is  extensive.1 

When  there  is  a  succession  of  shocks  all  the  phenomena  are  re- 
peated. Sounds  sometimes  occur  when  there  is  no  earthquake  :  they 
were  heard  on  the  plains  of  the  Apure,  in  Venezuela,  at  the  moment 
the  volcano  in  St.  Vincent's,  700  miles  off,  discharged  a  stream  of 
lava.  The  bellowings  of  Guanaxuato  afford  a  singular  instance : 
these  subterraneous  noises  have  been  heard  for  a  month  uninter- 
ruptedly when  there  was  no  earthquake  felt  on  the  table-land  of 
Mexico,  nor  in  the  rich  silver-mines  1600  feet  below  its  surface. 

The  velocity  of  the  great  oceanic  wave  varies  as  the  square  root 
of  the  depth ;  it  consequently  has  a  rapid  progress  through  deep 
water,  and  less  when  it  comes  to  soundings.  That  raised  during  the 
earthquake  at  Lisbon  travelled  to  Barbadoes  at  the  rate  of  7 '8  miles 
in  a  minute,  and  to  Portsmouth  at  the  rate  of  a  little  more  than  two 
miles  in  a  minute.  The  velocity  of  the  shock  varies  with  the  elas- 
ticity of  the  strata  it  passes  through.  The  undulations  of  the  earth 
are  subject  to  the  same  laws  as  those  of  light  and  sound;  hence, 
when  the  shock  or  earth-wave  passes  through  strata  of  different 
elasticity,  it  will  partly  be  reflected,  and  a  wave  will  be  sent  back, 
producing  a  shock  in  a  contrary  direction,  and  partly  refracted,  or 
its  course  changed  so  that  shocks  will  occur  both  upwards  and  down- 
wards, to  the  right  or  to  the  left  of  the  original  line  of  transit. 
Hence  most  damage  is  done  at  the  junction  of  deep  alluvial  plains 

1  Thus  when  an  earthquake  begins  under  the  ocean,  it  occasions  five  dis- 
tinct series  of  waves  or  undulations,  all  of  which  are  subject  to  the  same 
laws  of  motion,  namely,  the  earth-wave,  the  water-wave,  and  three  other 
*  series  of  waves  arising  from  the  passage  of  the  sound,  of  the  explosion 
through  the  air,  the  earth,  the  water.  For  the  laws  of  Sound,  see  Con- 
nexion of  the  Physical  Sciences,  8th  edition.  [Also,  "  Hand-Books  of 
Natural  Philosophy,"  by  Dionysius  Lardner,  in  which  all  that  relates  to  the 
subject  is  very  clearly  explained.] 


CHAP.  XIII.  EARTHQUAKES.  159 

with  the  hard  strata  of  the  mountains,  as  in  the  great  earthquake 
in  Calabria  in  the  year  1783. 

When  the  height  of  the  undulations  is  small,  the  earthquake  will 
be  a  horizontal  motion,  which  is  the  least  destructive;  when  the 
height  is  great,  the  central  and  horizontal  motions  are  combined, 
and  the  effect  is  terrible.  The  concussion  was  upwards  in  the 
earthquake  which  took  place  at  Riobamba  in  1797.  Baron  Hum- 
boldt  mentions  that  some  of  the  inhabitants  were  thrown  across  a 
river,  several  hundred  feet  in  height,  on  a  neighbouring  mountain. 
The  worst  of  all  is  a  verticose  or  twisting  motion,  which  nothing 
can  resist;  it  is  occasioned  by  the  crossing  of  two  waves  of  hori- 
zontal vibration,  which  unite  at  their  point  of  intersection  and  form 
a  rotatory  movement.  This,  and  the  interferences  of  shocks  arriving 
at  the  same  point  from  different  origins  or  routes  of  different  lengths, 
account  for  the  repose  in  some  places,  and  those  extraordinary  phe- 
nomena that  took  place  during  the  earthquake  of  1783  in  Calabria, 
where  the  shock  diverged  on  all  sides  from  a  centre  through  a 
highly  elastic  base  covered  with  alluvial  soil,  which  was  tossed  about 
in  every  direction.  The  dynamics  of  earthquakes  have  been  ably 
discussed  by  Mr.  Mallet  in  a  very  interesting  paper  in  the  '  Trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Irish  Academy.' 

There  are  few  places  where  the  earth  is  long  at  rest,  for,  inde- 
pendently of  those  secular  elevations  and  subsidences  that  are  in 
progress  over  such  extensive  tracts  of  country,  small  earthquake 
shocks  must  be  much  more  frequent  than  we  imagine,  though  im- 
perceptible to  our  senses,  and  only  to  be  detected  by  means  of 
instruments.  The  shock  of  an  earthquake  at  Lyons  in  February, 
1822,  was  not  generally  perceptible  at  Paris,  yet  the  wave  reached 
and  passed  under  that  city,  and  was  detected  by  the  swinging  of 
the  large  declination  needle  at  the  Observatory,  which  had  previ- 
ously been  at  rest. 

The  undulations  of  some  of  the  great  earthquakes  have  spread 
to  an  enormous  extent.  The  earthquake  that  happened  in  1842  in 
Gaudaloupe  was  felt  over  an  extent  of  3000  miles  in  length ;  and 
that  which  destroyed  Lisbon  had  its  origin  in  the  bed  of  the  At- 
lantic, from  whence  the  shock  extended  over  an  area  of  about 
700,000  square  miles,  or  a  twelfth  part  of  the  circumference  of  the 
globe ;  the  West  Indian  islands,  and  the  lakes  in  Scotland,  Norway, 
and  Sweden,  were  agitated  by  it.  In  linear  distance  the  effects  of 
that  earthquake  extended  through  300  miles,  the  shocks  were  felt 
through  a  line  of  2700  miles,  and  the  vibrations  or  tremors  were 
perceptible  in  water  through  4000  miles.  It  began  without  warn- 
ing, and  in  five  minutes  the  city  was  a  heap  of  ruins. 

The  earthquake  of  1783,  in  Calabria,  which  completely  changed 
the  face  of  the  country,  only  lasted  two  minutes ;  but  it  was  not 
very  extensive,  yet  all  the  towns  and  villages  for  22  miles  round 


160  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY  CHAP.  XTII. 

the  small  town  of  Oppido  were  utterly  ruined.  The  destruction  is 
generally  accomplished  in  a  fearfully  short  time ;  the  earthquake  at 
Caraccas,  in  March,  1812,  consisted  of  three  shocks,  which  lasted 
three  or  four  seconds,  separated  by  such  short  intervals  that  in  50 
seconds  10,000  people  perished.  Baron  Humboldt's  works  are  full 
of  interesting  details  on  this  subject,  especially  with  regard  to  the 
tremendous  convulsions  in  South  America. 

Sometimes  a  shock  has  been  perceived  under-ground  which  was 
not  felt  at  the  surface,  as  in  the  year  1802,  in  the  silver-mine  of 
Marienberg,  in  the  Hartz.  In  some  instances  miners  have  been 
insensible  to  shocks  felt  on  the  surface  above,  which  happened  at 
Fahlun,  in  Sweden,  in  1823 — circumstances  in  both  instances  de- 
pending on  the  elasticity  of  the  strata,  the  depth  of  the  impulses, 
or  obstacles  that  may  have  changed  the  course  of  the  terrestrial 
undulation.  During  earthquakes,  dislocations  of  strata  take  place, 
the  course  of  rivers  is  changed,  and  in  some  instances  they  have 
been  permanently  dried  up,  rocks  are  hurled  down,  masses  raised 
up,  and  the  configuration  of  the  country  altered ;  but  if  there  be  no 
fracture  at  the  point  of  original  impulse,  there  will  be  no  noise. 

The  power  of  the  earthquake  in  raising  and  depressing  the  land 
has  long  been  well  known,  but  the  gradual  and  almost  imperceptible 
change  of  level  through  immense  tracts  of  the  globe  is  altogether  a 
recent  discovery;  it  has  been  ascribed  to  the  expansion  of  rocks  by 
heat,  and  subsequent  contraction  by  the  retreat  of  the  melted  matter 
from  below  them.  It  is  not  at  all  improbable  that  there  may  be 
motions,  like  tides,  ebbing  and  flowing  in  the  internal  lava,  for  the 
changes  are  by  no  means  confined  to  those  enormous  elevations  and 
subsidences  that  appear  to  be  in  progress  in  the  basin  of  the  Pacific 
and  its  coasts,  nor  to  the  Andes  and  the  great  plains  east  of  them 
— countries  for  the  most  part  subject  to  earthquakes;  they  take 
place,  to  a  vast  extent,  in  regions  where  these  convulsions  are  un- 
known. There  seems  to  be  an  extraordinary  flexibility  in  the  crust 
of  the  globe  from  the  54th  or  55th  parallel  of  north  latitude  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  There  is  a  line  crossing  Sweden  from  east  to  west 
in  the  parallel  of  56°  3'  N.  lat.,  along  which  the  ground  is  perfectly 
stable,  and  has  been  so  for  centuries.  To  the  north  of  it  for  1000 
miles,  between  the  Gottenburg  and  North  Cape,  the  ground  is  rising, 
the  maximum  elevation,  which  takes  place  at  North  Cape,  being  at 
the  rate  of  five  feet  in  a  century,  from  whence  it  gradually  dimin- 
ishes to  three  inches  in  a  century  at  Stockholm.  South  of  the  line 
of  stability,  on  the  contrary,  the  land  is  sinking  through  part  of 
Christianstad  and  Malmo,  for  the  village  of  Stassten  in  Scania  is 
now  380  feet  nearer  to  the  Baltic  than  it  was  in  the  time  of  Lin- 
naeus, by  whom  it  was  measured  now  100  years  ago.  The  coast  of 
Denmark  on  the  Sound,  the  island  of  Saltholm,  opposite  to  Copen- 
hagen, and  that  of  Bornholm  are  rising,  the  latter  at  the  rate  of  a 


CHAP.  XIII.     GRADUAL    CHANGES    OF    LEVEL.  161 

foot  in  a  century.  The  coast  of  Memel  on  the  Baltic  has  actually 
risen  a  foot  and  four  inches  within  the  last  30  years,  while  the 
coast  of  Pillau  has  sunk  down  an  inch  and  a  half  in  the  same 
period.  The  west  coast  of  Denmark,  part  of  the  Feroe  Islands, 
and  the  west  coast  of  Greenland  are  all  being  depressed  below  their 
former  level.  In  Greenland,  the  encroachment  of  the  sea,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  change  of  level,  has  submerged  ancient  buildings 
on  the  low  rocky  islands,  and  on  the  main  land.  The  Greenlander 
never  builds  near  the  sea  on  that  account,  and  the  Moravian  settlers 
have  had  to  move  inland  the  poles  to  which  they  moor  their  boats. 
It  has  been  in  progress  for  four  centuries,  and  extends  through  600 
miles  from  Igalito  Firth  to  Disco  Bay.1  Mr.  Robert  Chambers  has 
shown  that  in  our  own  country  the  land  has  been  for  ages  on  the 
rise,  and  that  the  parallel  roads  in  Glen  Roy,  which  have  so  long 
afforded  matter  of  discussion,  are  merely  margins  left  by  the  retreat 
of  the  water,  as  the  land  alternately  rose  and  remained  stationary. 
In  the  present  day  the  elevation  is  going  on  in  many  places,  espe- 
cially on  the  Moray  Firth  and  in  the  Channel  islands.  The  notice 
of  this  curious  subject  of  the  gradual  changes  of  level  on  the  land 
has  been  chiefly  revived  by  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  in  whose  admirable 
works  on  geology  all  the  details  will  be  found.2 


CHAPTER   XIV. 

Arctic  Lands — Greenland — Spitzbergen — Iceland — Its  Volcanic  Phenomena 
and  Geysers  —  Jan  Mayen's  Land  —  New  Siberian  Islands  —  Antarctic 
Lands  —  Victoria  Continent. 

GREENLAND,  the  most  extensive  of  the  Arctic  lands,  begins  with 
the  lofty  promontory  of  Cape  Farewell,  the  southern  extremity  of 
a  group  of  rocky  islands,  which  are  separated  by  a  channel  five  miles 
wide  from  a  table-land  of  appalling  aspect,  narrow  to  the  south,  but 
increasing  in  breadth  northward  to  a  distance  of  which  only  1300 
miles  are  known.  This  table-land  is  bounded  by  mountains  rising 
from  the  deep  in  mural  precipices,  which  terminate  in  needles  and 

1  Captain  Graah's  Survey  in  1823-4,  and  Dr.  Pingel,  1830-2.  * 

2  Lyell's  Principles  of  Geology,  8th  edit.,  in  8vo.,  1850.     See  also  Mr. 
Darwin's  observations  on  the  same  subject,  in  the  Voyage  of  the  Adventure 
and  Beagle ;    M.  Domeyko's   paper  '  Sur  les  Lignes  d'ancien   Niveau  de 
l'0ce~an  du  Sud  aux  environs  de  Coquimbo,'  Annales  des  Mines,  1848;  and 
for  an  illustration  of  the  whole  of  this  chapter,  the  maps  of  active  volca- 
noes, of  volcanic   phenomena,  and    earthquakes,  in   Johnston's  Physical 
Atlases. 

14* 


162  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIV. 

pyramids,  or  in  parallel  terraces,  of  alternate  snow  and  bare  rock, 
occasionally  leaving  a  narrow  shore.  The  coating  of  ice  is  so  con- 
tinuous and  thick  that  the  surface  of  the  table-land  may  be  regarded 
as  one  enormous  glacier,  which  overlaps  the  rocky  edges  and  dips 
between  the  mountain-peaks  into  the  sea. 

The  coasts  are  beset  with  rocky  islands,  and  cloven  by  fiords, 
which  in  some  instances  wind  like  rivers  for  an  hundred  miles  into 
the  interior.  These  deep  inlets  of  the  sea,  now  sparkling  in  sun- 
shine, now  shaded  in  gloom,  are  hemmed  in  by  walls  of  rock  often 
2000  feet  high,  whose  summits  are  hid  in  the  clouds.  They  gene- 
rally terminate  in  glaciers,  which  are  sometimes  forced  on  by  the 
pressure  of  the  upper  ice-plains  till  they  fill  the  fiord,  and  even  pro- 
ject far  into  the  sea  like  bold  headlands,  when,  undermined  by  the 
surge,  huge  masses  of  ice  fall  from  them  with  a  crash  like  thunder, 
making  the  sea  boil.  These  icebergs,  carried  by  currents,  are 
stranded  on  the  Arctic  coast,  or  are  drawn  into  lower  latitudes.  The 
ice  is  very  transparent  and  compact  in  the  Arctic  regions ;  its  pre- 
vailing tints  are  blue,  green,  and  orange,  which,  contrasted  with  the 
dazzling  whiteness  of  the  snow  and  the  gloomy  hue  of  the  rocks, 
produce  a  striking  effect. 

A  great  fiord  in  the  68th  parallel  of  latitude  is  supposed  to  ex- 
tend completely  across  the  table-land,  dividing  the  country  into  south 
and  north  Greenland,  which  last  extends  indefinitely  towards  the 
pole ;  but  it  is  altogether  inaccessible  from  the  frozen  sea  and  the 
iron-bound  shore,  so  that,  excepting  a  very  small  portion  of  the  coast, 
it  is  an  unknown  region. 

In  some  sheltered  spots  in  south  Greenland,  especially  along  the 
borders  of  the  fiords,  there  are  meadows  where  the  service-tree  bears 
fruit,  beech  arid  willow  trees  grow  by  the  streams,  but  not  taller 
than  a  man ;  still  farther  north  the  willow  and  juniper  scarcely  rise 
above  the  surface;  yet  this  country  has  a  flora  peculiar  to  itself. 
South  of  the  island  of  Disco  on  the  west  coast,  Danish  colonies  and 
missionaries  have  formed  settlements  on  some  of  the  islands  and  at 
the  mouths  of  fiords ;  the  Esquimaux  inhabit  the  coasts  even  to  the 
extremity  of  Baffin's  Bay. 

The  pelasgic  islands  in  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  highly  volcanic,  with 
the  exception  of  Spitzbergen.  In  the  island  of  Spitzbergen  the 
mountains  spring  sharp  and  grand  from  the  margin  of  the  sea  in 
dark  gloomy  masses,  mixed  with  pure  snow  and  enormous  glaciers, 
presenting  a  sublime  spectacle.  Seven  valleys  filled  by  glaciers  end- 
ing at  the  sea,  form  a  remarkable  object  on  the  east  coast.  One  of 
the  largest  masses  of  ice  seen  by  Captain  Scoresby  on  the  island  was 
north  of  Horn  Sound:  it  extended  11  miles  along  the  shore,  with 
a  sea-face  in  one  part  more  than  2000  feet  high,  from  which  he  saw 
a  huge  fragment  hurled  into  the  sea;  which  it  lashed  into  vapour,  as 
:t  broke  into  a  thousand  pieces.  The  sun  is  not  seen  for  several 


CHAP.  XIV.  ICELAND.  163 

months  in  the  year,  and  the  cold  is  consequently  intense.  Many 
have  perished  in  the  attempt  to  winter  in  this  island,  yet  a  colony 
of  Russian  hunters  and  fishermen  lead  a  miserable  existence  there, 
within  10°  of  the  pole,  the  most  northern  inhabited  spot  on  the 
globe. 

Although  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  are  powerful  in  sheltered 
spots  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  the  thermometer  does  not  rise  above 
45°  of  Fahrenheit.  July  is  the  only  month  in  which  snow  does  not 
fall,  and  in  the  end  of  August  the  sea  at  night  is  covered  with  a 
thin  coating  of  ice,  and  a  summer  often  passes  without  one  day  that 
can  be  called  warm.  The  snow-blink,  the  aurora,  the  stars,  and  the 
moon,  which,  when  in  her  northern  declination,  appears  above  the 
horizon  for  ten  or  twelve  days  without  intermission,  furnish  the 
principal  light  the  inhabitants  enjoy  in  their  long  and  dreary  winter. 

Iceland  is  200  miles  east  from  Greenland,  and  lies  south  of  the 
Arctic  Circle,  which  its  most  northern  part  touches.  Though  a  fifth 
part  larger  than  Ireland,  not  more  than  4000  square  miles  are  habit- 
able, all  beside  being  a  chaos  of  volcanoes  and  ice. 

The  peculiar  feature  of  Iceland  lies  in  a  trachytic  region  which 
seems  to  rest  on^m  ocean  of  fire.  It  consists  of  two  vast  parallel 
table-lands  covered  with  ice-clad  mountains,  stretching  from  N.E. 
to  S.W.  through  the  very  centre  of  the  island,  separated  by  a  lon- 
gitudinal valley  nearly  100  miles  wide,  which  reaches  from  sea  to 
sea.  These  mountains  assume  rounded  forms,  with  long  level  sum- 
mits or  domes  with  sloping  declivities,  as  in  the  trachytic  mountains 
of  the  Andes  and  elsewhere;  but  such  huge  masses  of  tufa  and 
conglomerate  project  from  their  sides  in  perpendicular  or  overhang- 
ing precipices,  separated  by  deep  ravines,  that  the  regularity  of  their 
structure  can  only  be  perceived  from  a  distance ;  they  conceal  under 
a  cold  and  tranquil  coating  of  ice  the  fiery  germs  of  terrific  convul- 
sions, sometimes  bursting  into  dreadful  activity,  sometimes  quiescent 
for  ages.  The  most  extensive  of  the  two  parallel  ranges  of  Jockuls 
or  Ice  Mountains  runs  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  valley,  and  con- 
tains Orafajokel,  6405  feet  high,  the  highest  point  in  Iceland,  seen 
like  a  white  cloud  from  a  great  distance  at  sea :  the  western  high 
land  passes  through  the  centre  of  the  island. 

Glaciers  cover  many  thousand  square  miles  in  Iceland,  descend- 
ing from  the  mountains,  and  pushing  far  into  the  low  lands.  This 
tendency  of  the  ice  to  encroach  has  very  materially  diminished  the 
quantity  of  habitable  ground,  and  the  progress  of  the  glaciers  is 
facilitated  by  the  influence  of  the  ocean  of  subterranean  fire,  which 
heats  the  superincumbent  ground,  and  loosens  the  ice. 

The  longitudinal  space  between  the  mountainous  table-lands  is  a 
low  valley  100  miles  wide,  extending  from  sea  to  sea,  where  a  sub- 
stratum of  trachyte  .is  covered  with  lava,  sand,  and  ashes,  studded 
with  low  yolcanic  codes.  It  is  a  tremendous  desert,  never  ap- 


164  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIV- 

preached  without  dread  even  by  the  natives — a  scene  of  perpetual 
conflict  between  the  antagonist  powers  of  fire  and  frost,  without  a 
drop  of  water  or  a  blade  of  grass ;  no  living  creature  is  to  be  seen 
— not  a  bird,  nor  even  an  insect.  The  surface  is  a  confused  mass 
of  streams  of  lava  rent  by  crevices;  and  rocks  piled  on  rocks,  and 
occasional  glaciers,  complete  the  scene  of  desolation.  As  herds  of 
reindeer  are  seen  browsing  on  the  Iceland  moss  that  grows  plenti- 
fully at  its  edges,  it  is  presumed  that  some  unknown  parts  may  be 
less  barren.  The  extremities  of  the  valley  are  more  especially  the 
seat  of  perpetual  volcanic  activity.  At  the  southern  end,  which 
opens  to  the  sea  in  a  wide  plain,  there  are  many  volcanoes,  of  which 
Hecla  is  most  known,  from  its  insulated  position,  its  vicinity  to  the 
coast,  and  its  tremendous  eruptions.  Between  the  years  1004  and 
1766  twenty-three  violent  eruptions  have  taken  place,  one  of  which 
continued  six  years,  spreading  devastation  over  a  country  once  the 
abode  of  a  thriving  colony,  now  covered  with  lava,  scoria,  and  ashes  : 
in  the  year  1846  it  was  in  full  activity.  The  eruption  of  the 
Skaptar  Jockul,  which  broke  out  on  the  8th  of  May,  '1783,  and 
continued  till  August,  is  one  of  the  most  dreadful  recorded.  The 
volcanic  fire  must  have  been  in  fearful  commotion.under  Europe,  for 
a  tremendous  earthquake  ruined  a  wide  extent  of  Calabria  that 
year,  and  a  submarine  volcano  had  been  burning  fiercely  for  many 
.weeks  in  the  ocean,  30  miles  from  the  south-west  cape  of  Iceland. 
Its  fires  suddenly  ceased,  the  island  was  shaken  by  earthquakes, 
when,  at  the  distance  of  150  miles,  they  burst  forth  with  almost 
unexampled  fury  in  Skaptar.  The  sun  was  hid  many  months  by 
dense  clouds  of  vapour,  which  extended  to  England  and  Holland, 
and  clouds  of  ashes  were  carried  many  hundreds  of  miles  to  sea. 
The  quantity  of  matter  thrown  out  in  this  eruption  was  computed 
at  fifty  or  sixty  thousand  millions  of  cubic  yards.  The  lava  flowed 
in  a  stream  in  some  places  from  20  to  30  miles  broad,  and  of  enor- 
mous thickness,  which  filled  the  beds  of  rivers,  poured  into  the  sea 
nearly  50  miles  from  the  places  of  its  eruption,  and  destroyed  the 
fishing  on  the  coast  Some  rivers  were  heated  to  ebullition,  others 
dried  up ;  the  condensed  vapour  fell  in  snow  and  torrents  of  rain ; 
the  country  was  laid  waste ;  famine  and  disease  ensued  j  and  in  the 
course  of  the  two  succeeding  years  1300  people  and  150,000  sheep 
and  horses  perished.  The  scene  of  horror  was  closed  by  a  dreadful 
earthquake.  Previous  to  the  explosion  an  ominous  mildness  of 
temperature  indicated  the  approach  of  the  volcanic  fire  towards  the 
surface  of  the  earth ;  similar  warnings  had  been  observed  before  in 
the  eruptions  of  Hecla. 

A  semicircle  of  volcanic  mountains  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
lake  Myvatr  is  the  focus  of  the  igneous  phenomena  at  the  northern 
end  of  the  great  central  valley.  Leirhnukr  and  Krabla,  on  the 
N.E.  of  me  lake,  have  been  equally  formidable.  After  years  of 


CHAP.  XIV.  GEYSERS    OF    ICELAND.  165 

quiescence  they  suddenly  burst  into  violent  eruption,  and  poured 
such  a  quantity  of  lava  into  the  lake  Myvatr,  which  is  20  miles  in 
circumference,  that  the  water  boiled  many  days.  There  are  many 
volcanoes  in  this  district  no  less  formidable.  Various  caldrons  of 
boiling  mineral  pitch,  the  shattered  craters  of  ancient  volcanoes, 
occur  at  the  base  of  this  semicircle  of  mountains,  and  also  on  the 
flanks  of  Mount  Krabla:  these  caldrons  throw  up  jets  of  the  dark 
matter,  enveloped  in  clouds  of  steam,  at  regular  intervals,  with  loud 
explosion.  That  which  issues  from  the  crater  of  Krabla  must,  by 
Mr.  Henderson's  description,  be  one  of  the"  most  terrific  objects,  in 
nature. 

The  eruptive  boiling  springs  of  Iceland  are  perhaps  the  most  ex- 
traordinary phenomena  in  this  singular  country.  All  the  great 
aqueous  eruptions  occur  in  the  trachytic  formation ;  they  are  charac- 
terised by  their  high  temperature,  by  holding  siliceous  matter  in 
solution,  which  they  deposit  in  the  form  of  siliceous  sinter,  and  by 
the  discharge  of  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas.  Numerous  instances 
of  spouting  springs  occur  at  the  extremities  of  the  great  central 
valley,  especially  at  its  southern  end,  where  more  than  fifty  have 
been  counted  in  the  space  of  a  few  acres — some  constant,  others 
periodical — some  merely  agitated,  or  stagnant.  The  Great  G-eyser 
and  Strokr,  35  miles  north-west  from  Hecla,  are  the  most  magnifi- 
cent; at  regular  intervals  they  project  large  columns  of  boiling 
water  100  feet  high,  enveloped  in  clouds  of  steam,  with  tremendous 
noise.  The  tube  of  the  Great  Geyser  whence  the  jet  issues  is  about 
10  feet  in  diameter  and  75  feet  deep ;  it  opens  into  the  centre  of  a 
basin  4  feet  deep  and  between  46  and  50  feet  in  diameter :  as  soon 
as  the  basin  is  filled  by  the  boiling  water  that  rises  through  the 
tube,  explosions  are  heard,  the  ground  trembles,  the  water  is  thrown 
to  the  height  of  100  or  150  feet,  followed  by  large  volumes  of 
steam.  No  farther  explosion  takes  place  till  the  empty  basin  and 
tube  are  again  replenished. 

MM.  Descloiseaux  and  Bunsen,  who  visited  Iceland  in  1846, 
found  the  temperature  of  the  Great  Geyser,  at  the  depth  of  72  feet, 
before  a  great  eruption,  to  be  260|°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  after  the 
eruption  251 1°;  an  interval  of  28  hours  passed  without  any  erup- 
tion. The  Strokr  (from  stroka,  to  agitate),  140  yards  from  the 
Great  Geyser,  is  a  circular  well,  a  little  more  than  44  feet  deep, 
with  an  orifice  of  8  feet,  which  diminishes  to  little  more  than  10 
inches  at  a  depth  of  27  feet.  The  surface  of  the  water  is  in  con- 
stant ebullition,  while  at  the  bottom  the  temperature  exceeds  that 
of  boiling  water  by  about  24°.  By  the  experiments  of  M.  Donny 
of  Ghent,  water  long  boiled  becomes  more  and  more  free  from  air, 
by  which  the  cohesion  of  the  particles  is  so  much  increased  that 
when  it  is  exposed  to  a  heat  sufficient  to  overcome  the  force  or  co- 
hesion, the  production  of  steam  is  so  instantaneous  and  so  consider- 


166  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIV. 

able  as  to  cause  explosion.  To  this  cause  he  ascribes  the  eruptions 
of  the  Geysers,  which  are  in  constant  ebullition  for  many  hours, 
and  become  so  purified  from  air,  that  the  strong  heat  at  the  bottom 
at  last  overcomes  the  cohesion  of  the  particles,  and  an  explosion 
takes  place.  The  boiling  spring  of  Tunquhaer,  in  the  valley  of 
Keikholt,  is  remarkable  from  having  two  jets,  which  play  alter- 
nately for  about  four  minutes  each.  Some  springs  emit  gas  only, 
or  gas  with  a  small  quantity  of  water.  Such  fountains  are  not  con- 
fined to  the  land  or  fields  of  ice ;  they  occur  also  in  the  sea,  and 
many  issue  from  the  crevices  in  the  lava-bed  of  Lake  Myvatr,  and 
rise  in  jets  above  the  surface  of  the  water. 

A  region  of  the  same  character  with  the  mountains  of  the  Ice- 
landic desert  extends  due  west  from  it  to  the  extremity  of  the  long 
narrow  promontory  of  the  Snafell  Syssel,  ending  in  the  snow-clad 
cone  of  the  Snafell  Jockel,  5970  feet  high,  one  of  the  most  conspi- 
cuous mountains  in  Iceland. 

With  the  exception  of  the  purely  volcanic  districts  described,  trap- 
rocks  cover  a  great  part  of  Iceland,  which  have  been  formed  by 
streams  of  lava  at  very  ancient  epochs,  occasionally  4000  feet 
deep. 

The  dismal  coasts  are  torn  in  every  direction  by  fiords,  penetra- 
ting many  miles  into  the  interior,  and  splitting  into  endless  branches. 
An  these  fissures  the  sea  is  still,  dark,  and  deep,  between  walls  of 
rock  1000  feet  high.  The  fiords,  however,  do  not  here,  as  in  Green- 
land, terminate  in  glaciers,  but  are  prolonged  in  narrow  valleys, 
through  which  streams  and  rivers  run  into  the  sea.  In  these  val- 
leys the  inhabitants  have  their  abode,  or  in  meadows  which  have  a 
transient  verdure  along  some  of  the  fiords,  where  the  sea  is  so  deep 
that  ships  find  safe  anchorage. 

In  the  valleys  on  the  northern  coast,  near  as  they  approach  to  the 
Arctic  Circle,  the  soil  is  wonderfully  gojod,  and  there  is  more  vege- 
tation than  in  any  other  part  of  Iceland,  with  the  exception  of  the 
eastern  shore,  which  is  the  most  favoured  portion  of  this  desolate 
land.  Rivers  abounding  in  fish  are  much  more  frequent  there  than 
elsewhere ;  willows  and  juniper  adorn  the  valleys,  and  birch-trees, 
20  feet  high,  grow  in  the  vale  of  Lagerflest,  the  only  place  which 
produces  them  large  enough  for  house-building,  and  the  verdure  is 
fine  on  the  banks  of  those  streams  which  are  heated  by  volcanic 
fires. 

The  climate  of  Iceland  is  much  less  rigorous  than  that  of  Green- 
land, and  it  would  be  still  milder  were  not  the  air  chilled  by  the 
immense  fields  of  ice  from  the  Polar  Sea  which  beset  its  shores. 

The  inhabitants  are  supplied  with  fuel  by  the  Gulf  Stream,  which 
brings  drift-wood  in  great  quantities  from  Mexico,  the  Carolinas, 
Virginia,  the  river  St.  Lawrence,  and  some  even  from  the  Pacific 
Ocean  is  drifted  by  currents  round  by  the  northern  shores  of  Sibe- 


CHAP.  XIV.  ISLAND     OF    JANMAYEN.  167 

ria.1  The  mean  temperature  in  the  south  of  the  island  is  about  39° 
of  Fahrenheit,  that  of  the  central  districts,  36°,  and  in  the  north  it 
is  rarely  above  the  freezing  point.  The  cold  is  most  intense  when 
the  sky  is  clear,  but  that  is  a  rare  occurrence,  as  the  wind  from  the 
sea  covers  mountain  and  valley  with  thick  fog.  Hurricanes  are  fre- 
quent and  furious ;  and  although  thunder  is  seldom  heard  in  high 
latitudes,  Iceland  is  an  exception,  for  tremendous  thunder-storms  are 
not  uncommon  there — a  circumstance  no  doubt  owing  to  the  volcanic 
nature  of  that  island,  as  lightning  accompanies  volcanic  eruptions 
everywhere.  At  the  northern  end  of  the  island  the  sun  is  always 
above  the  horizon  in  the  middle  of  summer,  and  under  it  in  mid- 
winter, yet  there  is  no  absolute  darkness. 

The  island  of  Jan  Mayen  lies  midway  between  Iceland  and  Spitz- 
bergen ;  it  is  the  most  northern  volcanic  country  known.  Its  prin- 
cipal feature  is  the  volcano  of  Beerenberg,  6870  feet  high,  whose 
lofty  snow-capped  cone,  apparently  inaccessible,  has  been  seen  to 
emit  fire  and  smoke.  It  is  flanked  by  enormous  glaciers,  like  frozen 
cataracts,  which  occupy  three  hollows  in  an  almost  perpendicular 
cliff,  which  descends  from  the  base  of  the  mountain  to  the  sea. 

The  group  of  New  Siberian  Islands,  which  lie  north  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Yakutsk,  and  in  about  78°  of  N.  lat.,  have  so  rude  a  cli- 
mate that  they  have  no  permanent  inhabitants ;  they  are  remarkable 
for  the  vast  quantity  of  fossil  bones  they  contain :  the  elephants' 
tusks  found  there  have  for  years  been  an  article  of  commerce. 

The  south  polar  lands  are  equally  volcanic,  and  as  deeply  ice- 
bound, as  those  to  the  north.  Victoria  Land,  which  from  its  extent 
seems  to  form  part  of  a  continent,  was  discovered  by  Sir  James 
Ross,  who  commanded  the  expedition  sent  by  the  British  govern- 
ment in  1839  to  ascertain  the  position  of  the  south  magnetic  pole. 
This  extensive  tract  lies  under  the  meridian  of  New  Zealand ;  Cape 
North,  its  most  northern  point,  is  situate  in  70°  31'  S.  lat.,  and 
165°  28'  E.  long.  To  the  west  of  that  cape  the  northern  coast  of 
this  new  land  terminates  in  perpendicular  ice-cliffs,  from  200  to  500 
feet  high,  stretching  as  far  as  the  eye  can  reach,  with  a  chain  of 
grounded  icebergs  extending  for  miles  from  the  base  of  the  cliffs, 
all  of  tabular  form,  and  varying  in  size  from  one  to  nine  or  ten  miles 
in  circumference.  A  lofty  range  of  peaked  mountains  rises  in  the 
interior  at  Cape  North,  covered  with  unbroken  snow,  only  relieved 
from  uniform  whiteness  by  shadows  produced  by  the  undulations  of 
the  surface.  The  indentations  of  the  coast  are  filled  with  ice  many 
hundreds  of  feet  thick,  which  makes  it  impossible  to  land.  To  the 
east  of  Cape  North  the  coast  trends  first  to  S.E  by  E.  and  then  in  a 
southerly  direction  to  78J°  of  S.  lat.,  at  which  point  it  suddenly 

1  [See,  a  paper  read  before  the  National  Institute,  April  2nd,  1844,  by 
M.  F.  Maury,  Lieut.  U.S.N.,  "On  the  Gulf  Stream  and  Currents  of  the 
Sea."] 


168  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIV. 

bends  to  the  east,  and  extends  in  one  continuous  vertical  ice-cliff  to 
an  unknown  distance  in  that  direction.  The  first  view  of  Victoria 
Land  is  described  as  most  magnificent.  "  On  the  llth  of  January, 
1841,  about  latitude  71°  S.  and  longitude  171°  E.,  the  Antarctic 
continent  was  first  seen,  the  general  outline  of  which  at  once  indi- 
cated its  volcanic  character,  rising  steeply  from  the  ocean  in  a  stu- 
pendous mountain-range,  peak  above  peak  enveloped  in  perpetual 
snow,  and  clustered  together  in  countless  groups,  resembling  a  vast 
mass  of  crystallisation,  which,  as  the  sun's  rays  were  reflected  on  it, 
exhibited  a  scene  of  such  unequalled  magnificence  and  splendour  as 
would  bafile  all  power  of  language  to  portray,  or  give  the  faintest 
conception  of.  One  very  remarkable  peak,  in  shape  like  a  huge 
crystal  of  quartz,  rose  to  the  height  of  7867  feet,  another  to  9096, 
and  a  third  to  8444  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  From  these 
peaks  ridges  descended  to  the  coast,  terminating  abruptly  in  bold 
capes  and  promontories,  whose  steep  escarpments,  affording  shelter  to 
neither  ice  nor  snow,  alone  showed  the  jet  black  lava  or  basalt,  which 
reposed  beneath  the  mantle  of  eternal  frost."  .  .  .  .  "  On  the  28th, 
in  lat.  77°  31'  and  long.  167°  1',  the  burning  volcano,  Mount 
Erebus,  was  discovered,  covered  with  ice  and  snow  from  its  base  to 
its  summit,  from  which  a  dense  column  of  black  smoke  towered  high 
above  the  other  numerous  lofty  cones  and  crateriferous  peaks  with 
which  this  extraordinary  land  is  studded  from  the  72nd  to  the  78th 
degree  of  latitude.  Its  height  above  the  sea  is  12,367  feet,  and 
Mount  Terror,  an  extinct  crater  near  to  it,  which  has  doubtless  once 
given  vent  to  fires  beneath,  attains  an  altitude  little  inferior,  being 
10,884  feet  in  height,  and  ending  in  a  cape,  from  which  a  vast  bar- 
rier of  ice  extended  in  an  easterly  direction,  checking  all  farther 
progress  south.  This  continuous  perpendicular  wall  of  ice,  varying 
in  height  from  200  to  100  feet,  its  summit  presenting  an  almost  un- 
varying level  outline,  we  traced  for  300  miles,  when  the  pack-ice 
obstructed  all  farther  progress."  ' 

The  vertical  cliff  in  question  forms  a  completely  solid  mass  of  ice 
about  1000  feet  thick,  the  greater  part  of  which  is  below  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea;  there  is  not  the  smallest  appearance  of  a  fissure 
'  throughout  its  whole  extent,  and  the  intensely  blue  sky  beyond,  in- 
dicated plainly  the  great  distance  to  which  the  ice-plains  reach  south- 
ward. Gigantic  icicles  hang  from  every  projecting  point  of  the  icy 
cliffs,  showing  that  it  sometimes  thaws  in  these  latitudes,  although 
in  the  month  of  February,  which  corresponds  with  August  in  Eng- 
land, Fahrenheit's  thermometer  did  not  rise  above  14°  at  noon.  In 
the  North  Polar  Ocean,  on  the  contrary,  streams  of  water  flow  from 
every  iceberg  during  the  summer.  The  whole  of  this  country  is 

1  Remarks  on  the  Antarctic  Continent  and  Southern  Islands,  by  Robert 
MacCormick,  Esq.,  Surgeon  of  H.M.S.  Erebus. 


CH.2P.  XIV.  ANTARCTIC    LANDS.  169 

beyond  the  pale  of  vegetation ;  no  moss,  not  even  a  lichen,  covers 
the  barren  soil  where  everlasting  winter  reigns.  Parry's  Mountains, 
a  lofty  range,  stretching  south  from  Mount  Terror  to  the  79th 
parallel,  is  the  most  southern  land  yet  discovered.  The  South  Mag- 
netic Pole,  one  of  the  objects  of  the  expedition,  is  situate  in  Vic- 
toria Land,  in  75°  5'  S.  lat.,  and  154°  8'  E.  long.,  according  to  Sir 
James  C.  Ross's  observations. 

[British  writers  are  prone  to  discredit  American  success.  Charles 
Wilkes,  Esq.,  commander  of  the  U.S.  Exploring  Expedition,  reports 
that  he  discovered  this  Antarctic  Continent  on  the  16th  of  January, 
1840,  and  again,  on  the  14th  of  February,  1840,  long.  106°  18'  E., 
and  lat.  65°  50'  S.  This  discovery  by  Lieut.  Wilkes,  U.S.  Navy, 
was  confirmed  a  year  afterwnrds,  in  January,  1841,  by  the  discovery 
of  a  part  of  the  same  continent,  in  long.  171°  E.,  and  lat.  71°  S., 
by  Captain  Sir  James  Ross,  of  the  British  Navy.  Commander 
Wilkes  says  :  —  "  That  land  does  exist  within  the  Antarctic  Circle 
is  now  confirmed  by  the  united  testimony  of  both  French  and  Eng- 
lish navigators.  D'Urville,  the  celebrated  French  navigator,  within 
a  few  days  after  land  was  seen  l>y  the  vessels  of  our  squadron,  re- 
ports that  his  boats  landed  on  a  small  point  of  rocks,  at  the  place 
(as  I  suppose)  which  appeared  accessible  to  us  in  Piner's  Bay, 
whence  the  Vincennes  was  driven  by  a  violent  gale ;  this  he  called 
Claire  Laud,  and  testifies  to  his  belief  of  the  existence  of  a  vast 
tract  of  land,  where  our  view  of  it  has  left  no  doubt  of  its  existence. 
Ross,  on  the  other  hand,  penetrated  to  the  latitude  79°  S.  in  the 
succeeding  year,  coasted  for  some  distance  along  a  lofty  country  con- 
nected with  our  Antarctic  Continent,  and  establishes  beyond  all 
cavil  the  correctness  of  our  assertion  that  we  have  discovered,  not  a 
range  of  detached  islands,  but  a  vast  Antarctic  Continent.  How  far 
Captain  Ross  was  guided  in  his  search  by  our  previous  discoveries, 
will  best  appear  by  reference  to  the  chart,  with  a  full  account  of 
the  proceedings  of  the  squadron,  which  I  sent  to  him,  and  which  I 
have  inserted  in  Appendix  xxiv.,  and  Atlas.  Although  J  have 
never  received  any  acknowledgment  of  .their  receipt  from  him  per- 
sonally, yet  I  have  heard  of  their  having  reached  his  hands  a  few 
months  prior  to  his  Antarctic  cruise." — Wilkes'  "Narrative  of  the 
[7.S.  Exploring  Expedition"  vol.  ii.  p.  281-2.] 

[In  relation  to  Arctic  explorations  and  discoveries,  we  have  a 
similar  instance  of  injustice. 

[Lieutenant  De  Haven,  U.S.  Navy,  in  command  of  an  expedition 
fitted  out  at  the  expense  of  Henry  Grinnell,  of  New  York,  to  search 
for  Sir  John  Franklin  and  his  comrades  in  arctic  regions,  reached  in 
the  month  of  Sept.  1850,  as  far  north  as  75°  25';  and  here  dis- 
covered laud  to  the  east  and  west  not  previously  known;  and,  he 
says,  "  to  the  channel  which  appeared  to  lead  into  the  open  sea,  over 
which  the  cloud  of  'frost  smoke '  hung  as  a  sign,  I  gave  the  name 
15 


170  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIV. 

of  '  Maury,'  after  the  distinguished  gentleman  at  the  head  of  our 
National  Observatory,  whose  theory  with  regard  to  an  open  sea  to 
the  North,  is  likely  to  be  realized  through  this  channel. 

"To  the  large  mass  of  land  visible  between  N.W.  and  N.N.E.,  I 
gave  the  name  of  '  Grinnell/  in  honour  of  the  head  and  heart  of  the 
man  in  whose  philanthropic  mind  originated  the  idea  of  this  Expe- 
dition, and  to  whose  munificence  it  owes  its  existence. 

"  To  a  remarkable  Peak  bearing  N.N.E.  from  us,  distant  about 
forty  miles,  was  given  the  name  of  '  Mount  Franklin.' '• 

In  May,  1851,  eight  months  after  the  discovery  by  Lieutenant  De 
Haven,  the  same  land  was  seen  by  Captain  Penny  and  his  parties,  and 
new  names  have  been  given  to  De  Haven's  discoveries  under  the 
authority  and  sanction  of  the  British  Admiralty.  Grinnell  Land  is 
called  "  Albert  Land,"  and  Mount  Franklin  is  made  the  foundation 
for  "  Sir  John  Barrow's  Monument."  This  effort  of  the  English 
writers  and  English  hydrographers  to  rob  an  American  officer  of  the 
honours  of  a  discovery,  has  been  demonstrated  in  detail  by  Peter 
Force,  Esq.,  of  Washington  City,  D.C.,  before  the  National  Insti- 
tute, in  May,  1852.  The  British  Admiralty  should  not  connive  at 
an  injudicious  attempt  to  enhance  the  value  of  a  Penny  by  bestowing 
upon  it  deceptive  colours  and  deceptive  devices.] 

Various  tracts  of  land  have  been  discovered  near  the  Antarctic 
Circle,  and  within  it,  though  none  in  so  high  a  latitude  as  Victoria 
Land.  Whether  they  form  part  of  one  large  continent  remains  to 
be  ascertained.  Discovery  ships  sent  by  the  Russian,  French,  and 
American  governments  have  increased  our  knowledge  of  these  remote 
regions,  and  the  spirited  adventures  of  British  merchants  and  cap- 
tains of  whalers  have  contributed  quite  as  much.1  The  land  within 
the  Antarctic  Circle  is  generally  volcanic,  at  least  the  coast  line, 
which  is  all  that  is  yet  known,  and  that,  being  covered  with  snow 
and  ice,  is  destitute  of  vegetation. 

1  Captain  Cook  discovered  Sandwich  Land  in  1772—5.  —  Captain  Smitb, 
of  the  brig  William,  discovered  New  South  Shetland  in  1819. — Captain  Bil- 
Jingshausen  discovered  Peter's  Island,  and  the  coast  of  Alexander  the  First. 
— Captain  Weddel  discovered  the  Southern  Orcades. — Captain  Bisco  dis- 
covered Enderby's  Land  and  Graham's  Land  in  1832,  Admiral  Dumont 
d'Urville  La  Terra  d'Adelie  in  1841,  and  Sir  James  Ross,  Victoria  Land  in 
the  same  year. 


CHAP.  XV.  MINERAL    VEINS.  171 


CHAPTEK  XV. 

Nature  and  Character  of  Mineral  Veins — Metalliferous  Deposits — Mines — 
Their  Drainage  and  Ventilation  —  Their  Depth  —  Diffusion  of  the  Metals 
— Gold — Silver — Lead — British  Mines  —  Quicksilver  —  Copper  —  Tin  — 
Cornish  Mines  —  Coal  —  Iron  —  Most  abundant  in  the  Temperate  Zones, 
especially  in  the  Northern — European  and  British  Iron  and  Coal — Ame- 
rican Iron  and  Coal — Arsenic  and  other  Metals — Salt — Sulphur — Diffu- 
sion of  the  gems. 

THE  tumultuous  and  sudden  action  of  the  volcano  and  the  earth- 
quake on  the  great  masses  of  the  earth  is  in  strong  contrast  with  the 
calm,  silent  operations  on  the  minute  atoms  of  matter  by  which 
Nature  seems  to  have  filled  the  fissures  in  the  rocks  with  her  pre- 
cious gifts  of  metals  and  minerals,  sought  for  by  man  from  the  ear- 
liest ages  to  the  present  day.  Tubal-cain  was  "  the  instructor  of 
every  artificer  in  brass  and  iron."  Gold  was  among  the  first  luxu- 
ries, and  even  in  our  own  country,  from  time  immemorial,  strangers 
came  from  afar  to  carry  off  the  produce  of  the  Cornish  mines.1 

The  ancients  scarcely  were  acquainted  with  a  third  of  the  thirty- 
five  metals  now  known,  and  the  metallic  bases  of  the  alkalis  only 
date  from  the  time  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  having  formed  a  remark- 
able part  of  his  brilliant  discoveries.2 

Minerals  are  deposited  in  veins  or  fissures  of  rocks,  in  masses,  in 
beds,  and  sometimes  in  gravel  and  sand,  the  detritus  of  water.  Most 

1  The  author  owes  her  information  on  British  mines  to  two  publications 
on  the  Mining  District  of  the  North  of  England,  by  J.  Sopwith,  Esq.,  Civil 
Engineer,  and  Mr.  Leithart,  Mine  Agent.  On  the  Cornish  Mines  she  has 
derived  her  information  from  the  writings  of  John  Taylor,  Esq.,  and  Sir 
Charles  Lemon,  Bart. ;  from  a  store  of  valuable  materials  contained  in  the 
'Progress  of  the  Nation,'  by  G.  R.  Porter,  Esq. ;  from  the  Statistical  Jour- 
nal, and  on  the  general  distribution  of  minerals  over  the  globe,  from  the 
'  Penny  Cyclopaedia,'  and  various  other  sources. 

a  The  metals  are  gold,  silver,  platinum,  copper,  lead,  tin,  iron,  zinc,  arse- 
nic, bismuth,  antimony,  nickel,  quicksilver,  manganese,  cadmium,  cerium, 
cobalt,  iridium,  uranium,  chrome,  lantanium,  molybdenum,  columbium,  os- 
mium, palladium,  pelapium,  tantalum,  tellurium,  rhodium,  titanium,  vana- 
dium, tungsten,'  dydynium,  ferbium,  erbium.  The  three  last  are  little 
known. 

Sir  Humphry  Davy  discovered  that  lime,  magnesia,  alumine,  and  cfther 
similar  substances,  are  metals  combined  with  oxygen.  There  are  thirteen 
of  these  metalloids,  namely  —  calcium,  magnesium,  aluminium,  glucinium, 
thorium,  yttrium,  zirconium,  strontium,  barium,  lithium,  natrium,  potas- 
sium, and  silicium. 


172  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

of  the  metals  are  found  in  veins ;  a  few,  as  gold  and  tin,  iron  and 
copper,  are  disseminated  through  the  rocks,  though  rarely.  Veins 
are  cracks  or  fissures  in  rocks,  seldom  in  a  straight  line,  yet  they 
maintain  a  general  direction,  though  in  a  zigzag  form,  striking  down- 
wards at  a  very  high  angle,  seldom  deviating  from  the  perpendicular 
by  so  much  as  forty-five  degrees,  and  extending  to  an  unfathomable 
depth.  When  cutting  through  stratified  rocks,  they  are  for  the  most 
part  accompanied  by  a  subsidence  of  the  beds  on  one  side  of  their 
course,  and  by  an  elevation  on  the  other ;  the  throw,  or  perpendicu- 
lar distance  between  the  corresponding  strata  on  the  opposite  sides 
of  a  vein,  varies  from  -a  few  inches  to  thirty,  forty,  even  a  hundred 
fathoms.  The  beginning  or  end  of  a  vein  is  scarcely  ever  known  ; 
but,  when  explored,  they  are  found  to  begin  abruptly,  and,  after 
continuing  entire  to  a  greater  or  less  distance,  they  branch  into  small 
veins  or  strings. 

In  the  downward  zigzag  course,  the  bending  of  the  strata  upwards 
on  one  side  and  downwards  on  the  other,  and  the  chemical  changes 
almost  always  observed  on  the  adjacent  rocks,  veins  bear  a  strong 
analogy  to  the  course  and  effects  of  a  very  powerful  electrical  dis- 
charge. 

Veins  have  been  filled  with  substances  foreign  to  them,  which 
have  probably  been  disseminated  in  atoms  in  the  adjacent  rocks,  or 
by  sublimation.  Nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  that  the  minute 
particles  of  matter  are  constantly  in  motion  from  the  action  of  heat, 
mutual  attraction,  and  electricity.  Prismatic  crystals  of  salts  of 
zinc  are  changed  in  a  few  seconds  into  crystals  of  a  totally  different 
form  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  :  casts  of  shells  are  found  in  rocks,  from 
which  the  animal  matter  has  been  removed,  and  its  place  supplied 
by  mineral  matter;  and  the  excavations  made  in  rocks  diminish 
sensibly  in  size  in  a  short  time  if  the  rock  be  soft,  and  in  a  longer 
time  when  it  is  hard  —  circumstances  which  show  an  intestine  mo- 
tion of  the  particles,  not  only  in  their  relative  positions,  but  in  space, 
which  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  is  owing  to  electricity  —  a 
power  which,  if  not  the  sole  agent,  must  at  least  have  co-operated 
essentially  in  the  formation  and  filling  of  mineral  veins.1 

The  magnetism  of  the  earth  is  presumed  to  be  owing  to  electrical 
currents  circulating  through  its  mass  in  a  direction  at  right  angles 
to  the  magnetic  meridians.  Mr.  Fox,  so  well  known  in  the  scien- 

1  This  subject  is  ably  discussed  by  Mr.  Leithart  in  his  work,  already 
mentioned,  on  the  formation  and  filling  of  metallic  veins.  Mr.  Leithart  is 
an  instance  of  the  intelligence  that  prevails  among  miners,  notwithstanding 
the  scanty  opportunities  of  acquiring  that  knowledge  which  they  are  gene- 
rally so  eager  to  obtain.  He  was  a  working  miner,  whose  only  education 
was  at  a  Sunday-school.  There  are  eminent  engineers  in  England,  era- 
ployed  in  the  construction  of  railways,  canals,  bridges,  and  other  important 
works,  who  began  their  career  as  working  miners. 


CHAP.  XV.          METALLIFEROUS    DEPOSITS.  173 

tific  world,  has  long  since  shown,  from  observations  in  the  Cornish 
mines,  that  such  currents  do  flow  through  all  metallic  veins.  Now, 
as  the  different  substances  of  which  the  earth  is  composed  are  in 
different  states  of  electro-magnetism,  and  are  often  interrupted  by 
non-conducting  rocks,  the  electric  currents,  being  stopped  in  their 
course,  act  chemically  on  all  the  liquids  and  substances  they  meet  with. 
Hence  Mr.  Fox  has  come  to  the  conclusion  that  not  only  the  nature 
of  the  deposits  must  have  been  determined  by  their  relative  electri- 
cal condition,  but  that  the  direction  of  the  metallic  veins  themselves 
must  have  been  influenced  by  the  direction  of  the  magnetic  meri- 
dians ;  and,  in  fact,  almost  all  the  metallic  deposits  in  the  world  are 
in  parallel  veins  or  fissures  tending  from  east  to  west,  or  from  north- 
east to  south-west.  Veins  at  right  angles  to  these  are  generally 
non-metalliferous,  and,  if  they  do  contain  metallic  ores,  they  are  of 
a  different  kind.  In  some  few  cases  both  contain  the  same  ore,  but 
in  very  different  quantities,  as  in  the  silver-mine  at  Pasco,  in  the 
Andes,  and  both  veins  are  richer  near  the  point  of  crossing  than 
elsewhere. 

Sir  Henry  de  la  Beche  conceives  that  the  continued  expansion 
and  elevation  of  an  intensely  heated  mass  from  below  would  occa- 
sion numerous  vertical  fissures  through  the  superincumbent  strata, 
within  which  some  mineral  matters  may  have  been  drawn  up  by 
sublimation,  and  others  deposited  in  them  when  held  in  solution  by 
ascending  and  descending  streams  of  water ;  but  even  on  this  hypo- 
thesis the  direction  of  the  rents  and  the  deposition  of  the  minerals 
would  be  influenced  by  the  electrical  currents.  But  if  veins  were 
filled  from  below,  the  richest  veins  would  be  lowest,  which  is  not 
the  case  in  Cornwall,  Mexico,  or  Peru.1  The  primum  mobile  of  the 
whole  probably  lies  far  beyond  our  globe  :  we  must  look  to  the  sun's 
heat,  if  not  as  the  sole  cause  of  electrical  currents,  at  least  as  com- 
bined with  the  earth's  rotation  in  their  evolution.2 

When  veins  cross  one  another,  the  traversed  veins  are  presumed 
to  be  of  prior  formation  to  those  traversing,  because  the  latter  are 
dislocated  and  often  heaved  out  of  their  course  at  the  point  of  meet- 
ing; and  such  is  the  case  with  the  metalliferous  veins,  which  are 
therefore  the  most  recent.  Veins  are  rarely  filled  in  every  part  with 
ore ;  they  contain  sparry  and  stony  matter,  called  its  matrix,  with 

1  Mineral  veins  are  generally  richer  near  the  surface  than  at  great 
depths :  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  the  mines  of  the  precious  metals  in 
America,  -where  the  greatest  quantities  of  ore  have  been  found  near  the 
surface — a  fact  that  may  be  explained  by  supposing  the  mineral  substances 
brought  by  sublimation  from  the  interior  of  the  earth,  and  deposited 
•where  the  temperature  was  lowest  at  or  near  the  surface  in  the  rocks 
among  which  they  are  situated. 

a  Rotation  alone  produces  electrical  currents  in  the  earth. — '  Connexion 
of  the  Physical  Sciences,'  page  864,  7th  edition. 

15* 


174  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

here  and  there  irregular  masses  of  the  metallic  ores,  often  of  great 
size  and  value.  Solitary  veins  are  generally  unproductive,  and  veins 
are  richer  when  near  one  another.  The  prevalence  and  richness  of 
mineral  veins  are  intimately  connected  with  the  proximity  or  junc- 
tion of  dissimilar  rocks,  where  the  electro-molecular  and  electro- 
chemical actions  are  most  energetic.  Granite,  porphyry,  and  the 
plutonic  rocks  are  often  eminently  metalliferous;  but  mineral  de- 
posits are  also  abundant  in  rocks  of  sedimentary  origin,  especially 
in  and  near  situations  where  these  two  classes  of  rocks  are  in  contact 
with  one  another,  or  where  the  metamorphic  structure  has  been  in- 
duced upon  the  sedimentary.  This  is  remarkably  the  case  in  Corn- 
wall, the  north  of  England,  in  the  Ural,  and  all  the  great  mining 
districts. 

Metalliferous  deposits  are  peculiar  to  particular  rocks :  tin  is  most 
plentiful  in  granite  and  the  rocks  lying  immediately  above  it;  gold 
in  the  palaeozoic  rocks  in  the  vicinity  of  porphyritic  eruptions; 
copper  is  deposited  in  various  slate  formations,  and  in  the  trias; 
lead  is  particularly  abundant  in  the  mountain-limestone  system,  and 
is  rare  where  iron  and  copper  abound ;  iron  abounds  in  the  coal  and 
oolitic  strata,  and  in  a  state  of  oxidule  and  crystallized  carbonate  in 
the  older  rocks ;  and  silver  is  found  in  almost  all  of  these  forma- 
tions ;  jts  ores  being  frequently  combined  with  those  of  other  metals, 
especially  of  lead  and  copper.  There  is  such  a  connexion  between 
the  contents  of  a  vein  and  the  nature  of  the  rock  in  which  the 
fissure  is,  that,  when  in  the  oldest  rocks  the  same  vein  intersects 
clay-slate  and  granite,  the  contents  of  the  parts  enclosed  in  one  rock 
differ  very  much  from  what  is  found  in  the  other.  It  is  believed 
that  in  the  strata  lying  above  the  coal-measures  none  of  the  more 
precious  metals  have  been  found  in  England  in  such  plenty  as  to 
defray  the  expense  of  raising  them,  although  such  a  rule  does  not 
extend  to  the  continent  of  Europe  or  to  South  America,  where 
copper  and  silver  ores  abound  in  our  new  red  sandstone  series.  In 
Great  Britain  no  metal  is  raised  in  any  stratum  newer  than  the 
magnesian  limestone.  Metals  exist  chiefly  in  the  primary  and  early 
secondary  strata,  especially  near  the  junction  of  granite  and  por- 
phyry with  slates ;  and  it  is  a  fact  that  rich  veins  of  lead,  copper, 
tin,  &c.,  abound  only  in  and  near  the  districts  which  have  been 
greatly  shaken  by  subterraneous  movements.  In  other  countries, 
as  Auvergne  and  the  Pyrenees,  the  presence  of  igneous  rocks  may 
have  caused  mineral  veins  to  appear  in  more  recent  strata  than  those 
which  contain  them  in  Great  Britain. 

When  a  mine  is  opened,  a  shaft  like  a  well  is  sunk  perpendicu- 
larly from  the  surface  of  the  ground,  and  from  it  horizontal  galle- 
ries are  dug  at  different  levels  according  to  the  direction  of  the  me- 
tallic veins,  and  gunpowder  is  used  to  blast  the  rocks  when  too  hard 
for  the  pickaxe.  When  mines  extend  very  far  in  a  horizontal  direc- 


CHAP.  XV.      DRAINAGE   AN1>   VENTILATION   OF   MINES.  175 

tion,  it  becomes  necessary  to  sink  more  shafts,  for  ventilation  as  well 
as  for  facility  in  raising  the  ore.  Such  is  the-  perfection  of  under- 
ground surveying  in  England,  that  the  work  can  be  carried  on  at 
the  same  time  from  above  and  below  so  exactly  as  to  meet ;  and  in 
order  to  accelerate  the  operation,  the  shaft  is  worked  simultaneously 
from  the  different  galleries  or  levels  of  the  mine.  In  this  manner 
a  perpendicular  shaft  was  sunk  204  fathoms  deep,  about  nineteen 
years  ago,  in  the  Consolidated  mines  in  Cornwall ;  it  was  finished 
in  twelve  months,  having  been  worked  in  fifteen  different  points  at 
once.  In  that  mine  there  are  ninety-five  shafts,  besides  other  per- 
pendicular communications  under-ground  from  level  to  level :  the 
depth  of  the  whole  of  these  shafts  added  together  amounts  to  about 
25  miles;  the  galleries  and  levels  extend  horizontally  about  43 
miles,  and  2500  people  are  employed  in  it:  yet  this  is  but  one  of 
many  mines  now  in  operation  in  the  mining  district  of  Cornwall 
alone.1 

The  infiltration  of  the  rain  and  surface-water,  together  with  'sub- 
terranean springs  and  pools,  would  soon  inundate  a  mine  and  put  a 
stop  to  the  work,  were  not  adequate  means  employed  to  remove  it. 
The  steam-engine  is  often  the  only  way  of  accomplishing  what  in 
many  cases  would  otherwise  be  impossible,  and  the  produce  of  mines 
has  been  in  proportion  to  the  successive  improvements  in  that  ma- 
chine. In  the  Consolidated  mines  already  mentioned  there  are  nine 
steam-engines  constantly  pumping  out  the  water;  four  of  these, 
which  are  the  largest  ever  made,  together  lift  from  thirty  to  fifty- 
hogsheads  of  water  per  minute,  from  an  average  depth  of  230 
fathoms.  The  power  of  the  steam-engines  in  draining  the  Cornish 
mines  is  equal  to  44,000  horses — one-sixth  of  a  bushel  of  coals  per- 
forming the  w0rk  of  a  horse.  The  largest  engine  is  between  300 
and  350  horse-power;  but  as  horses  must  rest,  and  the  engine  works 
incessantly,  it  would  require  1000  horses  to  do  its  work.2 

Mines  in  high  ground  are  sometimes  drained  to  a  certain  depth 
by  an  adit  or  gallery  dug  from  the  bottom  of  a  shaft  in  a  sloping 
direction  to  a  neighbouring  valley.  One  of  these  adits  extends 
through  the  large  mining  district  of  Grwennap,  in  Cornwall ;  it  be- 
gins in  a  valley  near  the  sea,  and  very  little  above  its  level,  and 
goes  through  all  the  neighbouring  mines,  which  it  drains  to  that 
depth,  and  with  all  its  ramifications  is  30  miles  long.  Nent  Force 
Level,  in  the  north  of  England,  forms  a  similar  drain  to  the  mines 
in  Alston  Moor :  it  is  a  stupendous  aqueduct  9  feet  broad,  and  in 
some  places  from  16  to  20  feet  high ;  it  passes  for  more  than  3 
miles  under  the  course  of  the  river  Nent  to  Nentsbury  engine-shaft, 

1  J.  Taylor,  Esq.,  on  Cornish  Mines. 

•2  The  total  amount  of  steam-power  in  Great  Britain  in  1833  was  equal 
to  that  of  2,000,000  of  men.  —  J.  Taylor,  Esq.,  on  Cornish  Mines. — It  ia 
now  nearly  doubled. 


176  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

and  is  navigated  underground  by  long  narrow  boats.  Daylight  at 
its  mouth  is  seen  like  a  star  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  in  the  inte- 
rior. Most  of  the  adits  admit  of  the  passage  of  men  and  horses, 
with  rails  at  the  sides  for  waggons. 

The  ventilation  of  mines  is  accomplished  by  burning  fires  in  some 
of  the  shafts,  which  are  in  communication  with  the  others,  so  that 
currents  of  air  flow  up  one  and  down  the  others.  In  some  cases 
fresh  air  is  carried  into  the  mines  by  streams  that  are  made  to  flow 
down  some  of  the  shafts.  Were  this  not  done,  the  heat,  which  in- 
creases with  the  depth,  would  be  insupportable ;  ventilation  dimin- 
ishes the  danger  from  the  fire-damp,  for,  even  where  Sir  Humphry 
Davy's  safety-lamp  is  used,  accidents  happen  from  the  carelessness 
of  the  .miners.1 

The  access  to  deep  mines,  as  in  Cornwall,  is  by  a  series  of  per- 
pendicular or  slightly-inclined  ladders,  sometimes  uninterrupted,  but 
generally  broken  at  intervals  by  resting-places.  It  is  computed  that 
one-third  of  a  miner's  physical  strength  was  exhausted  in  ascending 
and  descending  a  deep  mine :  they  are  now  drawn  up  by  the  steam- 
engine. 

The  greatest  depth  to  which  man  has  excavated  is  nothing  when 
compared  with  the  radius  of  the  earth.  The  Eselschacht  mine  at 
Kuttenberg  in  Bohemia,  now  inaccessible,  which  is  3778  feet  below 
the  surface,  is  deeper  than  any  other  mine.  Its  depth  is  only  150 
feet  less  than  the  height  of  Vesuvius,  and  it  is  eight  times  greater 
than  the  height  of  the  pyramid  of  Cheops,  or  the  cathedral  of 
Strasburg.  The  Monkwearmouth  coal-mine  near  Sunderland  de- 
scends to  1500  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  the  barometer 
stands  there  at  31-70,  which  is  higher  than  anywhere  on  the  earth's 
surface.2  The  salt-works  of  New  Saltzwerk  in  Prussia  are  2231 
feet  deep,  and  1993  feet  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  Mines  on  high 
ground  may  be  very  deep  without  extending  to  the  sea-level:  that 
of  Valenciana,  near  Guanaxuato  in  Mexico,  is  1686  feet  deep,  yet 
its  bottom  is  5960  feet  above  the  surface  of  the  sea;  and  the  mines 
in  the  higher  Andes  must  be  much  more.  For  the  same  reason  the 
rich  mine  of  Joachimsthal  in  Bohemia,  2120  feet  deep,  has  not  yet 
reached  that  level.  The  fire-springs  at  Tseu-lieu-tsing  in  China  are 

1  The  splendid  discovery  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy,  that  flame  does  not  pass 
through  fine  wire  gauze,  prevents  the  fatal  explosion  of  inflammable  air 
in  the  mines,  by  which  thousands  of  lives  have  been  lost.  By  means  of  a 
light  enclosed  in  a  wire-gauze  lantern,  a  miner  now  works  with  safety  sur- 
rounded by  fire-damp.  To  the  honour  of  the  illustrious  author  of  this 
discovery,  be  it  observed  that  it  was  not,  like  that  of  gunpowder  arid 
others,  the  unforeseen  result  of  chance  by  new  combinations  of  matter, 
but  the  solution  of  a  question  based  on  scientific  experiment  and  induc- 
tion, which  it  required  the  genius  of  a  philosophic  mind  like  his  to  arrive 
at. 

3  Supposing  the  barometer  to  be  30  inches  on  the  level  of  tke  sea. 


CHAP.  XV.  DIFFUSION     OF     METALS.  177 

3197  feet  deep,  but  their  relative  depth  is  unknown  '  How  insig- 
nificant are  all  the  works  of  man  compared  with  nature ! — A  line 
of  27,600  feet  long  did  not  reach  the  bottom  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean. 

The  metals  are  very  profusely  diffused  over  the  earth.  Few 
countries  of  any  extent  do  not  contain  some  of  them.  A  small 
number  occur  pure,  but  in  general  they  are  found  in  the  form  of 
ores,  in  which  the  metal  is  chemically  combined  with  other  substan- 
ces, and  the  ore  is  often  so  mixed  with  earthy  matter  and  rock  that 
it  is  necessary  to  reduce  it  to  a  coarse  powder  in  order  to  separate 
the  ore,  which  is  rarely  more  than  a  third  or  fourth  part  of  the  mass 
brought  above  ground. 

Gold  is  found  in  almost  every  country,  but  in  such  minute  quan- 
tities that  it  is  often  not  worth  the  expense  of  working.  It  is  almost 
always  in  a  native  state,  and  in  the  form  of  crystals,  grains,  or  rolled 
masses.  Sometimes  it  is  combined  with  silver :  [in  Chile  and  in 
Peru,  as  well  as  in  Georgia  and  other  States,  it  occurs  also  in  combina- 
tion with  iron  pyrites — sulphuret  of  iron.]  It  is  exhausted  in  seve- 
ral parts  of  Europe  where  it  was  formerly  found.  The  united  pro- 
duce of  the  mines  in  Transylvania,  Hungary,  the  north-western 
districts  of  Austria,  and  the  bed  of  the  Danube,  is  nearly  60,000 
ounces  annually.  Gold  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  Spain,  in 
the  Lead-hills  in  Scotland,  and  the  Wicklow  mountains  in  Ireland. 

Gold  abounds  in  Asia,  especially  in  Siberia.  The  deposits  at  the 
foot  of  the  Ural  mountains  are  very  rich.  In  1826  a  piece  of  pure 
gold  weighing  23  pounds  was  found  there,  along  with  others  weigh- 
ing three  or  four  pounds  each,  together  with  the  bones  of  elephants. 
All  the  diluvium  there  is  ferruginous ;  and  more  to  the  east,  as  al- 
ready mentioned,  a  region  as  large  as  France  has  lately  been  dis- 
covered with  a  soil  rich  in  gold-dust,  resting  on  rocks  which  contain 
it.  In  1834  the  treasures  in  that  part  of  the  Altai  chain  called  the 
Gold  Mountains  were  discovered,  forming  a  mountain-knot  nearly  as 
large  as  England,  from  which  a  great  quantity  of  gold  has  been  ex- 
tracted. Gold  is  found  in  Tibet,  in  the  Chinese  province  of  Yun- 
nan, and  abundantly  in  the  mountains  of  the  Indo-Chinese  penin- 
sula, in  Japan,  and  Borneo.  In  the  latter  island  it  occurs  near  the 
surface  in  six  different  places. 

Africa  has  long  furnished  a  large  supply  to  Europe.  That  part 
of  the  Kong  mountains  west  of  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  was  one 
of  the  most  auriferous  regions  in  the  world  before  the  recent  dis- 
coveries of  California.  The  gold  stratum  lies  from  20  to  25  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  increases  in  richness  with  the  depth.  It  is 
found  in  particles  and  pieces  in  a  reddish  sand.  Most  of  the  streams 
from  the  table-land  bring  down  gold,  as  well  those  that  descend  to 

1  Note  to  the  English  translation  of  Kosinos,  by  Colonel  Sabine,  on  the 
depths  below  the  surface  of  the  earth  attained  by  man. 


178  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

the  low  ground  to  the  north,  as  those  that  flow  to  the  Atlantic.  On 
the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea  it  was  found  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
induce  the  Portuguese  to  form  a  settlement  there. 
I  In  South  America  the  western  Cordillera  is  poor  in  metals  except 
1  in  New  Grenada,  where  the  most  westerly  of  the  three  chains  of  the 
Andes  is  rich  in  gold  and  platinum  —  a  metal  found  only  there,  in 
Brazil,  and  on  the  European  side  of  the  Ural  mountains  —  in  allu- 
vial deposits.  The  largest  piece  of  platinum  that  has  been  found 
weighed  21  ounces.  Gold  is  found  in  sand  and  gravel  on  the  high 
plains  of  the  Andes,  on  the  low  lands  to  the  east  of  them,  and  in 
almost  all  the  rivers  that  flow  on  that  side.  The  whole  country  be- 
tween Jaen  de  Bracamoros  and  the  Guaviare  is  celebrated  for  its 
metallic  riches.  Almost  all  the  Brazilian  rivers  bring  down  gold ; 
and  the  mine  of  Gongo  Soco,  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  is 
said  to  yield  several  varieties  of  gold-ore.  Central  America,  Mexico, 
and  California  are  auriferous  countries.  The  quantity  of  gold  re- 
cently found  near  the  surface  of  California  is  immense,  greatly  sur- 
passing that  of  any  other  country.1  A  considerable  quantity  is 
found  in  Tennessee,  [in  Virginia,]  the  mountains  of  Georgia,  and  on 
1000  square  miles  of  North  Carolina  it  occurs  in  grains  and  masses. 
[Gold  has  been  found  at  intervals  from  Canada  to  Georgia,  a  dis- 
tance of  1000  miles. 

[WE  find  the  most  methodical  account  of  the  discovery  of  gold 
in  Australia  in  a  pamphlet  by  Captain  John  Elphinstone  Erskine, 
R.N.,  whence  the  following  details  are  condensed : 

Among  the  convicts  who  were  sent  out  to  form  the  first  settle- 
ment in  New  South  Wales,  several  instances ^are  known  to  have  oc- 
curred of  rewards  being  demanded  for  real  or  pretended  discoveries 
of  gold ;  but  the  applications  were  discouraged  by  the  authorities. 

In  December,  1829,  it  is  mentioned  in  a  Sydney  paper  that  a 
piece  of  gold  in  the  quartz  matrix  was  bought  from  a  labouring  man 
by  Mr.  Cohen,  a  silversmith. 

For  several  years  after,  a  shepherd  named  McGregor,  perhaps  the 
same  individual,  was  in  the  habit  of  occasionally  bringing  pieces  of 
gold  to  Sydney,  by  the  sale  of  which  he  realized  considerable  pro- 
perty. He  repeatedly  offered  to  reveal  the  fortunate  locality  (sup- 
posed to  be  in  the  Wellington  districts)  for  a  large  reward ;  but  this 
person  was  in  jail  for  debt  at  the  time  of  the  late  discoveries. 

The  Rev.  W.  Clarke,  well  known  in  South  Wales  as  an  able  ge- 
ologist, brought  specimens  of  the  metal  in  1841  from  the  basin  of 
the  very  river  (the  Macquarie)  now  supplying  it,  and  he  also  repeat- 

1  The  reader  is  referred  for  further  information  on  this  subject  to  a  very 
interesting  article  (Siberia  and  California),  attributed  to  one  of  our  most 
eminent  British  geologists,  on  the  distribution  of  gold  in  different  parts  of 
the  world,  and  particularly  in  the  Ural  Mountains  and  California;  in  the 
374th  Number  of  the  Quarterly  Review,  September,  1850. 


CHAP.  XV.  GOLD     IN     AUSTRALIA.  179 

edly  announced  his  conviction  that  gold  existed  in  considerable 
abundance  in  the  "  schists  and  quartzites "  of  the  mountain  chain. 
In  consequence  of  communications  made  by  him  to  the  Geological 
Society,  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison,  in  a  letter  addressed  to  Sir 
Charles  Lemon,  advised  that  a  person  well  acquainted  with  the  wash- 
ing of  mineral  sands  be  sent  to  Australia,  speculating  on  the  proba- 
bility of  auriferous  alluvia  being  abundant,  and  suggested  "that 
such  would  be  found  at  the  base  of  the  western  flanks  of  the  divid- 
ing ranges." 

In  September,  1850,  it  was  remarked  in  the  Quarterly  Review : 
"  The  important  point  for  Englishmen  now  to  consider,  is  the  extent 
to  which  our  own  great  Australian  colonies  are  likely  to  become 
gold-bearing  regions.  The  works  of  Count  Strezlecki  and  others 
have  made  known  the  facts,  that  the  chief  or  eastern  ridge  of  that 
continent  consists  of  palaeozoic  rocks,  cut  through  by  syenites,  gran- 
ites, and  porphyries ;  and  that  quartzose  rocks  occasionally  prevail 
in  this  long  meridian  chain.  Sir  Roderick  I.  Murchison  announced, 
first  to  the  Greographical  Society,  (May,  1845,)  and  afterwards  to 
the  Geographical  Society  of  Cornwall,  his  belief  that  wherever  such 
contrasts  occurred,  gold  might  be  expected  to  be  found ;  and  Colonel 
Henderson  suggested  the  same  idea  at  St.  Petersburg.  Very  shortly 
afterwards,  not  only  were  several  specimens  of  gold  in  fragments  of 
quartz  veins  found  in  the  Blue  Mountains  north  of  Sydney,  but  one 
of  the  British  chaplains,  himself  a  good  geologist,  in  writing  more 
recently,  thus  expressed  himself:  -'  This  colony  is  becoming  a  mining 
country,  as  well  as  South  Australia.  Copper,  lead,  and  gold  are  in 
considerable  abundance  in  the  schists  and  quartzites  of  the  Cordil- 
lera (Blue  Mountains).  Vast  numbers  of  the  population  are  going 
to  California,  but  some  day  I  think  we  shall  have  to  recall  them/  " 

Mr.  Montgomery  Martin,  in  a  pamphlet  published  in  1847,  says : 
"  Sir  Thomas  Mitchell,  in  his  recent  expeditions  to  the  north-east, 
found  a  region  like  the  Uralian  Mountains,  abounding  in  gold.  The 
specimens  I  have  seen  of  the  gold  are  very  rich.  It  is  in  large 
grains,  or  irregular  veins,  loosely  embedded  in  white  quartz/' 

About  the  beginning  of  1849,  a  very  fine  specimen  of  gold  in 
quartz  was  brought  to  Melbourne,  Port  Philip ;  it  was  said  to  have 
been  found  by  a  shepherd  in  the  "Pyrenees,"  a  day  or  two's  jour- 
ney from  the  town;  but  his  specimen  was  at  first  suspected  to  be  an 
artful  fabrication. 

In  the  same  year,  Thomas  Icely,  Esq.,  of  Coombings,  a  member 
of  the  Legislative  Council  of  New  South  Wales,  exhibited  speci- 
mens of  quartz  brought  from  his  property  on  the  Dulabula,  in  which 
gold  was  distinctly  visible ;  and  persons  of  good  authority  in  Eng- 
land, to  whom  he  also  submitted  them,  expressed  opinions  favour- 
able to  their  richness  in  the  precious  metal.  Assertions  were  now 
confidently  made,  that  by  washing  the  alluvial  deposits  in  the  streams 


180  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

or  gullies,  flowing  from  the  supposed  auriferous  ridges,  gold  in  dust 
would  certainly  be  procured.  Strange  to  say,  in  spite  of  Californian 
experience,  the  above  experiment  was  not  made,  and  the  subject  was 
altogether  disbelieved.  A  Mr.  Trappit  having  found  a  lump,  or, 
as  it  is  now  termed,  a  "pocket/'  of  gold,  at  the  root  of  an  old  tree, 
was  derisively  told  by  persons  to  whom  he  showed  his  treasure,  that 
it  was  evidently  the  effect  of  a  bush  fire,  fusing  into  an  irregular 
mass  some  gold  watches,  which  must  have  been  stolen  and  planted 
(hidden)  by  a  convict  servant. 

The  Colonial  Government,  about  this  time,  expressed  a  desire  to 
secure  the  services  of  some  eminent  English  geologist  in  exploring 
the  mineral  capabilities  of  New  South  Wales  (with  a  view  to  the 
extension  of  copper-mining),  and  accordingly,  in  November  or  De- 
cember, 1850,  Mr.  Stutchbury,  who  had  been  some  time  curator  of 
Bristol  Museum,  arrived  in  Sydney ;  having  been  named  geologist 
to  the  colony.  Up  to  the  beginning  of  May,  1851,  however,  no 
report  holding  out  any  hope  of  the  existence  of  the  precious  metals 
had  been  received  from  this  gentleman ;  although  he  was  said  to 
have  visited  some  of  the  localities  in  which  they  were  believed  to  be 
most  abundant. 

On  May  2,  1851,  a  notice  appeared  in  the  Sydney  Morning 
Herald  (the  leading  paper  of  the  colony),  intimating  it  to  be  no 
longer  a  secret  that  gold  had  been  found  in  the  earth  in  several 
places  in  the  western  country ;  and  that  the  fact  was  established  on 
the  12th  of  February  by  Mr.  E.  Hargreaves,  a  resident  of  Brisbane 
Water,  who  had  returned  from  California  a  few  months  previously. 
It  was  added,  that  while  in  California,  Mr.  Hargreaves  felt  persuaded 
that,  from  the  similarity  of  the  geological  formation,  there  must  be 
gold  in  several  districts  of  New  South  Wales. 

On  May  8,  Mr.  Hargreaves  delivered  a  lecture  in  Bathurst,  stat- 
ing, that  after  a  careful  examination  of  from  two  to  three  months, 
he  had  found  that  one  large  gold-field  existed  from  the  foot  of  the 
"  Big  Hill "  to  a  considerable  distance  below  Wellington  j  that  the 
precious  metal  had  been  picked  up  in  numberless  places,  and  that 
indications  of  its  existence  were  to  be  seen  in  every  direction ;  add- 
ing that  he  had  established  a  company  of  nine  working  miners,  who 
were  then  digging  at  a  point  of  the  Summer-hill  Creek  (fresh-water 
stream),  near  its  junction  with  the  Macquarie,  about  50  miles  from 
Bathurst,  and  30  from  Guyongi,  and  that  the  name  of  "  Ophir  "  had 
been  given  to  the  spot.  Mr.  Hargreaves  exhibited  to  the  people 
present  samples  of  fine  gold,  weighing  in  all  about  four  ounces;  the 
produce,  he  stated,  of  three  days'  work.  The  amount  thus  earned 
by  each  man  he  represented  to  be  £2  4s,  Sd.  per  day ;  but  from 
want  of  practical  knowledge  and  proper  implements,  nearly  one-half 
the  gold  actually  dug  had  been  lost.  One  of  the  samples  was  a 
solid  piece,  weighing  about  2  ounces,  which  had  been  found  attached 


CHAP.  XV.  GOLD    IN    AUSTRALIA.  181 

to  the  root  of  a  tree ;  another  consisted  of  small  pieces,  weighing 
from  several  grains  to  a  pennyweight,  all  elongated ;  and  a  third  of 
small  particles,  principally  oval. 

Besides  at  Summer-hill  and  Lewis-pond  Creeks,  Mr.  H.  had  also 
found  gold  at  Dubbo,  below  Wellington,  in  powder  fine  as  the  finest 
flour ;  but  he  did  not  believe  that  it  existed  in  sufficient  quantity  to 
pay  for  labour. 

Mr.  Stutchbury,  the  geological  surveyor,  was  now  directed  to  ac- 
company Mr.  Hargreaves  to  the  Summer-hill  Creek ;  and  on  arriv- 
ing there,  digging  had  already  commenced.  On  May  10,  two  days 
after  Mr.  Hargreave's  lecture,  three  persons  left  Bathurst,  and  on 
the  14th  two  of  them  returned,  bringing  one  piece  of  gold,  which 
weighed  down  35  sovereigns ;  another  about  half  an  ounce  in  weight; 
and  several  small  pieces,  half  an  ounce  altogether.  The  largest 
piece  was  described  as  of  solid  gold,  about  three  inches  long,  and 
of  varying  thickness,  with  a  small  portion  of  quartz  imbedded  in 
its  thickest  part;  the  smallest  was  like  spangles,  but  rough  and 
uneven  on  the  edges.  On  the  following  day,  2|  Ibs.  of  gold  in 
lumps,  besides  a  quantity  of  dust,  were  brought  into  Bathurst.  This 
good  fortune  naturally  led  to  the  formation  of  parties  for  mining, 
and  the  construction  of  machines,  &c.,  for  washing  the  soil. 

On  May  17,  Mr.  Stutchbury's  Report  reached  the  government; 
and  this  was  so  conclusive  as  to  the  existence  of  gold  in  large  quan- 
tities, that  a  proclamation  was  issued,  declaring  the  right  of  the 
Crown  in  all  precious  metals,  and  prohibiting  all  persons  from  search- 
ing for  or  carrying  off  the  same,  except  under  regulations,  subse- 
quently settled  at  30s.  for  a  charge  or  license  fee  to  be  paid  by  each 
individual  to  search  for  the  precious  metals,  for  every  calendar  month, 
or  part  of  a  month,  to  a  Land  Commissioner,  who  was  also  em- 
powered to  allot  small  portions  of  Crown-land  to  each  worker,  and 
to  settle  disputes,  &c. 

At  this  time,  May  19,  there  were,  even  in  this  thinly  populated 
country,  from  500  to  600  persons  at  work  on  the  Summer-hill  and 
in  Lewis-pond  Creeks ;  but,  from  ignorance  of  mining  or  washing, 
and  the  want  of  implements,  few  earned  more  than  they  could  at 
their  respective  trades,  and  many  gave  up  the  search  in  despair. 
Meanwhile,  Mr.  Hargreaves  was  rewarded  by  the  government  with 
£500  for  his  discovery ;  and  he  was  appointed  a  land  commissioner. 

On  May  24,  news  reached  Sydney  that  the  gold-diggers  made 
from  £3  to  £4  per  day ;  a  party  of  four  was  said  to  have  taken  out 
thirty  ounces  in  a  day,  and  a  piece  of  one  pound  weight  had  been 
found.  One  person  was  said  to  have  accumulated,  within  three 
weeks,  £1600  worth  of  gold !  A  large  quantity  of  gold  was  lying 
in  the  bank  at  Bathurst,  awaiting  a  safe  conveyance  to  Sydney ;  and 
the  whole  of  Mr.  Wentworth's  property  near  Bathurst  (Fitzgerald's 
Valley)  was  found  to  be  one  large  gold-field. 
16 


182  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.    XV- 

Before  the  end  of  May,  the  first  shipment  of  gold  had  heen  made 
for  London  on  board  the  Thomas  Arbuthnot,  the  estimated  value 
being  about  £800.  Among  the  freight  was  one  piece  weighing  about 
40  ounces,  which  had  previously  been  exhibited  in  Sydney.  Pieces 
of  the  same  description  continued  to  be  found  at  intervals  :  viz.,  one 
of  36  ounces,  and  another  of  22,  by  a  Mr.  Lester,  who  sold  the  lat- 
ter for  £76.  Two  fine  specimens  (18  and  28  ounces)  were  bought 
by  the  Colonial  Government,  for  presentation  to  Queen  Victoria. 

Among  the  places  where  gold  was  found  were  the  Shoal-haven 
Gullies,  and  the  Crookwell  River,  in  the  county  of  Argyle,  south 
of  Sydney;  Fitzgerald's  Valley  and  O'Connell's  Plains,  near  Bathurst; 
Mudgee  and  Cassilis,  in  the  county  of  Bligh,  northward;  and  many 
tributary  streams  of  the  Macquarie ;  all  which  spots  lie  at  but  a 
short  distance  from  the  meridian  which  Mr.  Clarke  had  pointed  out 
as  that  near  which  auriferous  deposits  might  confidently  be  looked 
for.  On  June  9,  Mr.  Stutchbury's  report,  that  he  had  found  gold 
by  prospecting  with  a  small  pan,  and  without  going  any  depth,  at 
various  points  of  the  Turon,  attracted  the  gold-seekers  to  that  river, 
where  the  metal  might  be  found  with  less  trouble  than  at  Ophir. 
Adventurers  now  flocked  from  Sydney,  Maitland,  and  New  England, 
as  well  as  overland  parties  from  Port  Philip  (Victoria) ;  and  a  Ba- 
thurst paper  of  July  5,  estimates  the  number  of  miners  at  800  or 
1000,  stretching  over  7  or  8  miles  of  the  Turon  River.  On  July 
14,  many  parties  had  arrived  in  Bathurst,  bringing  with  them  large 
quantities  of  gold ;  one  party  of  six  had  made  £400  in  ten  days ; 
another,  of  the  same  number,  £500  in  fourteen  days,  &c. 

About  the  middle  of  July  it  was  rumoured  that  a  mass  of  quartz, 
weighing  3  cwt.,  and  containing  upwards  of  one  hundred  pounds  of 
gold,  had  been  found  near  Meroo  or  Merinda  Creek.  The  Bathurst 
Mail,  of  July  15,  confirmed  this  report,  when  there  were  found  by 
Dr.  Kerr,  or  rather  his  aboriginal  shepherd,  and  brought  to  Sydney 
in  a  tin  box,  106  pounds  of  gold,  in  pieces  all  disembowelled  from 
the  earth  at  one  time.  The  largest  of  the  blocks  was  about  a  foot 
in  diameter,  and  weighed  75  pounds,  out  of  which  were  taken  65 
pounds  of  pure  gold !  The  auriferous  mass,  before  it  was  broken, 
weighed  from  2  to  3  cwt. ;  had  it  not  been  broken,  it  would  have 
been  invaluable  as  a  specimen  which  the  world  had  seen  nothing 
like.  The  heaviest  of  the  two  large  pieces  resembled  a  honeycomb, 
or  sponge,  of  crystalline  particles,  as  did  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
gold.  The  quartz  block,  when  found,  formed  an  isolated  heap,  about 
100  yards  from  a  quartz  vein,  stretching  up  the  ridge  from  the  Mur- 
roo  Creek,  about  53  miles  from  Bathurst,  18  from  Mudgee,  30  from 
Wellington,  and  18  to  the  nearest  point  of  the  Macquarie  River. 

This  vast  lump  of  gold  was  sold  at  Bathurst  to  the  agent  of 
Messrs.  Thacker  and  Co.,  of  Sydney,  for  £4160.  On  July  23,  the 
Mary  Bannatyne  shipped  for  London  nearly  280  pounds  of  gold, 


CHAP.  XV.  'GOLD    IN    AUSTRALIA.  183 

valued  at  £11,000,  besides  800  ounces  of  California  gold;  and 
smaller  amounts  had  been  privately  despatched  in  other  vessels.  On 
August  5,  400  persons  left  Sydney  for  the  "  diggings."  On  August 
7,  there  was  delivered  at  the  treasury,  in  Sydney,  288  pounds  of 
gold,  valued  at  upwards  of  £11,500 ;  and  on  the  12th,  a  shipment 
to  the  amount  of  £28,960  (including  the  shipment  of  Messrs. 
Thacker's  gold)  was  made  on  board  the  barque  Bondicar,  for  Lon- 
don. On  August  15,  there  was  delivered  at  Sydney  about  240 
pounds  of  gold,  (government  price,  £3.  8s.  6c?.,)  valued  at  £9684. 

The  alluvial  gold  hitherto  found  in  New  South  Wales  is  said  by 
Mr.  Clarke  to  be  rather  superior  in  fineness  to  that  of  California, 
and  of  Minok,  in  Russia,  and  yields  somewhere  about  90  per  cent, 
of  pure  metal.  One  mugget,  which  weighed  51  oz.  14dwts.,  with 
small  bits  of  quartz  in  the  indentations,  was  estimated  by  Mr.  Hale 
to  contain  51  ounces  of  clean  gold,  of  28  carats  fine.  The  price 
first  given  at  Bathurst  by  purchase,  was  £2  18s.  an  ounce  :  it  gra- 
dually rose  to  £3  5s.,  and  was,  in  August,  at  Sydney,  £3  8s.  Qd. 
Such  is  an  outline  of  the  Gold  Discovery  in  New  South  Wales,  from 
the  time  of  the  first  available  finding,  to  the  advices  from  the  colony, 
August  18.  For  further  details,  with  Notes  of  an  Excursion  to  the 
Gold-fields,  the  reader  is  referred  to  Captain  Erskirie's  account. 

The  district  of  Bathurst  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains, 
about  one  hundred  miles  from  Sydney  :  a  range  which  comprehends 
among  its  rock  formations  a  great  variety  of  the  crystalline  or  un- 
stratified  rocks;  as  granite,  (both  the  porphyritic  and  common  kinds,) 
sienite,  quartz-rock,  serpentine,  and  eurite.  Mica  slate  and  silicious 
elate  form  also  a  portion  of  the  stratified  rocks.  This  very  exten- 
sive Alpine  range  stretches  from  the  southern  shore  of  Australia  to 
the  southern  shore  of  Van  Diemen's  Land;  and  through  its  whole 
length  the  same  geological  conditions  prevail.  These  bear  a  striking 
resemblance  to  those  observed  in  the  Uralian  Mountains  and  in  the 
ranges  of  California.  Dr.  Lhotsky,  in  describing  his  journey  from 
Sydney  to  the  Australian  Alps,  in  February,  1834,  says  "  In  many 
places  on  Menero,  my  attention  was  fixed  by  the  people  upon  the 
gold,  which  they  said  is  to  be  found  in  the  creek,  &c.  However,  I 
knew  it  was  nothing  but  the  metallic  scales  of  mica  they  were  point- 
ing out  to  me." 

Gold  has  since  been  found  in  still  greater  abundance  at  Bunin- 
yong,  about  80  miles  from  Melbourne,  and  in  the  Hunter's  River 
district,  on  the  Liverpool  Plains,  200  miles  from  Maitland.  At  the 
Victoria  (Port  Philip)  diggings,  eight  feet  square  of  ground  are 
stated  to  have  produced  2360  ounces  of  gold.  On  September  25, 
were  brought  into  Sydney  6456  ounces.  A  small  portion  of  gold 
has  also  been  discovered  in  Van  Diemen's  Land.] 

[The  total  product  of  the  Australian  gold-fields,  up  to  the  end  of 
August  1852,  was  5,532,  422  ounces,  or  105  tons,  10  cwts.,  and  2 


184  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.'  CHAP.  XV. 

ounces  of  gold.  These  astounding  results  have  been  obtained  by 
unskilled  labourers,  working  -without  either  plan  or  concert. 

The  total  product  of  gold  in  California  up  to  June  30,  1852,  was 
6174,780,877.] 

A  great  deal  of  silver  is  raised  in  Europe.  The  mines  of  Hun- 
gary are  the  most  productive,  especially  those  in  the  mountains  of 
Chemnitz-  The  metalliferous  mountains  of  the  Erzgebirge  are  also 
very  rich,  as  also  the  mines  near  Christiania  in  Sweden.  Silver  is 
also  found  in  Saxony,  Transylvania,  and  Austria.  In  no  part  of 
the  old  continent  is  silver  in  greater  abundance  than  in  the  Ural  and 
Altai  mountains,  especially  in  the  district  of  Kolyvari.  There  are 
silver-mines  in  Armenia,  Anatolia,  Tibet,  China,  Cochin-China,  and 
Japan. 

The  richness  of  the  Andes  in  silver  can  hardly  be  conceived,  but 
the  mines  are  frequently  on  such  high  ground  that  the  profits  are 
diminished  by  the  difficulty  of  carriage,  the  expense  of  living  in  a 
barren  country,  sometimes  destitute  of  water,  where  the  miners 
suffer  from  the  cold  and  snow,  and  especially  the  want  of  fuel.  This 
is  particularly  the  case  at  the  silver-mines  of  Copiapo  in  Chile, 
where  the  country  is  utterly  barren,  and  not  a  drop  of  water  is  to 
be  found  in  a  circuit  of  nine  miles.  These  mines  were  discovered 
by  a  poor  man  in  1832,  who  hit  upon  a  mass  of  silver  in  rooting 
out  a  tree.  They  extend  over  150  square  leagues.  Sixteen  veins 
of  silver  were  found  in  the  first  four  days,  and,  before  three  weeks 
elapsed,  forty  more,  not  reckoning  smaller  ramifications.  The  rolled 
pieces  which  lay  on  the  surface  produced  a  large  quantity  of  pure 
silver.  A  single  mass  weighed  5000  pounds.1 

In  Peru  there  are  silver-mines  along  the  whole  range  of  the  Andes, 
from  Caxamarca  to  the  confines  of  the  desert  of  Atacama.  The 
richest  at  present  are  those  of  Pasco,  which  were  discovered  by  an 
Indian  in  1630.  They  have  been  worked  without  interruption  since 
the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth  century,  and  seem  to  be  still  in- 
exhaustible. The  soil  under  the  town  of  Pasco  is  metalliferous,  the 
ores  probably  forming  a  series  of  beds  contemporaneous  with  the 
strata.  The  richness  of  these  beds  is  not  everywhere  the  same,  but 
the  nests  of  ore  are  numerous.  The  mines  of  Potosi,  16,150  feet 
above  the  sea-level,  are  celebrated  for  riches,  but  the  owners  had  to 
contend  with  all  the  difficulties  which  such  a  situation  imposes.  The 
small  depth  at  which  the  silver  lies  on  the  high  plains  of  the  Andes, 
and  the  quantity  of  it  on  the  surface,  is  probably  owing,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  to  the  greater  deposition  of  the  sublimed  mineral 
from  refrigeration  neat  the  surface.  The  ore  in  the  mines  at  Chota 
is  near  the  surface  over  an  extent  of  half  a  square  league,  and  the 
filaments  of  silver  are  sometimes  even  entwined  with  the  roots  of 

1  Dr.  Poeppig's  '  Travels  in  Chile  and  Peru.' 


CHAP.  XV.  DIFFUSION    OF    METALS.  185 

the  grass.  This  mine  is  13,300  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and 
even  in  summer  the  thermometer  is  below  the  freezing-point  in  the 
night.  In  the  district  of  Huantajaya,  not  far  from  the  shores  of 
the  Pacific,  there  are  mines  where  masses  of  pure  silver  are  found, 
of  which  one  weighed  800  pounds.1 

[Silver  has  been  observed  at  a  mine  about  a  mile  south  of  Sing- 
Sing  prison,  in  the  State  of  New  York,  which  was  worked  during 
the  war  of  the  Revolution;  at  the  Bridge  water  copper-mines  in 
New  Jersey;  at  Ring's  mine  in  Davidson  Co.  N.  C.,  and  also  at  the 
copper-mines  of  Michigan.  The  United  States  have  afforded  but 
little  native  silver.] 

According  to  Baron  Humboldt,  the  quantity  of  the  precious 
metals  brought  to  Europe  between  the  discovery  of  America  and 
the  year  1803  was  worth  1257  millions  sterling;  and  the  silver 
alone  taken  from  the  mines  during  that  period  would  form  a  ball  89 
feet  in  diameter.  The  disturbed  state  of  the'  South  American  re- 
publics and  the  high  price  of  quicksilver  have  interfered  with  the 
working  of  the  mines. 

Lead-ore  is  very  often  combined  with,  silver,  and  is  then  called 
Argentiferous  Galena.  It  is  one  of  the  principal  productions  of  the 
British  mines,  especially  in  the  northern  mining  district,  which  oc- 
cupies 400  square  miles  at  the  junction  of  Northumberland,  Cum- 
berland, Westmoreland,  Durham,  and  Yorkshire.  It  comprises 
Alston  Moor,  the  mountain-ridge  of  Crossfell,  and  the  dales  of 
Derwent,  East  and  West  Allendale,  the  Wear,  and  Tees.  There 
are  other  extensive  mining  tracts  separated  from  this  by  cultivated 
ground.  The  principal  products  of  this  rich  district  are  lead  and 
copper.  The  lead-mines  lie  chiefly  in  the  upper  dales  of  the  Tyne, 
Wear,  and  Tees,  and  all  of  it  contains  more  or  less  silver,  though 
not  always  enough  to  indemnify  the  expense  of  refining  or  sepa- 
rating the  silver.  The  deleterious  vapours  resulting  from  this  pro- 
cess are  conveyed  in  a  tube  along  the  surface  of  the  ground  for  14 
miles :  and  instead  of  being,  as  formerly,  a  dead  loss  to  the  propri- 
etor, they  are  condensed  in  their  passage,  and  in  one  instance  yield 
metal  to  the  annual  value  of  10,000£2  The  Hudgillburn  lead-mine 
in  tbat  district  has  yielded  treasures  almost  unexampled  in  the 
annals  of  mining.  The  veins,  from  ten  to  twelve,  and  in  some 
places  even  twenty  feet  wide,  were  filled  with  ore,  which  is  entirely 
obtained  with  the  pickaxe,  without  blasting.  In  1821  the  galena 
of  this  mine  yielded  32,000  ounces  of  silver. 

Lead-mines  are  in  operation  in  France,  but  not  to  any  great 
amount :  those  of  the  south  of  Spain  furnish  large  quantities  of  this 
metal;  also  in  Saxony,  Bohemia,  and  Carinthia,  where  they  are 

'  Dr.  Poeppig. 

3  Constructed  under  the  direction  of  Thomas  Sopwith,  Esq. 
16* 


186  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV 

very  rich.  Lead  is  not  very  frequently  found  in  Siberia,  though  it 
does  occur  in  the  Nerchinsk  mining  district,  in  the  basin  of  the  river 
Amur.  It  is  also  a  production  of  China,  of  the  peninsula  beyond 
the  Ganges,  and  of  America.  It  is  also  found  in  Lower  Peru, 
Mexico,  and  in  California. 

[The  northwest  country,  or  Tipper  Mississippi  Valley,  is  among 
the  most  remarkable  in  the  world  for  the  variety  and  abundance  of 
its  mineral  deposits,  and  especially  for  those  which  are  of  most  ex- 
tensive use  in  the  arts.  The  sulphuret  of  lead  occupies  about  one 
degree  of  latitude,  extending  north  from  a  point  on  the  Mississippi, 
about  eight  miles  below  Galena,  and  lying  on  both  sides,  varying 
in  width,  till  it  covers  as  great  an  extent  from  east  to  west.  Ou 
the  east  side  of  the  river  the  lead-ore  is  found  principally  in  a  clay 
matrix,  at  a  depth  of  sometimes  only  five  or  six  feet  from  the  sur- 
face; on  the  west  side  of  the  river  it  runs  at  the  depth  of  one 
hundred  feet  or  more,  overlaid  with  magnesian  limestone.  To  the 
south-west  of  the  lead  deposit  is  a  very  abundant  bed  of  iron,  about 
forty  miles  long  by  twenty-five  broad.  The  copper  region  extends 
north  from  the  lead  deposits  to  Lake  Superior;  it  embraces  about 
three  hundred  square  miles.  To  the  south  of  the  lead  region  is  a 
vast  bed  of  bituminous  coal  of  good  quality,  at  no  great  distance 
below  the  surface. 

In  the  mineral  district  there  are  about  four  thousand  persons 
employed  in  digging  lead-ore.  The  value  of  the  lead  annually 
produced  is  estimated  at  §1,500,000.  A  considerable  quantity  was 
exported  to  China,  before  the  emigration  to  California  withdrew  the 
miners,  and  thus  diminished  the  product. 

Lead-mines  have  been  worked  in  the  United  States  during  more 
than  half  a  century,  the  quantity  produced  constantly  increasing. 
In  the  year  1839,  according  to  the  census  returns,  it  was  equal  to 
nearly  14,000  tons ;  and  in  the  year  ending  June  30th  1844,  the 
quantity  exported  amounted  to  nearly  8200  tons,  valued  at 
§595,238. 

The  most  extensive  lead-mines  known  in  the  world  are  probably 
those  found  in  the  western  section  of  the  United  States,  in  Wash- 
ington, Jefferson,  and  Madison  counties,  Missouri ;  and  at  Galena, 
in  the  north-west  part  of  Illinois ;  in  Iowa ;  in  Wisconsin,  and  in 
Michigan.  Lead-ores  also  occur  at  various  localities  in  the  states 
of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maine,  New  Hampshire,  Virginia,  &c.] 

Quicksilver — a  metal  so  important  in  separating  silver  from  its 
ores,  and  in  various  arts  and  manufactures  as  well  as  in  medicine — 
occurs  either  liquid  in  the  native  state,  or  combined  with  sulphur  in 
that  of  cinnabar.  It  is  found  in  the  mines  of  Idria  and  some  other 
places  in  the  Austrian  empire,  in  the  Palatinate  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  and  in  Spain.  The  richest  quicksilver  mines  of  Europe, 
at  the  present  day,  are  those  of  Almaden,  where  the  quicksilver  is 


CHAP.  XV.  DIFFUSION    OF    METALS.  187 

found  in  the  state  of  sulphuret  chiefly  disseminated  in  the  Silurian 
strata.  These  mines  were  worked  700  years  before  the  Christian 
era,  and  as  many  as  1200  tons  of  the  nietal  are  extracted  annually. 
It  occurs  in  China,  Japan,  and  Ceylon,  at  San  Onofrio  in  Mexico, 
and  in  Peru,  at  Huancavelica,  the  mines  of  which,  now  almost  aban- 
doned, produced,  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  present  century,  the 
enormous  quantity  of  54,000  tons  of  quicksilver.1 

[Several  very  rich  quicksilver  mines  have  been  discovered  in  Cal- 
ifornia. There  is  one  about  twenty  miles  from  San  Jose,  in  the 
Santa  Clara  Valley,  which  probably  has  no  rival  at  present  in  the 
world.  At  one  time  recently  there  were  2,400,000  pounds  of  ore 
lying  at  the  mouth  of  the  mine,  from  which  it  is  brought  in  hide 
sacks  on  the  shoulders  of  men.  It  is  estimated,  this  ore  will,  at  an 
average  yield  of  fifty  per  cent.,  produce  1,200,000  pounds  of  pure 
quicksilver.  There  are  three  or  four  other  mines  of  cinnabar — sul- 
phuret of  mercury — equally  rich,  in  the  same  valley.  They  have 
been  long  known  to  the  aborigines,  who  resorted  to  them  to  procure 
the  ore  as  a  pigment.] 

Copper  is  of  such  common  occurrence  that  it  would  be  vain  to 
enumerate  the  localities  where  it  is  found.  It  is  produced  in  Africa 
and  America,  in  Persia,  India,  China,  and  Japan.  The  Siberian 
mines  are  very  productive  both  in  ore  and  native  copper.  Malachite 
is  the  most  beautiful  of  the  ores,  and  the  choicest  specimens  come 
from  Siberia.  Almost  every  country  in  Europe  yields  copper.  The 
mines  in  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Germany  are  very  productive ;  and 
it  forms  a  principal  part  of  our  own  mineral  wealth.  It  is  raised 
in  all  the  principal  mining  districts  in  England  and  Wales.  It 
abounds  in  several  localities  in  the  United  States.  [The  copper- 
mines  of  Lake  Superior  are  unequalled  in  the  world.  Masses  of 
50  tons  weight  of  the  pure  metal  are  found  together.  There  is  a 
shaft  in  the  Cliff  mine  of  upwards  of  400  feet  in  depth,  and  a  vein 
followed  several  hundred  feet  at  that  depth,  and  throughout  the 
characteristics  of  the  ore  are  the  same.]  In  Cornwall  it  is  very 
plentiful,  and  is  often  associated  with  tin.  The  period  at  which  the 
Cornish  mines  were  first  worked  goes  far  beyond  history,  or  even 
tradition  :  certain,  however,  it  is  that  the  Phoenicians  came  to  Britain 
for  tin.  Probably  copper  was  also  worked  very  early  in  small  quan- 
tities, for  its  exportation  was  forbidden  in  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. 
It  was  only  in  the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century  that  the 
Cornish  copper-mines  were  worked  with  success,  in  consequence  of 
the  invention  of  an  improved  machine  for  draining  them.2 

[On  the  lands  south  of  Lake  Superior  is  a  body  of  copper  ore, 
supposed  to  be  the  richest  in  the  world.  It  is  almost  pure  in  some 

1  Very  rich  mines  of  quicksilver  are  said  to  have  been  recently  discovered 
in  California. 

3  Sir  Charles  Lemon.  Bart. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

specimens:  so  that,  as  taken  from  the  earth,  it  was  wrought  into 
church  utensils  by  some  of  the  French  who  first  visited  the  place ; 
and  a  portion  of  the  large  rock  deposited  on  the  grounds  of  the 
War  Department,  at  Washington,  has  been  polished  so  as  to  present 
the  appearance  of  sheet-copper. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  "American  Association  for  the  Advance- 
ment of  Science,"  held  at  Cambridge,  Massachusetts,  August  1849, 
Mr.  J.  S.  Hodge,  speaking  of  the  mineral  region  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, said:  —  "The  mines  are  wrought  wholly  for  native  copper. 
The  veinstone  with  scattered  particles,  furnish  what  is  called  stamp 
work;  which  is  crushed  under  heavy  stamps  and  then  washed;  the 
lumps  are  called  barrel  ore,  being  packed  in  barrels  for  transporta- 
tion ;  and  the  masses,  after  being  cut  up  into  pieces  not  exceeding 
two  tons  in  weight,  are  shipped  in  bulk.  The  size  of  some  of  these 
masses  is  so  enormous  as  almost  to  exceed  belief.  They  have  been 
broken  up  in  the  Cliff  mine  of  60  and  even  80  tons  in  weight. 
Such  pieces  are  reduced,  in  the  mine,  to  fragments  of  seven  tons 
weight  and  less,  and  after  being  hoisted  to  the  surface  are  still 
further  reduced. 

"At  the  Minnesota  mine,  near  the  Ontonagon  river,  I  had  an 
opportunity  of  examining,  in  Jane,  the  most  extraordinary  mass 
yet  met  with.  Two  shafts  had  been  sunk  on  the  line  of  the  vein 
150  feet  apart.  At  the  depth  of  about  30  feet  they  struck  massive 
copper,  which  lay  in  a  huge  sheet  with  the  same  underlay  as  that 
of  the  vein — about  55°  towards  the  north.  Leaving  this  sheet  as 
a  hanging  wall,  a  level  was  run  under  it  connecting  the  two  shafts. 
For  this  whole  distance  of  150  feet  the  mass  appears  to  be  contin- 
uous, and  how  much  further  it  goes  on  the  line  of  the  vein  either 
way  there  is  no  evidence,  nor  beside  to  what  depth  it  penetrates  in 
the  solid  vein.  I  examined  it  with  care,  striking  it  repeatedly  with 
my  hammer  in  order  to  detect,  if  possible,  by  the  sound,  any  break 
or  interruption  there  might  be  in  the  mass — for  a  thin  scale  of  stone 
encrusted  it  sometimes  and  concealed  the  face  of  the  metal.  Ex- 
aminations had  been  made  by  drilling  through  this  scale,  where  it 
attained  the  thickness  of  an  inch  or  so;  but  in  no  place  had  any 
sign  of  a  break  been  found.  It  forms  the  whole  hanging  wall  of 
the  level,  showing  a  width  of  at  least  eight  feet  above  the  floor  in 
which  its  lower  edge  was  lost.  It  has  been  cut  through  in  only  one 
place,  where  a  partial  break  afforded  a  convenient  opportunity. 
Measuring  the  thickness  here  as  well  as  the  irregular  shape  of  the 
gap  admitted,  it  was  found  somewhat  to  exceed  five  feet.  Assuming 
the  thickness  to  average  only  one  foot,  there  would  be  in  this  mass 
1200  cubic  feet,  or  about  250  tons — still  it  is  not  safe  to  assume 
even  one  foot,  for  the  masses  vary  extremely  in  thickness. 

"  The  mode  adopted  to  remove  these  masses  is  to  cut  channels 
through  them  with  cold  chisels,  after  they  are  shattered  by  large 


CHAP.  XV.  DIFFUSION    OF     METALS.  189 

sand  blasts  put  in  behind  them.  Grooves  are  cut  with  the  chisels 
across  their  smallest  places,  one  man  holding,  and  another  striking, 
as  in  drilling.  A  chip  of  copper  three-quarters  of  an  inch  wide, 
and  up  to  six  inches  in  length,  is  taken  out,  and  the  process  is  re- 
peated until  the  groove  passes  through  the  mass.  The  expense  of 
this  work  is  from  eight  to  twelve  dollars  per  superficial  foot  of  the 
face  exposed.  Fragments  of  veinstone  enclosed  in  the  copper  pre- 
vent the  use  of  saws.  A  powerful  machine,  occupying  little  room, 
is  much  needed,  which  would  perform  more  economically  this  work. 

"  The  greatest  thickness  of  any  mass  cut  through  at  the  Cliff 
mine  has  been  about  three  feet.  Their  occurrence  through  the  vein 
is  not  regular.  Barren  spots  alternate  with  productive  portions. 
The  same  is  the  case  in  all  the  mines.  The  total  product  of  the 
Cliff  mine  for  the  year  1848  is  estimated  at  830  tons,  averaging  60 
per  cent.  During  the  present  year  more  than  half  this  amount  has 
been  already  sent  down,  and  there  is  enough  more  on  the  surface 
and  in  sight  in  the  mine  to  warrant  the  belief  that  1000  tons  will 
be  the  product  of  the  year's  work,  or  600  tons  of  copper.  The 
whole  amount  of  copper  annually  imported  into  the  United  States 
is  about  the  value  of  two  million  dollars,  or  about  5400  tons.  But 
little  has  been  supplied  from  our  own  mines.  Nine  such  mines, 
then,  as  the  Cliff,  would  render  us  independent  of  foreign  supplies. 
From  present  appearances,  after  careful  examination  of  the  region, 
and  consideration  of  the  progress  made  in  mining  since  my  last  visit 
in  1846,  I  feel  myself  warranted  in  expressing  a  decided  conviction 
that  this  amount  of  copper  must  be  supplied  in  very  few  years,  and 
this  metal  soon  become,  as  lead  already  has,  one  of  export  instead 
of  import.  The  recent  failures  of  mining  speculations,  wildly  un- 
dertaken, and  ignorantly  and  extravagantly  conducted,  may  for  a 
time  check  the  development  of  these  mines ;  but  their  wonderfully 
rich  character  is  now  beginning  to  be  properly  appreciated,  as  well 
as  the  reliance  which  may  be  put  in  the  surface-appearance  of  the 
veins.  Some  curious  features  in  their  character  and  distribution 
have  been  detected,  which  have  heretofore  escaped  observation  for 
want  of  sufficient  data,  and  which  will,  I  believe,  be  found  of  great 
consequence  in  the  selection  of  the  best  localities.  These,  after 
farther  examination,  I  may  at  another  time  make  public.  The  his- 
tory of  these  mines,  so  far,  has  remarkably  proved  the  foresight  and 
excellent  judgment  of  the  lamented  Dr.  Houghton,  particularly  so 
in  his  predictions  of  the  disastrous  effects  that  must  result  from  such 
speculations  as  have  caused  the  country  to  be  overrun  by  hordes  of 
adventurers. 

"  The  silver  found  associated  with  the  copper  has  not  proved  of 
much  importance,  perhaps  for  the  reason  that  the  greater  part  of  it 
is  purloined  by  the  miners.  The  Cliff  mine  has  probably  yielded 
more  than  thirty  thousand  dollars  worth,  of  which  not  more  than  a 


190  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

tenth  part  has  been  secured  by  the  proprietors.  I  saw  myself,  the 
present  season,  no  less  than  six  pounds  and  eight  ounces  of  lumps 
and  bars  of  silver  seized  in  the  hands  of  an  absconding  work- 
man."] 

In  Cornwall  clay-slate  rests  upon  granite,  and  is  traversed  by 
porphyritic  dykes.  The  veins  which  contain  copper  or  tin,  or  both, 
run  east  and  west,  and  penetrate  both  the  granite  and  the  clay-slate. 
The  non-metalliferous  veins  run  north  and  south ;  and  if  veins  in 
that  direction  do  contain  .any  metal,  it  never  is  tin  or  copper,  but 
lead,  silver,  cobalt,  or  antimony,  which  with  little  exception  are  be- 
lieved to  be  always  in  the  clay-slate.  No  miner  in  Cornwall  has 
ever  seen  the  end  or  bottom  of  a  vein ;  their  width  varies  from  the 
thickness  of  a  sheet  of  paper  to  30  feet ;  the  average  is  from  one  to 
three  feet.  It  rarely  happens  that  either  tin  or  copper  is  found 
nearer  the  surface  than  80  or  100  feet.  If  tin  be  first  discovered, 
it  sometimes  disappears  after  sinking  the  mine  100  feet  deeper, 
when  copper  is  found,  and  in  some  instances  tin  is  found  1000  feet 
deep  without  a  trace  of  copper;  but  if  copper  is  first  discovered,  it 
is  very  rarely  succeeded  by  tin.  Tin  is  found  in  rolled  pieces,  in 
horizontal  beds  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  is  called  stream-tin.  The 
most  valuable  tin-mines  on  the  continent  of  Europe  are  those  in 
Saxony;  it  also  occurs  in  France,  Bohemia,  and  Spain.  One  of  the 
richest  deposits  of  tin  known  is  in  the  province  of  Tenasserim,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  gulf  of  Martaban,  in  the  Malayan  peninsula. 
These  deposits  occur  in  several  parts  of  that  country ;  the  richest  is 
a  layer  eight  or  ten  feet  thick  of  sand  and  gravel,  in  which  masses 
of  oxide  of  tin  are  sometimes  the  size  of  a  pigeon's  egg.  The  best 
of  all  comes  from  the  island  of  Banca,  at  the  extremity  of  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca ;  a  large  portion  of  it  is  imported  into  Britain, 
and  much  goes  to  China.  It  is  found  in  the  alluvial  tracts  through 
every  part  of  the  island,  rarely  more  than  25  feet  below  the  surface. 
Great  deposits  occur  "also  in  the  Siberian  mining  district  of  Nert- 
shinsk,  near  the  desert  of  the  Great  Gobi,  and  in  Bolivia,  near 
Oruro. 

There  are  comparatively  few  coal-mines  worked  within  the  tropics; 
they  are  mostly  in  the  temperate  zones,  especially  between  the  Arctic 
Circle  and  the  Tropic  of  Cancer;  and  as  iron,  the  most  useful  of 
metals,  is  chiefly  found  in  the  carboniferous  strata,  it  follows  the 
same  distribution.  In  fact,  the  most  productive  iron-mines  yet  known 
are  in  the  temperate  zones.  In  the  eastern  mining  district  of  Sibe- 
ria, in  the  valley  of  the  river  Vilui,  the  ores  are  very  rich,  and  very 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  the  Altai  and  Ural.  In  the  latter  the 
mountain  of  Blagod,  at  1534  feet  above  the  sea,  is  one  mass  of  mag- 
netic iron-ore.1  Coal  and  iron  are  worked  in  so  many  parts  of 

1  Mr.  Erman's  « Travels  in  Siberia.' 


CHAP.  XV.  IRON    AND     COAL.  191 

Northern  China,  Japan,  India,  and  Eastern  Asia,  that  it  would  be 
tedious  to  enumerate  them. 

In  Europe  the  richest  mines  of  iron,  like  those  of  coal,  lie  chiefly 
north  of  the  Alps.  Sweden,  Norway,  Russia,  Germany,  Styria, 
Belgium,  and  France,  all  contain  it  plentifully.  In  Britain  many 
of  the  coal-fields  contain  subordinate  beds  of  a  rich  argillaceous  iron- 
ore,  interstratified  with  coal,  worked  at  the  same  time  and  in  the 
same  manner;  besides,  there  is  a  sub-stratum  of  limestone,  which 
serves  as  a  flux  for  melting  the  metal.  The  principal  mines  lie 
round  Birmingham,  in  the  Staffordshire  coal-field,  and  the  great  coal- 
basin  of  South  Wales,  about  Pontypool  and  Merthyr  Tydvil.  There 
are  extensive  iron-mines  in  Staffordshire,  Shropshire,  North  and 
South  Wales,  Yorkshire,  Derbyshire,  and  Scotland.  Altogether 
there  are  about  220  mines,  which  yield  iron  sufficient  for  our  own 
enormous  consumption  and  for  exportation.  These  productive  mines 
would  have  been  of  no  avail  had  it  not  been  for  the  abundance  of 
fuel  with  which  the  greater  part  of  them  in  the  north  of  England, 
Scotland,  and  Wales  are  associated — the  great  source  of  our  national 
wealth,  more  precious  than  mines  of  gold.  Most  of  the  coal-mines 
would  have  been  inaccessible  but  for  the  means  which  their  produce 
affords  of  draining  them  at  a  small  expense.  A  bushel  of  coals, 
which  costs  only  a  few  pence,  in  the  furnace  of  a  steam-engine  gene- 
rates a  power  which  in  a  few  minutes  will  raise  20,000  gallons  of 
water  from  a  depth  of  360  feet — an  effect  which  could  not  be  accom- 
plished in  a  shorter  time  than  a  whole  day  by  the  continuous  labour 
of  twenty  men  working  with  the  common  pump.  Yet  this  circum- 
stance, so  far  from  lessening  the  demand  for  human  labour,  has 
caused  a  greater  number  of  men  to  be  employed  in  the  mines.1 

The  coal  strata  lie  in  basins,  dipping  from  the  sides  towards  the 
centre,  which  is  often  at  a  vast  depth  below  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
The  centre  of  the  Liege  coal-basin  is  21,358  feet,  or  3|  geographical 
miles  deep,  which  is  easily  estimated  from  the  dip,  or  inclination,  of 
the  strata  at  the  edges,  and  the  extent  of  the  basin.  The  coal  lies 
in  strata  of  small  thickness  and  great  extent.  It  varies  in  thick- 
ness from  3  to  9  feet,  though  in  some  instances  several  layers  come 
together,  and  then  it  is  20  and  even  30  feet  thick ;  but  these  layers 
are  interrupted  by  frequent  dislocations,  which  raise  the  coal-seam 
towards  the  surface.  These  fissures,  which  divide  the  coalfield  into 
insulated  masses,  are  filled  with  clay,  so  that  an  accumulation  of 
water  takes  place,  which  must  be  pumped  up. 

There  are  three  immense  coalfields  in  England.  The  first  lies 
north  of  the  Trent,  and  occupies  an  area  of  360  square  miles;  and 
although  the  quantity  of  coal  annually  raised  in  Northumberland 

1  In  1841  there  were  190,921  persons  employed  in  the  mines  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland. 


192  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV. 

and  Durham  amounts  to  upwards  of  three  millions  of  tons,  there  is 
enough  to  last  1000  years.  London  is  chiefly  supplied  from  it.  The 
second  or  central  coalfield,  which  includes,  Leicester,  Worcester, 
Stafford,  and  Shropshire,  has  an  area  of  1495  square  miles,  and 
supplies  the  manufactories  round  it,  and  the  midland  counties  south 
and  east  of  Derbyshire.  The  third  or  western  coalfield  includes 
South  Wales,  Gloucestershire,  and  Somersetshire.  The  coalfield  of 
South  Wales  alone  is  100  miles  long,  and  18  or  20  broad.  The 
Workington  and  Whitehaven  coal-mines  extend  a  mile  under  the 
sea;  several  shafts  in  the  latter  are  100  fathoms  deep  :  and  it  is  one 
of  the  finest  in  England  for  extent  and  thickness  of  strata,  some  of 
the  seams  being  nine  feet  thick. 

The  Scotch  coalfield  occupies  the  great  central  low  land  of  Scot- 
land, lying  between  the  southern  high  lands  and  the  Highland  moun- 
tains ;  the  whole  of  that  wide  tract  is  occupied  by  it,  besides  which 
there  are  others  of  less  extent.  Coal  has  been  found  in  seventeen 
counties  in  Ireland,  but  the  island  contains  only  four  principal  coal 
districts  —  Leinster,  Munster,  Connaught,  and  Ulster.  Thus  there 
is  coal  enough  in  the  British  islands  to  last  some  thousands  of  years ; 
and  were  it  exhausted,  our  friends  across  the  Atlantic  have  enough 
to  supply  the  world  for  ages  uncountable.  Moreover,  if  science  con- 
tinues to  advance  at  the  rate  it  has  lately  done,  a  substitute  for  coal 
will  probably  be  discovered  before  our  own  mines  are  worked  out.1 

1  In  the  year  1829,  the  value  of  the  mineral  produce  of  Europe,  including 
Asiatic  Russia,  amounted  to — 

Gold  and  Silver £1,943,000 

Other  metals 28,519,000 

Salts 7,640,000 

Combustibles 18,050,000 

Total £56,1487)00 

England  contributed  more  than  half  this  amount,  namely, — 

Silver £28,500 

Copper 1,369,000 

Iron 11,292,000 

Lead 760,000 

Tin 536,000 

Salts 756,250 

Vitriol 33,600 

Alum 33,000 

Coal 13,000,000 

Total £28,716,750 

— nearly  £29,000,000  sterling. — John  Taylor,  Esq.,  on  the  Cornish  Minev 

At  present  there  are  nearly  40,000,000  of  tons  of  coals  consumed  ii 
Great  Britain  annually,  besides  the  quantity  exported  to  our  colonies  anr 
to  foreign  countries,  amounting  to  nearly  1,410,000  of  tons.  10,000,001 
of  tons  are  consumed  in  the  working  of  iron  alone.  Between  500,000  an« 
600,000  tons  are  used  in  making  gas. 

The  iron  made  in  Britain  in  1848  amounted  to  2,093,736  tons.     Iron  U 


CHAP.  XV.      NORTH    AMERICAN    COALFIELD. 


193 


The  carboniferous  strata  are  enormously  developed  in  the  states 
of  North  America.  The  Appalachian  coalfield  extends  without  in- 

iiow  applied  to  many  uses  instead  of  timber,  especially  in  ship-building : 
between  the  years  1830  and  1847,  150  iron  vessels  were  launched  in  Britain. 
25  of  the  steam-ships  of  the  East  India  Company  are  of  iron. 

The  produce  of  our  copper-mines  has  increased  threefold  within  the  last 
60  years,  and  now  reaches  15,000  tons  of  pure  metal.  The  quantity  of  tiu 
has  also  increased  from  our  own  mines  to  4180  tons  in  1848,  and  also  from 
the  extensive  importation  of  that  metal  from  Banca,  where  the  country 
yielding  stream-tin  extends  from  7°  N.  lat.  to  3°  S.  lat.  The  produce  from 
the  latter  country  imported  into  Great  Britain  in  1849  amounted  to  1781 
tons  of  pure  metal — 'Progress  of  the  Nation,  in  its  Social  and  Commer- 
cial Relations,  since  the  Beginning  of  the  Nineteenth  Century,'  by  G.  R. 
Porter,  Esq.,  new  edition,  1851. 

In  France  there  are  62  coal-mines,  yielding  3,410,200  tons  in  1841,  and  in 
1838  the  12  iron  districts  in  that  country  yielded  to  the  value  of  4,975,424Z. 

The  British  coal  and  metal  imported  into  France  amounted  to  1,222,2282. 
— Progress  of  the  Nation. 

Belgium  is  next  in  importance  to  England  as  a  coal-producing  country. 
In  Britain  the  coalfields  occupy  one  20th  part  of  the  area  of  the  country — 
in  Belgium  one  22d  part — in  France  one  210th  part  of  its  area. 

The  quantity  of  coal  raised  in  one  year  is,  according  to  '  The  Statistics 
of  Germany,'  by  R.  Valpy,  Esq. — 


In  Britain 34,700,000 

Belgium 4,000,000 


In  France 3,783,000 

Germany 3,000,000 


[The  following  table  exhibits  the  quantity  and  value  of  coal  produced,  in 
the  six  principal  coal  countries  in  the  world,  in  the  year  1845:  — 


T 

Official  estimated  value  at 

Order 
in 

1845. 

COUNTRIES. 

Square 
miles  of  Coal 
formations. 

Fuel  raised 
in  the  year 
1846 

Relative 
parts  of 
1000. 

the  places  of  production. 

United  States 

English 

Dollars. 

Sterling. 

1 

Great  Britain. 

11,859 

31,500.000 

642 

$45,733.000 

£9,450,000 

2 

Belgium 

518 

4.900,077 

101 

7,689,900 

1,660,000 

3 

United  States 

133.132 

4,400,000 

89 

6,650,000 

1.373,963 

4 

France 

1,719 

4,141,617 

84 

7,663.000 

1,603,106 

5 

Prussian  States 

Not  defined. 

3,500,000 

70 

4,122.945 

856,370 

6 

Austrian  States 

Do. 

659,340 

14 

800,000 

165,290 

Total 

49,164,034       1000 

72.663,845 

15.108,729 

The  coal  trade  appears  to  be  increasing  in  all  parts  of  the  world. 

There  are  no  authentic  data  from  which  the  increasing  production  of 
bituminous  coal  in  the  United  States  can  be  exactly  deduced ;  but  we  have 
shown  that  it  is  very  rapid.  The  production  of  anthracite  may  be  said  to 
be  entirely  confined  to  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  which  possesses  a  nume- 
rous and  interesting  group  of  coal  basins,  of  various  sizes  and  characters. 

In  the  year  1820,  the  anthracite  coal  trade  commenced  with  365  tons, 
in  1827  it  reached  48,047  tons;  in  1837,  881,026  tons,  and  advanced  to 
3,000,000  tons  in  1847:  and  4,383,667  tons  in  the  year  1851. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  production  of  smelted  or  manufactured 
iron  in  different  countries  in  the  year  1845  : — 

1.  Great  Britain 2,200,000 

2.  United  States 502,000 

3.  France, 448,000 

17 


194 


PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAP.  XV. 


terruption  720  miles,  with  a  maximum  breadth  of  280  miles,  from 
the  northern  border  of  Pennsylvania  to  near  Huntsville,  in  Ala- 
bama, occupying  an  area  of  63,000  square  miles.  It  is  intersected 
by  three  great  navigable  rivers — the  Monongahela,  the  Alleghany, 
and  the  Ohio  —  which  expose  to  view  the  seams  of  coal  on  their 
banks.  The  Pittsburg  seam,  10  feet  thick,  exposed  on  the  banks 
of  the  Monongahela,  extends,  horizontally,  225  miles  in  length  and 
100  in  breadth,  and  covers  an  area  of  14,000  square  miles,  so  that 
this  seam  of  coal  may  be  worked  for  ages  almost  on  the  surface,  and 
in  many  places  literally  so.  Indeed,  the  facility  is  so  great,  that  it 
is  more  profitable  to  convey  the  coal  by  water  to  New  Orleans,  1100 
miles  distant,  than  to  cut  down  the  trees  with  which  the  country  is 
covered  for  fuel,  and  which  may  be  had  for  the  expense  of  felling. 
The  coal  is  bituminous,  similar  to  the  greater  part  of  the  British 
coal ;  forty  miles  to  the  east,  however,  among  the  ridges  of  the  Ap- 
palachian chain,  there  is  an  extensive  outlying  member  of  the  great 
coalfield,  which  yields  anthracite,  a  species  of  coal  which  has  the  ad- 
vantage of  burning  without  smoke. 

In  the  western  states,  the  Illinois  coalfield,  which  occupies  part 
of  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kentucky,  is  as  large  as  England,  and  con- 

4.  Russia 400,000 

5.  Zollverein,  or  Prussian  States 300,000 

6.  Austria 190,000 

7.  Belgium 150,000 

8.  Sweden 145,000 

9.  Spain  (in  1841) 26,000 

10.  All  other  European  countries 50,000 

4,411,000 

The  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  railroads  and  locomotive  engines, 
and  the  number  of  steam  vessels  employed  in  commerce,  augments  the 
demand,  proportionally,  for  iron  and  fuel.1] 

The  number  of  miles  of  railway  in  operation  upon  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  up  to  January  1853,  is  29,606;  of  which  15,436  miles  are  situated 
in  the  Eastern  Hemisphere,  and  14,170  in  the  Western.  In  the  United 
States  there  are  13,586  miles;  in  the  course  of  construction  and  in  opera- 
tion, there  are  372  railroads  in  the  Union,  which  have  cost  $400,713,907. 
The  longest  railway  in  the  world  is  the  New  York  and  Erie,  which  is  467 
miles  in  length.3 

RAILWAYS  OF  THE  WORLD,  JANUARY  1853. 


Jn  theUnited  States 13,586 

British  Provinces :  173 

Island  of  Cuba 359 

Panama 22 

South  America 30 

Great  Britain 6,976 

Germany 5,340 


In  France 1,831 

Belgium 532 

Russia 422 

Sweden 75 

Italy 170 

Spain 60 

India....  30 


1  "  Statistics  of  Coal."    By  Richard  Cowling  Taylor,  Philadelphia,  1848. 
1  Hunt's  Merchants'  Magazine. 


PHAP.  XV.  ARSENIC,    ROCK-SALT,    ETC.  195 

jsists  of  horizontal  strata,  with  numerous  seams  of  rich  bituminous 
coal.  There  is  a  vast  coalfield  also  in  Michigan.  Large  areas  in 
New  Brunswick  and  Nova  Scotia  abound  in  coal.  Iron  is  worked  in 
many  parts  of  the  United  States,  from  Connecticut  to  South  Caro- 
lina.1 

The  tropical  regions  of  the  globe  have  been  so  little  explored  that 
no  idea  can  be  formed  of  the  quantity  of  coal  or  iron  they  contain  j 
but  as  iron  is  so  universal,  it  is  probable  that  coal  is  not  wanting. 
It  is  found  in  Formosa.  Both  abound  in  Borneo,  and  in  various 
parts  of  tropical  Africa  and  America.  There  is  comparatively  so 
little  land  in  the  southern  temperate  zone,  that  the  mineral  produce 
must  be  more  limited  than  in  the  northern,  yet  New  Holland,  Van 
Diemen's  Land,  and  New  Zealand  are  rich  in  coal  and  iron. 

Arsenic,  used  in  the  arts  and  manufactures,  is  generally  found 
combined  with  other  metals  in  many  countries  as  well  as  our  own. 
Manganese,  zinc,  bismuth,  and  antimony  are  raised  to  a  considerable  • 
amount.  As  the  qualities  of  the  greater  part  of  the  more  rare 
metals  are  little  known,  they  have  hitherto  been  interesting  chiefly 
to  the  mineralogist. 

The  mines  of  rock-salt  in  Cheshire  seem  to  be  inexhaustible. 
Enormous  deposits  of  salt  extend  600  miles  on  each  side  of  the  Car- 
pathian Mountains,  and  throughout  wide  districts  in  Austria,  Gal- 
licia,  and  Spain.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  enumerate  the  places  in 
Asia  where  rock-salt  has  been  found.  Armenia,  Syria,  and  extensive 
tracts  in  the  Punjab  abound  in  it,  also  China  and  the  Ural  district ; 
and  the  Andes  contain  vast  deposits  of  rock-salt,  some  at  great 
heights. 

Volcanic  countries  in  both  continents  yield  sulphur.  Sicily, 
where  it  is  found  in  the  tertiary  marine  strata,  unconnected  with  the 
volcanic  district,  is  the  magazine  which  supplies  the  greater  part  of  the 
manufactures  of  Europe.  It  is  often  found  beautifully  crystallized. 
Asphalt,  nitre,  alum,  and  naphtha  are  found  in  various  parts  of 
Europe  and  Asia,  and  natron  is  procured  from  small  lakes  in  an 
oasis  on  the  west  of  the  Valley  of  the  Nile. 

The  diffusion  of  precious  stones  is  very  limited.  Diamonds  are 
mostly  found  in  a  soil  of  sand  and  gravel,  and  in  the  beds  of  rivers. 
Brazil  furnishes  most  of  the  diamonds  in  commerce ;  they  are  the 
produce  of  tracts  on  each  side  of  the  Sierra  Espenhago,  and  of  a 
district  watered  by  some  of  the  affluents  of  the  Bio  San  Francisco. 
During  the  century  ending  in  1822,  diamonds  were  collected  in 
Brazil  to  the  value  of  three  millions  sterling,  one  of  which  weighed 
138|  carats.  The  celebrated  mines  of  Golconda  have  produced 
many  splendid  diamonds ;  they  are  also  found  in  Borneo,  which  pro- 
duced one  weighing  367  carats,  valued  at  £269,378.  The  eastern 

1  Sir  Charles  Lyell's  '  Travels  in  the  United  States  of  North  America." 


196  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XV 

parts  of  the  Thian-Tchan,  on  the  great  platform  of  Asia,  and  a  wide 
district  of  the  Ural  Mountains,  yield  diamonds. 

The  ruby  and  sapphire,  which  have  the  same  crystalline  form,  are 
found  in  Ceylon,  in  the  gravel  of  streams.  The  rubies  at  Gharan, 
near  to  the  river  Oxus,  are  found  in  beds  of  limestone.  The  gravel 
of  rivulets  in  the  Birman  empire  contains  the  oriental,  star,  and 
opalescent  rubies.  The  spinelle  also  occurs  in  that  country  in  a  dis- 
trict five  days'  journey  from  Ava.  The  Hungarian  rubies  are  of 
inferior  value.  The  blue,  green,  yellow,  and  white  sapphires,  are 
the  produce  of  the  Birman  empire,  and  the  spinelle  is  not  uncom- 
mon in  Brazil. 

The  finest  emeralds  come  from  veins  in  a  blue  slate,  of  the  age 
of  our  lower  chalk  strata,  in  the  valley  of  Muso,  in  New  Grenada.1 
Beryls  are  found  in  Brazil,  and  in  the  old  mines  in  Mount  Zebarah, 
in  Upper  Egypt.  Those  of  Hungary  and  of  the  Heubach  Valley, 
near  Saltzburg,  are  very  inferior  in  colour  and  quality. 

Mexico,  Hungary,  and  Bohemia  yield  the  finest  opals ;  the  most 
esteemed  are  opaque,  of  a  pale  brown,  and  shine  with  the  most 
brilliant  iridescence;  some  are  white,  transparent,  or  semi-transpa- 
rent, and  radiant  in  colours.  The  most  beautiful  garnets  come  from 
Bohemia  and  Hungary;  they  are  found  in  the  Hartz  Mountains, 
Ceylon,  and  many  other  localities.  The  turquoise  is  a  Persian  gem, 
of  which  there  are  two  varieties ;  one  is  supposed  to  be  the  enamel 
of  the  tooth  of  a  fossilized  mastodon,  the  other  a  mineral ;  it  is  also 
found  in  Tibet  and  in  the  Belor-Tagh  in  Badakshan,  which  is  the 
country  of  the  lapis  lazuli,  mined  by  heating  the  rock,  and  then 
throwing  cold  water  upon  it.  This  beautiful  mineral  is  also  found 
in  several  places  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  in  the  hills  of  Istalif  north 
of  Cabool,  in  Tibet,  and  in  the  Baikal  Mountains  in  Siberia. 

The  cat's-cye  is  peculiar  to  Ceylon  ;  the  king  of  Kandy  had  one 
two  inches  broad.  Topaz,  beryl,  and  amethyst  are  of  very  common 
occurrence,  especially  in  Brazil,  Siberia,  and  other  places.  They 
are  little  valued,  and  scarcely  accounted  gems.  Agates  are  so  beau- 
tiful on  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  desert  of 
the  Great  Gobi,  that  they  form  a  considerable  article  of  commerce 
in  China;  and  some  are  brought  to  Rome,  where  they  are  cut  into 
cameos  and  intaglios.  But  the  greater  part  of  the  agates,-cornelians, 
and  chalcedonies  used  in  Europe  are  found  in  the  trap-rocks  of  Ober- 
stein,  in  the  Palatinate. 

Thus,  by  her  unseen  ministers,  electricity  and  reciprocal  action, 
the  great  artificer,  Nature,  has  adorned  the  depths  of  the  earth  and 
the  heart. of  the  mountains  with  her  most  admirable  works,  filling 

1  This  curious  geological  fact  has  been  recently  established  by  the  dis- 
coveries of  Professor  Lewy,  who  has  sent  to  Paris  specimens  in  which 
crystals  of  emerald  and  green-sand  fossils  are  imbedded. — Dec.  1850. 


CHAP.  XVI.  T II  E     OCEAN.  197 

the  veins  with  metals,  and  building  the  atoms  of  matter,  with  the 
most  elegant  and  delicate  symmetry,  into  innumerable  crystalline  forms 
of  inimitable  grace  and  beauty.  The  calm  and  still  exterior  of 
the  earth  gives  no  indication  of  the  activity  that  prevails  in  its  bo- 
som, where  treasures  are  preparing  to  enrich  future  generations  of 
man.  Gold  will  still  be  sought  for  in  the  deep  mine,  and  the  dia- 
mond will  be  gathered  among  the  ddbris  of  the  mountains,  while 
time  endures. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

The  Ocean — its  Size,  Colour,  Pressure,  and  Saltness — Tides — Waves — their 
Height  and  Force — Currents — their  Effect  on  Voyages — Temperature — 
the  Stratum  of  Constant  Temperature — Line  of  Maximum  Temperature 
—  North  and  South  Polar  Ice  —  Inland  Seas. 

THE  ocean,  which  fills  a  deep  cavity  in  the  globe,  and  covers 
three-fourths  of  its  surface,  is  so  unequally  distributed  that  there  is 
three  times  more  land  in  the  northern  than  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere. The  torrid  zone  is  chiefly  occupied  by  sea,  and  only  one 
twenty-seventh  part  of  the  land  on  one  side  of  the  earth  has  land 
opposite  to  it  on  the  other.  The  form  assumed  by  this  immense 
mass  of  water  is  that  of  a  spheroid,  flattened  at  the  poles;  and  as 
its  mean  level  is  nearly  the  same,  for  anything  we  know  to  the  con- 
trary, it  serves  as  a  base  to  which  all  heights  of  land  are  referred. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean,  like  that  of  the  land,  of  which  it  is  the 
continuation,  is  diversified  by  plains  and  mountains,  table-lands  and 
valleys,  sometimes  barren,  sometimes  covered  with  marine  vegeta- 
tion, and  teeming  with  life.  Now  it  sinks  into  depths  which  the 
sounding-line  has  never  fathomed,  now  it  appears  in  chains  of  islands, 
or  rises  near  to  the  surface  in  hidden  reefs  and  shoals,  perilous  to 
the  mariner.  Springs  of  fresh  water  rise  from  the  bottom,  volca- 
noes eject  their  lavas  and  scoriae,  and  earthquakes  trouble  the  deep 
waters. 

The  ocean  is  continually  receiving  the  spoils  of  the  land,  and 
from  that  cause  would  constantly  be  decreasing  in  depth,  and,  as  the 
quantity  of  water  is  always  the  same,  its  superficial  extent  would 
increase.  There  arc,  however,  counteracting  causes  to  check  this 
tendency :  the  secular  elevation  of  the  land  over  extensive  tracts  in 
many  parts  of  the  world  is  one  of  the  most  important.  Volcanoes, 
coral  islands,  and  barrier-reefs  show  that  great  changes  of  level  are 
constantly  taking  place  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean  itself —  that  sym- 
metrical bands  of  subsidence  and  elevation  extend  alternately  over  an 
17* 


198  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

area  equal  to  a  hemisphere,  from  which  it  may  be  concluded  that 
the  balance  is  always  maintained  between  the  sea  and  land,  although 
the  distribution  may  vary  in  the  lapse  of  time. 

The  Pacific,  or  Great  Ocean,  exceeds  in  superficies  all  the  dry 
land  on  the  globe.  It  has  an  area  of  50  millions  of  square  miles ; 
including  the  Indian  Ocean,  its  area  is  nearly  70  millions ;  and  its 
breadth  from  Peru  to  the  coast  of  Africa  is  16,000  miles.  Its 
length  is  less  than  the  Atlantic,  as  it  only  communicates  with  the 
Arctic  Ocean  by  Behring's  Straits,  whereas  the  Atlantic,  as  far  as 
we  know,  stretches  from  pole  to  pole. 

[The  study  of  ocean  currents,  and  of  the  habits  and  habitats  of 
certain  aquatic  mammals — whales — has  led  Lieutenant  M.  F.  Maury, 
U.  S.  Navy,  to  infer  "  that  there  is  at  times  at  least,  an  open-water 
communication  through  the  polar  regions  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans."  In  his  opinion,  the  "right  whale"  of  Behring's 
Straits  and  the  right  whale  of  Baffin's  Bay  are  probably  of  one  and 
the  same  species ;  and  "  this  animal  not  being  able  to  endure  the 
warm  waters  of  the  equator,  could  not  pass  from  one  ocean  to  the 
other  unless  by  way  of  the  Arctic  regions."] 

The  continent  of  Australia  occupies  a  comparatively  small  portion 
of  the  Pacific,  while  innumerable  islands  stud  its  surface  many  de- 
grees on  either  side  of  the  equator,  of  which  a  great  number  are 
volcanic,  showing  that  its  bed  has  been,  and  indeed  actually  is,  the 
theatre  of  violent  igneous  eruptions.  So  great  is  its  depth,  that  a 
line  five  miles  long  has  not  reached  the  bottom  in  many  places ;  yet 
as  the  whole  mass  of  the  ocean  counts  for  little  in  the  total  amount 
of  terrestrial  gravitation,  its  mean  depth  is  but  a  small  fraction  of 
the  radius  of  the  globe. 

The  bed  of  the  Atlantic  is  a  long  deep  valley,  with  few  moun- 
tains, or  at  least  but  few  that  raise  their  summits  as  islands  above 
its  surface.  Its  greatest  breadth,  including  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  is 
5000  miles,  and  its  superficial  extent  is  about  25  millions  of  square 
miles.  This  sea  is  exceedingly  deep :  in  27°  26'  S.  latitude  and 
17°  29'  W.  longitude  Sir  James  Ross  found  the  depth  to  be  14,550 
feet ;  about  450  miles  west  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  it  was 
16,062  feet,  or  332  feet  more  the  height  of  Mont  Blanc;  and  900 
miles  west  from  St.  Helena,  a  line  of  27,600  feet  did  not  reach  the 
bottom,  a  depth  which  is  equal  to  the  height  of  some  of  the  most 
elevated  peaks  of  the  Himalaya;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that 
many  parts  of  the  ocean  are  still  deeper.1  A  great  part  of  the  Ger- 

1  The  American  papers  recently  (Nov.  8,  1850),  have  given  an  official 
report  of  a  naval  officer  sent  to  discover  the  existence  of  the  False  Ber- 
mudas, in  which  it  is  stated  that  bottom  was  found,  north  of  the  real  Ber- 
mudas, at  the  enormous  depth  of  six  statute  miles,  or  31, 500  feet. 

[See  statement  of  deep  sea-soundings,  obtained  by  Lieutenant  J.  G. 
Walsh  and  Commander  Barren,  page  137.] 


CHAP.  xvi.        THE   OCEAN:    ITS  DEPTH.  199 

man  Ocean  is  only  93  feet  deep,  though  on  the  Norwegian  side, 
where  the  coast  is  bold,  the  depth  is  190  fathoms. 

Immense  sandbanks  often  project  from  the  land,  which  rise  from 
great  depths  to  within  a  few  fathoms  of  the  surface.  Of  these,  the 
Agulhas  Banks,  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  are  amongst  the  most 
remarkable ;  those  of  Newfoundland  are  still  greater  in  extent :  they 
consist  of  a  double  sandbank,  which  is  supposed  to  reach  the  north 
of  Scotland.  The  Dogger  Bank,  in  the  North  Sea,  and  many  others, 
are  well  known.  According  to  Mr.  Stevenson,  one-fifth  of  the  Ger- 
man Ocean  is  occupied  by  sandbanks,  whose  average  height  is  78 
feet,  an  area  equal  to  about  one-third  of  Great  Britain.  Currents 
are  sometimes  deflected  from  their  course  by  sandbanks  whose  tops 
do  not  come  within  50  or  even  100  feet  of  the  surface.  Some  on 
the  coast  of  Norway  are  surrounded  by  such  deep  water  that  they 
must  be  submarine  table-lands.  All  are  the  resort  of  fish. 

The  pressure  at  great  depths  is  enormous.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
where  the  specific  gravity  of  the  water  is  lessened,  on  account  of 
the  greater  proportion  of  fresh  water  produced  by  the  melting  of 
the  ice,  the  pressure  at  the  depth  of  a  mile  and  a  quarter  is  2809 
pounds  on  a  square  inch  of  surface ;  this  was  confirmed  by  Captain 
Scoresby,  who  says,  in  his  'Arctic  Voyages/  that  the  wood  of  a  boat 
suddenly  dragged  to  a  great  depth  by  a  whale  was  found,  when 
drawn  up,  so  saturated  with  water  forced  into  its  pores,  that  it  sank 
in  water  like  a  stone  for  a  year  afterwards.  Even  sea-water  is  re- 
duced in  bulk  from  20  to  19  solid  inches  at  the  depth  of  20  miles. 
The  compression  that  a  whale  can  endure  is  wonderful.  Many 
species  of  fish  are  capable  of  sustaining  great  pressure,  as  well  as 
sudden  changes  of  pressure.  Divers  in  the  pearl-fisheries  exert 
great  muscular  strength,  but  man  cannot  bear  the  increased  pressure 
at  great  depths,  because  his  lungs  are  full  of  air,  nor  can  he  endure 
the  diminution  of  it  at  great  altitudes  above  the  earth. 

The  depth  to  which  the  sun's  light  penetrates  the  ocean  depends 
upon  the  transparency  of  the  water,  and  cannot  be  less  than  twice 
the  depth  to  which  a  person  can  see  from  the  surface.  In  parts  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  shells  are  distinctly  seen  at  the  depth  of  80 
fathoms;  and  among  the  West  India  islands,  in  80  fathoms  water, 
the  bed  of  the  sea  is  as  clear  as  if  seen  in  air;  shells,  corals,  and 
sea-weeds  of  every  hue  display  the  tints  of  the  rainbow. 

The  purest  spring  is  not  more  limpid  than  the  water  of  the  ocean ; 
it  absorbs  all  the  prismatic  colours,  except  that  of  ultramarine, 
which  being  reflected  in  every  direction,  imparts  a  hue  approaching 
the  azure  of  the  sky.  The  colour  of  the  sea  varies  with  every 
gleam  of  sunshine  or  passing  cloud,  although  its  true  tint  is  always 
the  same  when  seen  sheltered  from  atmospheric  influence.  The 
reflection  of  a  boat  on  the  shady  side  is  often  of  the  clearest  blue, 
while  the  surface  of  the  water  exposed  to  the  sun  is  bright  as  bur- 


200  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

nished  gold.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  also  derive  their  colour  from 
animalcules  of  the  infusorial  kind,  vegetable  substances,  and  minute 
particles  of  matter.  It  is  white  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  black  round 
the  Maldives ;  off  California  the  Vermilion  Sea  is  so  called  on  ac- 
count of  the  red  colour  of  the  infusoria  it  contains ;  the  same  red 
colour  was  observed  by  Magellan  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  la 
Plata.  The  Persian  Gulf  is  called  the  Green  Sea  by  eastern  geo- 
graphers, and  there  is  a  strip  of  green  water  off  the  Arabian  coast 
BO  distinct  that  a  ship  has  been  seen  in  green  and  blue  water  at  the 
same  time.  Rapid  transitions  take  place  in  the  Arctic  Sea,  from 
ultramarine  to  olive-green,  from  purity  to  opacity.  These  appear- 
ances are  not  delusive,  but  constant  as  to  place  and  colour;  the 
green  is  produced  by  myriads  of  minute  insects,  which  devour  one 
another  and  are  a  prey  of  larger  animals.  The  colour  of  clear 
shallow  water  depends  upon  that  of  its  bed  j  over  chalk  or  white 
sand  it  is  apple-green,  over  yellow  sand  dark-green,  brown  or  black 
over  dark  ground,  and  grey  over  mud. 

The  sea  is  supposed  to  have  acquired  its  saline  principle  when  the 
globe  was  in  the  act  of  subsiding  from  a  gaseous  state.  The 
density  of  sea-water  depends  upon  the  quantity  of  saline  matter  it 
contains :  the  proportion  is  generally  a  little  above  3  per  cent., 
though  it  varies  in  different  places ;  the  ocean  contains  more  salt  in 
the  southern  than  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the  Atlantic  more 
than  the  Pacific.  The  greatest  proportion  of  salt  in  the  Pacific  is 
in  the  parallels  of  22°  N.  lat.  and  17°  S.  lat.;  near  the  equator  it 
is  less,  and  in  the  Polar  Seas  it  is  least,  from  the  melting  of  the  ice. 
The  saltness  varies  with  the  seasons  in  these  regions,  and  the  fresh 
water,  being  lightest,  is  upppermost.  Haiti  makes  the  surface  of 
the  sea  fresher  than  the  interior  parts,  and  the  influx  of  rivers 
renders  the  ocean  less  salt  at  their  estuaries ;  the  Atlantic  is  brackish 
300  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Amazon.  Deep  seas  are  more 
saline  than  those  that  are  shallow,  and  inland  seas  communicating 
with  the  ocean  are  less  salt,  from  the  rivers  that  flow  into  them ;  to 
this,  however,  the  Mediterranean  is  an  exception,  occasioned  by  the 
great  evaporation,  and  the  influx  of  salt  currents  from  the  Atlantic. 
The  water  in  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar  at  the  depth  of  670  fathoms 
is  four  times  as  salt  as  that  at  the  surface.1 

Fresh  water  freezes  at  the  temperature  of  32°  of  Fahrenheit; 
the  point  of  congelation  of  salt  water  is  much  lower  [28°  F.].  Aa 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  water  of  the  Greenland  Sea  is  about 
1-02664,  it  does  not  freeze  till  its  temperature  is  reduced  to  28 \Q  of 
Fahrenheit,  so  that  the  saline  principle  preserves  the  sea  in  a  liquid 

1  This  anomalous  result,  given  on  the  authority  of  Dr.  Wollaston,  has  not 
been  confirmed  by  the  recent  analysis  of  water  taken  near  the  Straits  by 
M.  Coupvent  de  Bois,  and  examined  by  the  eminent  chemist,  M.  Barral. 


CHAP.  xvi.         THE  OCEAN:   ITS  TIDES.  201 

state  to  a  much  higher  latitude  than  if  it  had  been  fresh,  while  it 
is  better  suited  for  navigation  by  its  greater  buoyancy.  The  health- 
fulness  of  the  sea  is  ascribed  to  the  mixing  of  the  water  by  tides 
and  currents  which  prevents  the  accumulation  of  putrescent  matter. 

Besides  its  saline  ingredients,  the  sea  contains  bromine  and  iodine 
in  very  minute  quantities,  and,  no  doubt,  portions  of  other  sub- 
stances too  small  to  be  detected  by  chemical  analysis,1  since  it  has 
constantly  received  the  debris  of  the  land  and  all  its  organised 
matter. 

Raised  by  the  moon  and  modified  by  the  sun,  the  area  of  the  ocean 
is  elevated  into  great  tidal  waves  which  keep  time  with  the  attrac- 
tions of  these  luminaries  at  each  return  to  the  upper  and  lower  meri- 
dian. The  water  under  the  moon  is  drawn  from  the  earth  by  her 
attraction,  at  the  same  time  that  she  draws  the  earth  from  the  water 
diametrically  opposite  to  her,  in  both  cases  producing  a  tide  of  nearly 
equal  height.  The  height  to  which  the  tides  rise  depends  upon  the 
relative  positions  of  the  sun  and  moon,  upon  their  declination  and 
distance  from  the  earth,  but  much  more  upon  local  circumstances. 
The  spring  tides  happen  at  new  and  full  moon,  consequently,  twice 
in  each  lunar  month,  because  in  both  cases  the  sun  and  moon  are  in 
the  same  meridian ;  for  when  the  moon  is  new  they  are  in  conjunc- 
tion, and  when  she  is  full  they  are  in  opposition,  and  in  each  of 
these  positions  their  attraction  is  combined  to  raise  the  water  to  its 
greatest  height;  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  neap  or  lowest  tides 
happen  when  the  moon  is  in  quadrature,  or  90°  distant  from  the 
sun,  for  then  they  counteract  each  other's  attraction  to  a  certain 
degree. 

The  tides  ordinarily  happen  twice  in  24  hours,  because  the  rota- 
tion of  the  globe  brings  the  same  point  of  the  ocean  twice  under  the 
meridian  of  the  moon ;  but  peculiar  local  circumstances  sometimes 
affect  the  tides,  so  as  to  produce  only  one  tide  in  24  hours,  while  on 
the  other  hand  there  have  been  known  three  and  even  four  tides  in 
the  same  space  of  time. 

As  the  earth  revolvqs,  a  succession  of  tides  follow  one  another, 
and  are  diffused  over  the  Pacific,  Indian,  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  giv- 
ing birth  to  the  tides  which  wash  the  shores  of  the  vast  continents 
and  islands  which  rise  above  their  surfaces ;  but  in  what  manner 
these  marginal  tides  branch  off  from  the  parent  wave,  science  has 
not  yet  determined :  we  know  only  their  course  along  'each  shore, 
but  are  unable  to  connect  these  curves  with  the  great  ridge  of  the 
tidal  wave. 

In  the  Atlantic  the  marginal  wave  travels  towards  the  north,  and 
impinges  upon  the  coasts  of  North  America  and  of  Europe.  In 

1  It  has  been  recently  stated  by  a  very  learned  chemist,  M.  Malaguti, 
that  sea-water  contained  silver  in  very  minute  portions.  — '  Comptea 
llendus,'  1849-50. 


202  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVT. 

the  Indian  Ocean  it  also  pursues  a  northerly  course,  and  finally 
washes  the  shores  of  Hindostan,  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  the  Ara- 
bian Gulf ;  while  in  the  Pacific,  on  the  contrary,  the  waves  diverge 
from  the  equator  towards  the  poles  —  but  in  all  they  partake  also  of 
the  westerly  course  of  the  inoon. 

Although  such  are  the  directions  in  which  the  tides  unquestion- 
ably proceed  along  tlie  shores  of  those  seas,  yet  observations  at 
islands  in  the  open  sea  and  towards  the  centres  of  J;he  oceans  con- 
tradict the  idea  of  corresponding  progressive  waves  throughout  the 
entire  area  of  those  seas. 

Upon  the  coasts  of  Britain  and  New  Brunswick  the  tides  are 
high,  from  the  local  circumstances  of  the  coast  and  bottom  of  the 
sea;  while  in  the  centre  of  the  ocean,  where  they  are  due  to  the 
action  of  the  sun  and  moon  only,  they  are  remarkably  small.  The 
spring-tides  rise  more  than  40  feet  at  Bristol,  and  in  the  Bay  of 
Fundy;  in  Nova  Scotia,  they  rise  upwards  of  50  feet;  the  general 
height  in  the  North  Atlantic  is  10  or  12  feet,  but  in  the  open  and 
deep  sea  they  are  less ;  and  at  St.  Helena  they  are  not  more  than 
3  feet,  whilst  among  the  islands  in  the  Pacific  they  are  scarcely  per- 
ceptible. 

The  mean  height  of  the  tides  will  be  increased  by  a  very  small 
quantity  for  ages  to  come,  in  consequence  of  the  decrease  in  the 
mean  distance  of  the  moon  from  the  earth ;  the  contrary  effect  will 
take  place  after  that  period  has  elapsed,  and  the  moon's  mean  dis- 
tance begins  to  increase  again,  which  it  will  continue  to  do  for  many 
ages.  Thus,  the  mean  distance  of  the  moon,  and  the  consequent 
minute  increase  in  the  height  of  the  tides,  will  oscillate  between  fixed 
limits  for  ever.1 

The  tidal  wave  extends  to  the  bottom  of  the  ocean,  and  moves 
uniformly  and  with  great  speed  in  very  deep  water,  variably  and 
slow  in  shallow  water;  the  time  of  propagation  depends  on  the  depth 
of  the  water  as  well  as  on  the  nature  and  form  of  the  shores.  Its 
velocity  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  depth  —  a  law  which 
theoretically  affords  the  means  of  ascertaining  the  proportionate 
depth  of  the  sea  in  different  parts ;  it  is  one  of  the  great  constants 
of  nature,  and  is  to  fluids  what  the  pendulum  is  to  solids — a  connect- 
ing link  between  time  and  force. 

The  great  oceanic  wave  that  twice  a-day  brings  the  tides  to  our 
shores,  has  occupied  a  day  and  a  half  in  travelling  from  the  place 
where  it  was  generated.  The  wave  first  impinges  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland  and  England,  and  then  passes  round  the-  north  of  Scot- 
land, up  the  North  Sea,  and  enters  the  Thames,  having  made  the 
tour  of  Great  Britain  in  about  18  hours.1 

1  For  the  reason  of  this  secular  variation  in  the  moon's  distance,  see  page 
42  of  '  The  Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences.' 

1  For  illustration  of  the  course  of  tidal  waves,  see  plates,  in  Johnston's 
Physical  Atlas,'  in  folio. 


CHAP.  XVI.  TIDES.  203 

At  the  equator  the  tide-wave  follows  the  moon  at  the  rate  of  1000 
miles  an  hour  [through  space,  as  the  earth  revolves] ;  it  moves  very 
slowly  in  the  northern  seas  on  account  of  the  shallowness  of  the 
water;  but  the  tides  are  so  retarded  by  the  form  of  the  coasts  and 
irregularities  of  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  that  a  tide  is  sometimes  im- 
peded by  an  obstacle  till  a  second  tide  reaches  the  same  point  by  a 
different  course,  and  the  water  rises  to  double  the  height  it  would 
otherwise  have  attained.  A  complete  extinction  of  the  tide  takes 
place  when  a  high  water  interferes  in  the  same  manner  with  a  low 
water,  as  in  the  centre  of  the  German  Ocean  —  a  circumstance  pre- 
dicted by  theory,  and  confirmed  by  Captain  Hewett,  who  was  not 
aware  that  such  interference  existed.  When  two  unequal  tides  of 
contrary  phases  meet,  the  greater  overpowers  the  lesser,  and  the 
resulting  height  is  equal  to  their  difference ;  such  varieties  occur 
chiefly  in  channels  among  islands  and  at  the  estuaries  of  rivers. 
"W  hen  the  tide  flows  suddenly  up  a  river  encumbered  with  shoals, 
it  checks  the  descent  of  the  stream :  the  water  spreads  over  the 
sands,  and  a  high  crested  wave,  called  a  bore,  is  driven  with  force 
up  the  channel.  This  occurs  in  the  Ganges ;  in  the  Amazon,  at  the 
equinoxes,  where,  during  three  successive  days,  five  of  these  destruc- 
tive waves,  from  12  to  15  feet  high,  follow  one  another  up  that  river 
daily;  and  in  a  lesser  degree  in  some  of  our  own  rivers. 

There  may  be  some  small  flow  of  stream  with  the  oceanic  tide ; 
but  that  does  not  necessarily  follow,  since  the  tide  in  the  open  ocean 
is  merely  an  alternate  rise  and  fall  of  the  surface ;  so  that  the  wave, 
not  the  stream,  follows  the  moon.  A  bird  resting  on  the  sea  is  not 
carried  forward  as  the  waves  rise  and  fall;  indeed,  if  so  heavy  a 
body  as  water  were  to  move  at  the  rate  of  1000  miles  in  an  hour,  it  - 
would  cause  universal  destruction,  since  in  the  most  violent  hurri- 
canes the  velocity  of  the  wind  hardly  exceeds  100  miles  an  hour. 

During  the  passage  of  the  great  tidal  wave  in  deep  water,  the 
particles  of  the  fluid  glide  for  the  moment  over  each  other  into  a 
new  arrangement,  and  then  retire  to  their  places;  but  this  motion 
is  extremely  limited  and  momentary.  Over  shallows,  however,  a,nd 
near  the  land,  both  the  water  and  the  waves  advance  during  the 
flow  of  the  tide,  and  roll  on  the  beach.1 

The  friction  of  the  wind  combines  with  the  tides  in  agitating  the 
surface  of  the  ocean,  and,  according  to  the  theory  of  undulations, 

1  Every  undulating  motion  consists  of  two  distinct  things — an  advancing 
form  and  a  molecular  movement.  The  motion  of  each  particle  is  in  an 
ellipse  lying  wholly  in  the  vertical  plane,  so  that,  after  the  momentary  dis- 
turbance during  the  passage  of  the  wave,  they  return  to  their  places  again.. 
— '  Theory  of  Waves,'  by  J.  Scott  Russell,  Esq. 

[For  a  very  lucid  and  concise  explanation  of  undulation  or  wave-motion 
in  liquids,  the  reader  is  recommended  to  consult  Dr.  Lardner's  'Hand 
Books  of  Natural  Philosophy.'] 


204  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

each  produces  its  effect  independently  of  the  other ;  wind,  however, 
not  only  raises  waves,  but  causes  a  transfer  of  superficial  water  also. 
Attraction  between  the  particles  of  air  and  water,  as  well  as  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  brings  its  lower  stratum  into  adhesive 
contact  with  the  surface  of  the  sea.  If  the  motion  of  the  wind  be 
parallel  to  the  surface,  there  will  still  be  friction,  but  the  water  will 
be  smooth  as  a  mirror ;  but  if  it  be  inclined,  in  however  small  a 
degree,  a  ripple  will  appear.  The  friction  raises  a  minute  wave, 
whose  elevation  protects  the  water  beyond  it  from  the  wind,  which 
consequently  impinges  on  the  surface  at  a  small  distance  beyond ; 
thus,  each  impulse,  combining  with  the  other,  produces  an  undula- 
tion which  continually  advances. 

Those  beautiful  silvery  streaks  on  the  surface  of  a  tranquil  sea, 
called  cats' -paws  by  sailors,  are  owing  to  a  partial  deviation  of  the 
wind  from  a  horizontal  direction.  The  resistance  of  the  water  in- 
creases with  the  strength  and  inclination  of  the  wind.  The  agita- 
tion at  first  extends  little  below  the  surface,  but  in  long-continued 
gales  even  the  deep  water  is  troubled :  the  billows  rise  higher  and 
higher,  and,  as  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  driven  before  the  wind, 
their  "  monstrous  heads,"  impelled  beyond  the  perpendicular,  fall 
in  wreaths  of  foam.  Sometimes  several  waves  overtake  one  another, 
and  form  a  sublime  and  awful  sea.  The  highest  waves  known  are 
those  which  occur  during  the  north-west  gale  off  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  aptly  called  by  the  ancient  Portuguese  navigators  the  Cape 
of  Storms :  Cape  Horn  also  seems  to  be  the  abode  of  the  tempest. 
The  sublimity  of  the  scene,  united  to  the  threatened  danger,  natu- 
rally leads  to  an  over-estimate  of  the  magnitude  of  the  waves,  which 
appear  to  rise  mountains  high,  as  they  are  proverbially  said  to  do : 
there  is,  however,  reason  to  doubt  if  the  highest  waves  off  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  exceed  40  feet  from  the  hollow  trough  to  the  summit.1 
The  waves  are  short  and  abrupt  in  small  shallow  seas,  and  on  that 
account  are  more  dangerous  than  the  long  rolling  billows  of  the 
wide  ocean. 

"  The  sea-shore  after  a  storm  presents  a  scene  of  infinite  gran- 
deur. It  exhibits  the  expenditure  of  gigantic  force,  which  impresses 
the  mind  with  the  presence  of  elemental  power  as  sublime  as  the 
water-fall  or  the  thunder.  Long  before  the  waves  reach  the  shore 
they  may  be  said  to  feel  the  bottom  as  the  water  becomes  shallower, 
for  they  increase  in  height,  but  diminish  in  length.  Finally  the 
wave  becomes  higher,  more  pointed,  assumes  a  form  of  unstable 
equilibrium,  totters,  becomes  crested  with  foam,  breaks  with  great 

1  Dr.  Scoresby's  late  Observations  in  the  Atlantic,  made  •with  greater 
sare  than  had  been  hitherto  employed,  appear  to  confirm  this  result. — 
1'roceedings  of  British  Association,  1850;  in  'Athenaeum,'  August,  1850. 


CHAP.  XVI.  WAVES.  205 

violence,  and,  continuing  to  break,  is  gradually  lessened  in  bulk  till 
it  ends  in  a  fringed  margin."1 

The  waves  raised  by  the  wind  are  altogether  independent  of  the 
tidal  waves ;  each  maintains  its  undisturbed  course ;  and  as  the  in- 
equalities of  the  coasts  reflect  them  in  all  directions,  they  modify 
those  they  encounter  and  offer  new  resistance  to  the  wind,  so  that 
there  may  be  three  or  four  systems  or  series  of  coexisting  waves,  all 
going  in  different  directions,  while  the  individual  waves  of  each 
maintain  their  parallelism. 

The  undulation  called  a  ground-swell,  occasioned  by  the  continu- 
ance of  a  heavy  gale,  is  totally  different  from  the  tossing  of  the 
billows,  which  is  confined  to  the  area  vexed  by  the  wind ;  whereas 
the  ground-swell  is  rapidly  transmitted  through  the  ocean  to  regions 
far  beyond  the  direct  influence  of  the  gale  that  raised  it,  and  it  con- 
tinues to  heave  the  smooth  and  glassy  surface  of  the  deep  long  after 
the  wind  and  the  waves  are  at  rest.  In  the  South  Pacific,  billows 
which  must  have  travelled  1000  miles  against  the  trade-wind  from 
the  seat  of  the  storm,  expend  their  fury  on  the  lee  side  of  the  many 
coral  islands  which  bedeck  that  sunny  sea.2  Thus  a  swell  sometimes 
comes  from  a  quarter  in  direct  opposition  to  the  wind,  and  occasion- 
ally from  various  points  of  the  compass  at  the  same  time,  producing 
a  vast  commotion  even  in  a  dead  calm,  without  ruffling  the  surface. 
They  are  the  heralds  that  point  out  to  the  mariner  the  distant  re- 
gion where  the  tempest  has  howled,  and  not  unfrequently  they  are 
the  harbingers  of  its  approach.  At  the  margin  of  the  polar  ice,  in, 
addition  to  other  dangers,  there  is  generally  a  swell  which  would  be 
very  formidable  to  the  mariner  in  thick  weather,  did  not  the  loud 
grinding  noise  of  the  ice  warn  him  of  his  approach. 

Heavy  swells  are  propagated  through  the  ocean  till  they  gradually 
subside  from  the  friction  of  the  water,  or  till  the  undulation  is 
checked  by  the  resistance  of  land,  when  they  roll  in  surf  to  the 
shore,  or  dash  in  spray  and  foam  over  the  rocks.  The  rollers  at  the 
Cape  de  Verde  Islands  are  seen  at  a  great  distance  approaching  like 
mountains.  When  a  gale  is  added  to  a  ground-swell  the  commotion 
is  great  and  the  force  of  the  surge  tremendous,  tossing  huge  masses 
of  rock  and  shaking  the  cliffs  to  their  foundations.  During  heavy 
gales  on  the  coast  of  Madras  the  surf  breaks  in  nine  fathoms  watei 
tit  the  distance  of  four  and  even  four  and  a  half  miles  from  the 
shore.  The  violence  of  the  tempest  is  sometimes  so  intense  as  to 
quell  the  billows  and  scatter  its  surface  in  a  heavy  shower  called  by 
sailors  spoon-drift.  On  such  occasions  saline  particles  have  impreg- 
nated the  air  to  the  distance  of  fifty  miles  inland. 

The  force  of  the  waves  in  gales  of  wind  is  tremendous ;  from  ex- 

1  J.  Scott  Russell,  Esq.,  on  Waves. 
a  Eeecbey's  Voyage  to  the  Pacific. 
18 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI- 

periments  made  by  Mr.  Stevenson,  civil  engineer,  on  the  west  coast 
of  Scotland,  exposed  to  the  whole  fury  of  the  Atlantic,  it  appears 
that  the  average  pressure  of  the  waves  during  the  summer  months 
was  equal  to  611  pounds  weight  on  a  square  foot  of  surface,  while 
in  winter  it  was  2086  pounds,  or  three  times  as  great.  During  the 
storm  that  took  place  on  the  9th  of  March,  1845,  it  amounted  to 
6083  pounds.  Now  as  the  pressure  of  a  wave  20  feet  high  not  in 
motion  is  only  about  half  a  ton  on  a  square  foot,  it  shows  how  much 
'  of  their  force  waves  owe  to  their  velocity.  The  rolling  breakers  on 
the  cliffs  on  the  west  coast  of  Ireland  are  magnificent :  Lord  Adare 
measured  some  the  spray  of  which  rose  as  high  as  150  feet. 

In  the  Isle  of  Man  a  block  which  weighed  about  10  stone  was 
lifted  from  its  place  and  carried  inland  during  a  north-westerly  gale ; 
and  in  the  Hebrides  a  block  of  42  tons  weight  was  moved  several 
feet  by  the  force  of  the  waves.  The  Bell  Hock  lighthouse  in  the 
German  Ocean,  though  112  feet  high,  is  literally  buried  in  foam  and 
spray  to  the  very  top  during  ground-swells  when  there  is  no  wind. 
On  the  20th  of  November,  1827,  the  spray  rose  117  feet,  so  that 
the  pressure  was  computed  by  Mr.  Stevenson  to  be  nearly  three  tons 
on  a  square  foot. 

The  effect  of  a  gale  descends  to  a  comparatively  small  distance 
below  the  surface  j  the  sea  is  probably  tranquil  at  the  depth  of  200 
or  300  feet ;  were  it  not  so,  the  water  would  be  turbid  and  shellfish 
would  be  destroyed.  Anything  that  diminishes  the  friction  of  the 
wind  smooths  the  surface  of  the  sea  —  for  example,  oil  or  a  small 
stream  of  packed  ice,  which  suppresses  even  a  swell.  When  the  air 
is  moist,  its  attraction  for  water  is  diminished,  and  consequently  so 
is  the  friction ;  hence  the  sea  is  not  so  rough  in  rainy  as  in  dry 
weather. 

Currents  of  various  extent,  magnitude,  and  velocity  disturb  the 
tranquillity  of  the  ocean ;  some  of  them  depend  upon  circumstances 
permanent  as  the  globe  itself,  others  on  ever-varying  causes.  Con- 
stant currents  are  produced  by  the  combined  action  of  the  rotation 
of  the  earth,  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and  the  trade-winds ;  periodical 
currents  are  occasioned  by  tides,  monsoons,  and  other  long-continued 
winds;  temporary  currents  arise  from  the  tides,  melting  ice,  and 
from  every  gale  of  some  duration.  A  perpetual  circulation  is  kept 
up  in  the  waters  of  the  main  by  these  vast  marine  streams ;  they 
are  sometimes  superficial  and  sometimes  submarine,  according  as 
their  density  is  greater  or  less  than  that  of  the  surrounding  sea. 

[Ocean  currents  are  due  to  the  influence  of  several  principles  or 
causes  which  are  in  ceaseless  operation.  There  are  other  forces  than 
those  of  temperature,  wind,  planetary  attraction  and  rotation  of  the 
earth  which  contribute  to  keep  the  waters  in  constant  circulation. 

Speaking  in  general  terms,  the  ocean  contains  3^  per  cent,  of 
matter  dissolved  in  it.  This  matter  consists  of  all  substances  exist- 


CHAP.  XVI.  CURRENTS.  207 

ing  on  land,  capable  of  solution  in  water  under  tlie  ordinary  tem- 
peratures and  pressures  of  the  atmosphere.  Rains  fall  upon  the 
surface  of  the  land ;  the  water  while  flowing  towards  river  beds  and 
percolating  through  the  earth,  dissolves  some  of  the  constituents, 
(though  in  very  small  quantity)  and  carries  them  finally  to  mingle 
with  the  ocean.  Sea  water  contains  chlorides  of  sodium,  of  potas- 
sium, and  of  magnesium;  sulphates  of  magnesia  and  of  lime;  car- 
bonate of  lime;  iodine,  and  bromide  of  magnesium,  and,  perhaps, 
other  matters  in  solution. 

As  the  rivers  are  constantly  conveying  additions  of  saline  matter 
into  the  ocean,  and  as  none  of  this  matter  is  removed  by  the  process 
of  evaporation  which  never  ceases,  it  might  be  supposed  that  the 
per-centage  of  matter  dissolved  in  the  ocean  would  increase  regularly, 
and  in  time,  its  water  would  become  saturated,  incapable  of  holding 
any  more  matter  in  solution,  and  then  deposition  would  commence 
and  at  last  fill  up  the  bed  of  the  ocean  with  solid  matter.  But  the 
ocean  and  seas  are  inhabited  by  organic  forms,  to  the  nutrition  and 
existence  of  which,  the  matters  dissolved  in  their  waters  are  essential. 
The  shell-bearing  mollusk,  and  the  minute  coral  animal;  the  sponges 
and  crustaceans,  all  require  lime  and  magnesia  and  soda  to  preserve 
their  structure  and  existence.  Each  animal  has  an  instinct  and  a 
wisely  contrived  apparatus  through  the  means  of  whiclr  it  derives 
from  the  waters  all  the  materials  necessary  for  its  nourishment  and 
growth.  Then,  there  are  still  higher  organic  structures  whose  nu- 
trition is  in  part  supplied  from  the  ocean ;  to  say  nothing  of  the 
aquatic  mammals  and  fishes  which  consume  some  of  the  substances 
dissolved  in  the  sea,  there  are  the  various  algse  and  fuel  which  live 
upon  what  they  derive  from  the  water. 

If  we  imagine  for  a  moment,  an  ocean  containing  3|  per  cent,  of 
matter  of  various  kinds  and  in  various  proportions,  in  a  state  of 
repose  or  perfect  equilibrium,  it  will  be  perceived  that  such  equili- 
brium would  be  disturbed  and  movement  set  up,  from  the  instant 
that  the  life-organs  of  the  animals  and  vegetables  inhabiting  it, 
began  to  draw  from  the  waters  the  materials,  (the  lime  and  mag- 
nesia, the  iodine  and  bromine,)  they  require  respectively  for  support. 
It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  even  a  single  atom  or  molecule  could 
be  appropriated  through  the  function  of  an  organ  of  an  animal  or 
of  a  plant,  without  imposing  a  necessity  of  movement  in  the  sur- 
rounding atoms  of  the  mass.  This  movement  would  be  impercep- 
tible ;  yet  when  we  admit  that  there  are  countless  millions  of  orga- 
nised beings  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean,  deriving  from  its  waters 
the  materials  of  their  nutrition,  we  cannot  fail  to  perceive  in  the 
aggregate  of  their  actions  a  force  adequate  to  destroy  equilibrium 
and  sustain  a  ceaseless  movement  in  the  vast  expanse  of  the  waters 
of  the  earth.  Even  if  the  temperature  of  the  ocean  waa  everywhere 


208  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVT. 

uniform,  the  functions  of  organic  life,  to  say  nothing  of  the  loco- 
motion of  animals  in  it,  would  prevent  stagnation. 

The  presence  of  various  salts  does  not  seem  to  be  essential  to  pre- 
vent the  decomposition  of  water  in  the  ocean.  The  vast  bodies  of 
fresh  water  which  constitute  the  North  American  lakes,  show  that 
salt  is  not  necessary  to  its  preservation.  Indeed,  pure  water  is  as 
unchangeable  and  as  indestructible  as  the  granite  of  the  everlasting 
hills. 

The  substances  constantly  found  dissolved  in  the  ocean  were  not 
placed  there  to  prevent  its  putrefaction.  They  are  there  for  a  wise 
purpose;  and  they  doubtlessly  play  an  essential  part  in  the  economy 
of  nature ;  they  may  exert  an  important  influence  in  the  production 
of  ocean  currents,  in  connection  with  alternation  of  temperature  and 
evaporation  from  the  surface. 

"In  every  department  of  Nature,"  says  Lieut.  Maury,  "there  is 
to  be  found  this  self-adjusting  principle — this  beautiful  and  exquisite 
system  of  compensation  by  which  the  operations  of  the  grand  ma- 
chinery of  the  universe  are  maintained  in  the  most  perfect  order. 

"  Thus  we  behold  the  sea-shells  [raollusks]  and  animalcula  in  a 
new  light.  We  may  not  now  cease  to  regard  them  as  beings  which 
have  little  or  nothing  to  do  in  maintaining  the  harmonies  of  the 
creation  ?  On  the  contrary,  do  we  not  see  in  them  the  principles 
of  the  most  admirable  compensation  in  the  system  of  oceanic  circu- 
lation ?  We  may  even  regard  them  as  regulators,  to  some  extent, 
of  climates  in  parts  of  the  earth  far  removed  from  their  presence. 
There  is  something  suggestive,  both  of  the  grand  and  beautiful,  in 
the  idea  that  while  the  insects  of  the  sea  are  building  up  their  coral 
islands  in  the  perpetual  summer  of  the  tropics,  they  are  also  engaged 
in  dispensing  warmth  to  distant  parts  of  the  earth,  and  in  mitigating 
the  severe  cold  of  the  polar  winter."] 

The  exchange  of  water  between  the  poles  and  the  equator  affects 
the  great  currents  of  the  ocean.  Although  these  depend  upon  the 
same  causes  as  the  trade-winds,  they  differ  essentially  in  this  respect 
— that  whereas  the  atmosphere  is  heated  from  below  by  its  contact 
with  the  earth,  and  transmits  the  heat  to  the  strata  above,  the  sea  is 
heated  at  its  surface  by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun,  which  diminish 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  upper  strata,  especially  between  the 
tropics,  and  also  occasion  strong  and  rapid  evaporation,  both  of  which 
causes  disturb  the  equilibrium  of  the  ocean.  The  rotation  of  the 
earth  also  gives  the  water  a  tendency  to  take  an  oblique  direction  in 
its  flow  towards  the  equatorial  regions,  as,  in  order  to  restore  the 
equilibrium,  deranged  by  so  many  circumstances,  great  streams  per- 
petually descend  from  either  pole.  When  these  currents  leave  the 
poles,  they  flow  towards  the  equator;  but,  before  proceeding  far, 
their  motion  is  deflected  by  the  diurnal  rotation  of  the  earth.  At 
the  poles  they  have  no  rotary  motion ;  and  although  they  gain  it 


CHAP.  XVI.  CURRENTS.  209 

more  and  more  in  their  progress  to  the  equator,  which,  revolves  at 
the  rate  of  1000  miles  an  hour,  they  arrive  at  the  tropics  before 
they  have  acquired  the  same  velocity  of  rotation  with  the  inter- 
tropical  ocean.  On  that  account  they  are  left  behind,  and  conse- 
quently seem  to  flow  in  a  direction  contrary  to  the  diurnal  rotation 
of  the  earth.  For  that  reason  the  whole  surface  of  the  ocean,  for 
30  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  has  an  apparent  tendency 
from  east  to  west,  which  produces  all  the  effects  of  a  great  current 
or  stream  flowing  in  that  direction.  The  trade-winds,  which  blow 
constantly  in  one  direction,  combine  to  give  this  current  a  mean 
velocity  of  10  or  11  miles  in  24  hours.1 

It  has  been  supposed  that  the  primary  currents,  as  well  as  those 
derived  from  them,  are  subject  to  periodical  variations  of  intensity 
occasioned  by  the  melting  of  the  ice  at  each  pole  alternately. 

In  consequence  of  the  uninterrupted  expanse  of  ocean  in  the 
southern  hemisphere,  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds,  and  the 
tendency  of  the  polar  water  towards  the  equator,  a  great  oceanic 
current  is  originated  in  the  Antarctic  Sea.  Driven  by  the  pre- 
vailing winds,  the  waters  take  an  easterly  direction  inclining  to  the 
northward,  and  one  part  sets  upon  the  American  coast,  where  it  is 
divided.  A  small  part  doubles  Cape  Horn,  while  the  main  cold 
stream  flows  down  the  American  shore ;  then  turning  suddenly  to 
the  west,  it  loses  itself  in  the  great  equatorial  current  of  the  Pacific, 
which  crosses  that  ocean  between  the  parallels  of  26°  S.  and  24°  N. 
in  a  vast  stream  nearly  3500  miles  broad.  In  the  north  this  stream 
is  interrupted  by  the  coast  of  China,  the  Eastern  Peninsula,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago;  but  a  part  forces  its  way  between 
the  islands,  and  joins  the  great  equatorial  current  of  the  Indian 
Ocean,  which,  impelled  by  the  S.E.  trade-wind  maintains  a  westerly 
course"  between  the  10th  and  20th  parallels  of  south  latitude ;  as  it 
approaches  the  Island  of  Madagascar,  the  stream  is  divided ;  one 
part  runs  to  the  north-west,  bends  round  the  northern  end  of  Mad- 
agascar, flows  through  the  Mosarabique  Channel,  and,  being  joined 
by  the  other  branch,  it  doubles  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  outside  of 
the  Agulhas  Bank,  and,  under  the  name  of  the  South  Atlantic 
Current,  it  runs  along  the  west  coast  of  Africa  to  the  parallel  of  St. 
Helena.  There  it  is  .deflected  by  the  coast  of  Guinea,  and  forms 
the  Great  Atlantic  Equatorial  Current,  which  flows  westward  and 
divides  upon  Cape  St.  Roque  in  Brazil.  One  branch  of  the  stream 
setting  southward  along  the  continent  of  South  America,  becomes 
insensible  before  it  reaches  the  Straits  of  Magellan ;  but  an  offset 
from  it  stretches  directly  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  Cape  of  Good 

1  Winds  are  named  from  the  points  -whence  they  blow,  currents  exactly 
the  reverse.     An  easterly  wind  comes  from  the  east;  whereas  an  easterly 
current  comes  from  the  west,  and  flows  towards  the  east. 
18* 


210  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

Hope,  having  made  the  circuit  of  the  South  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
keeping  150  miles  outside  of  the  Cape  or  Agulhas  current,  which 
runs  in  the  opposite  direction,  it  pursues  its  course  into  the  Indian 
Ocean,  where  traces  of  it  are  met  with  2000  miles  from  the  Cape. 

The  principal  branch  of  the  great  equatorial  current  takes  a 
northerly  course  from  off  Cape  St.  Roque,  and  rushes  along  the 
coast  of  Brazil  with  such  force  and  depth  that  it  suffers  only  a  tem- 
porary deflection  by  the  powerful  streams  of  the  river  Amazon  and 
of  the  Orinoco.  Though  much  weakened  in  passing  among  the 
West  Indian  islands,  it  acquires  new  strength  in  the  Caribbean  Sea. 
From  thence,  after  sweeping  round  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  with  the 
high  temperature  of  88°  52'  of  Fahrenheit,  it  flows  through  the 
Straits  of  Florida,  and  along  the  North  American  coast  to  New- 
foundland under  the  name  of  the  Gulf-stream :  it  is  there  deflected 
eastward  by  the  form  of  the  land  and  the  prevalent  wind,  and  after 
passing  Newfoundland  by  a  current  from  Baffin's  Bay.  From  the 
Azores  it  bends  southward,  and  aided  by  the  north-east  trade  rejoins 
the  equatorial  current,  having  made  a  circuit  of  3800  miles  with 
various  velocity,  leaving  a  vast  loop  or  space  of  water  nearly  stag- 
nant in  its  centre,  which  is  thickly  covered  with  sea-weed.  The 
bodies  of  men,  animals,  and  plants  of  unknown  appearance,  brought 
to  the  Azores  by  this  stream,  suggested  to  Columbus  the  idea  of 
land  beyond  the  Western  Ocean,  and  thus  led  to  the  discovery  of 
America.  The  Gulf-stream  is  more  salt,  warmer,  and  of  a  deeper 
blue  than  the  rest  of  the  ocean,  till  it  reaches  Newfoundland,  where 
it  becomes  turbid  from  the  shallowness  of  that  part  of  the  sea.  Its 
greatest  velocity  is  78  miles  a-day  soon  after  leaving  the  Florida 
Strait;  and  its  breadth  increases  with  its  distance  from  the  strait 
until  the  warm  water  spreads  over  a  large  surface  of  the  ocean.  An 
important  branch  leaves  the  current  near  Newfoundland,  setting  to- 
wards Britain  and  Norway ;  which  is  again  subdivided  into  many 
branches,  whose  origin  is  recognised  by  their  greater  warmth,  even 
at  the  edge  of  perpetual  ice  in  the  Polar  Ocean ;  and  in  consequence 
of  some  of  these  branches  the  Spitsbergen  Sea  is  6  or  7  degrees 
warmer  at  the  depth  of  200  fathoms  than  at  its  surface.  Though 
the  warmth  of  the  Gulf-stream  diminishes  as  it  goes  north,  Lieut. 
Maury  says  "  that  the  quantity  of  heat  which  it  spreads  over 
the  Atlantic  in  a  winter's  day  would  be  sufficient  to  raise  the  whole 
atmosphere  that  covers  France  and  Great  Britain  from  the  freezing 
point  to  summer  heat ;  and  it  really  is  the  cause  of  the  mildness 
and  of  the  damp  of  Ireland  and  the  south  of  England." 

These  oceanic  streams  exceed  all  the  rivers  in  the  world  in  breadth 
and  depth  as  well  as  length.  The  equatorial  current  in  the  Atlantic 
is  160  miles  broad  off  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  towards  its  mid- 
course  across  the  Atlantic  its  width  becomes  nearly  equal  to  the 
length  of  Great  Britain  -.  but  as  it  then  sends  off  a  branch  to  the 


CHAP.  XVI.  CURRENTS.  211 

N.W.,  it  is  diminished  to  200  miles  before  reaching  the  coast  of 
Brazil.  The  depth  of  this  great  stream  is  unknown  ;  but  the  Bra- 
zilian branch  must  be  very  profound,  since  it  is  not  deflected  by  the 
river  La  Plata,  which  crosses  it  with  so  strong  a  current  that  its 
fresh  muddy  waters  are  perceptible  500  miles  from  its  mouth. 
When  currents  pass  over  banks  and  shoals,  the  colder  water  rises  to 
the  surface  and  gives  warning  of  the  danger. 

In  summer,  the  great  north  polar  current  coming  along  the  coasts 
of  Greenland  and  Labrador,  together  with  the  current  from  Davis' s 
Straits,  brings  icebergs  to  the  margin  of  the  Gulf-stream.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  temperatures  of  these  two  oceanic  streams 
brought  into  contact  is  the  cause  of  the  dense  fogs  that  brood  over 
the  banks  of  Newfoundland.  The  north  polar  current  runs  inside 
of  the  Gulf-stream,  along  the  coast  of  North  America  to  Florida, 
and  beyond  it — since  it  sends  an  under-current  into  the  Caribbean 
Sea.  Counter-currents  on  the  surface  are  of  such  frequent  occur- 
rence that  there  is  scarcely  a  strait  joining  two  seas  that  does  not 
furnish  an  example  —  a  current  running  in  along  one  shore,  and  a 
counter-current  running  out  along  the  other.  One  of  the  most  re- 
markable occurs  in  the  Atlantic :  it  begins  off  the  coast  of  France, 
and,  after  sending  a  mass  of  water  into  the  Mediterranean,  it  holds 
a  southerly  direction  at  some  distance  from  the  continent  of  Africa ; 
till,  after  passing  Cape  Mesurada,  it  flows  rapidly  for  1000  miles 
east  to  the  Bight  of  Biafra  in  immediate  contact  with  the  equatorial 
current,  running  with  great  velocity  in  the  opposite  direction,  and 
seems  to  merge  in  it  at  last. 

Periodical  currents  are  frequent  in  the  eastern  seas :  one  flows 
into  the  Red  Sea  from  October  to  May,  and  out  of  it  from  May  to 
October.  In  the  Persian  Gulf  this  order  is  reversed ;  in  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  China  Sea  the  waters  are  driven  alternately  backwards 
and  forwards  by  the  monsoons.  It  is  the  south-westerly  monsoon 
that  causes  inundations  in  the  Ganges,  and  a  tremendous  surf  on 
the  coast  of  Coromandel.  The  tides  also  produce  periodical  currents 
on  the  coasts  and  in  straits,  the  water  running  in  one  direction 
during  the  flood,  and  the  contrary  way  in  the  ebb.  The  Iloost  of 
Sumburgh,  at  the  southern  promontory  of  Shetland,  runs  at  the 
rate  of  15  miles  an  hour ;  indeed,  the  strongest  tidal  currents  known 
are  among  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  islands ;  their  great  velocity 
arises  from,  local  circumstances.  Currents  in  the  wide  ocean  move 
at  the  rate  of  from  one  to  three  miles  an  hour,  but  the  velocity  is 
less  at  the  margin  and  bottom  of  the  stream  from  friction. 

Whirlpools  are  produced  by  opposing  winds  and  tides ;  the  whirl- 
pool of  Maelstrom,  on  the  coast  of  Norway,  is  occasioned  by  the 
meeting  of  tidal  currents  round  the  islands  of  Lofoden  and  Moskb'e; 
it  is  a  mile  and  a  half  in  diameter,  and  so  violent  that  its  roar  is 
heard  at  the  distance  of  several  leagues. 


212  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

Although  with  winds,  tides,  and  currents,  it  might  seem  that  the 
ocean  is  ever  in  motion,  yet  in  the  equatorial  regions,  far  from  land, 
dead  calms  prevail;  the  sea  is  of  the  most  perfect  stillness  day 
after  day ;  partaking  of  the  universal  quiet,  and  heaving  its  low  flat 
waves  in  noiseless  and  regular  periods  as  if  nature  were  asleep. 

The  safety  and  length  of  a  voyage  depend  upon  the  skill  with 
which  a  seaman  avails  himself  of  the  set  of  the  different  currents, 
and  the  direction  of  the  permanent  and  periodical  winds;  it  is  fre- 
quently shortened  by  following  a  very  circuitous  track  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  them  if  favourable,  or  to  avoid  them  if  unfavourable. 
From  Acapulco,  in  Mexico,  across  the  Pacific  to  Manilla  or  Canton, 
the  trade-wind  and  the  equatorial  current  are  so  favourable  that  the 
voyage  is  accomplished  in  50  or  60  days ;  whereas,  in  returning,  90 
or  100  are  required.  Within  the  Antilles  navigation  is  so  difficult 
from  winds  and  currents,  that  a  vessel,  going  from  Jamaica  to  the 
lesser  Antilles,  cannot  sail  directly  across  the  Caribbean  Sea,  but 
must  go  round  about  through  the  windward  passage  between  Cuba 
and  Haiti  to  the  ocean;  nearly  as  many  weeks  are  requisite  to  ac- 
complish this  voyage  as  it  takes  days  to  return.  On  account  of  the 
prevalence  of  westerly  winds  in  the  North  Atlantic,  the  voyage  from 
Europe  to  the  United  States  is  longer  than  that  from  the  latter  to 
Europe;  but  the  Gulf-stream  is  avoided  in  the  outward  voyage,  [ie. 
from  Europe  to  the  United  States,]  because  it  would  lengthen  the 
time  by  a  fortnight.  Ships  going  to  the  West  Indies,  Central  or 
South  America,  from  Europe,  generally  make  the  Canary  Islands  in 
order  to  fall  in  with  the  N.E.  trade-winds. 

The  passage  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  from  the  British  Channel 
may  be  undertaken  at  any  season,  and  is  accomplished  in  50  or  60 
days;  but  it  is  necessary  to  regulate  the  voyage  from  the  Cape  to 
India  and  China  according  to  the  seasons  of  the  monsoons.  There 
are  various  courses  adopted  for  that  purpose,  but  all  of  them  pass 
through  the  very  focus  of  the  hurricane  district,  which  includes  the 
islands  of  Rodriguez,  the  Mauritius  and  Bourbon,  and  extends  from 
Madagascar  to  the  island  of  Timor. 

The  extensive  deposits  of  coal  discovered  in  Australia,  New  Zea- 
land, in  the  British  settlement  at  Labuan,  and  on  the  neighbouring 
shores  of  Borneo,  and  in  Vancouver's  Island,  will  be  the  means  of 
increasing  the  steam  navigation  of  the  Pacific,  and  shortening  the 
voyages  upon  that  ocean. 

Sea-water  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat,  therefore  the  temperature 
of  the  ocean  is  less  liable  to  sudden  changes  than  the  atmosphere ; 
the  influence  of  the  seasons  is  imperceptible  at  the  depth  of  300 
feet;  and  as  light  probably  does  not  penetrate  lower  than  700  feet, 
the  heat  of  the  sun  cannot  affect  the  bottom  of  a  deep  sea.  It  has 
been  established  beyond  a  doubt  that  in  all  parts  of  the  ocean  the 
water  has  a  constant  temperature  of  about  39° -5  of  Fahrenheit,  at  a 


CHAP.  XVI.  TEMPERATURE.  213 

certain  depth,  depending  on  the  latitude.  At  the  equator  the  stratum 
of  water  at  that  temperature  is  at  the  depth  of  7200  feet;  from 
thence  it  gradually  rises  till  it  comes  to  the  surface  in  S.  lat.  56° 
26',  where  the  water  has  the  temperature  of  39°-5  at  all  depths; 
it  then  gradually  descends  till  S.  lat.  70°,  where  it  is  4500  feet  below 
the  surface.  In  going  north  from  the  equator  the  same  law  is  ob- 
served. Hence,  with  regard  to  temperature,  there  are  three  regions 
in  the  ocean;  one  equatorial  and  two  polar.  In  the  equatorial  re- 
gion the  temperature  of  the  water  at  the  surface  of  the  ocean  is  80° 
of  Fahrenheit,  therefore  higher  than  that  of  the  stratum  of  39° -5; 
while  in  the  polar  regions  it  is  lower.  Thus  the  surface  of  the 
stratum  of  constant  temperature  is  a  curve  which  begins  at  the  depth 
of  4500  feet  in  the  southern  basin,  from  whence  it  gradually  rises 
to  the  surface  in  S.  lat.  56°  26' ;  it  then  sweeps  down  to  7200  feet 
at  the  equator,  and  rises  up  again  to  the  surface  in  the  correspond- 
ing northern  latitude,  from  whence  it  descends  again  to  the  depth 
of  4500  feet  in  the  northern  basin. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  ocean  decreases  from  the 
equator  to  the  poles.  For  10  degrees  on  each  side  of  the  line  the 
maximum  is  80°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  remarkably  stable ;  from  thence 
to  each  tropic  the  decrease  does  not  exceed  3° -7.  The  tropical  tem- 
perature would  be  greater  were  it  not  for  the  currents,  because  the 
surface  reflects  much  fewer  of  the  sun's  rays  which  fall  on  it  directly, 
than  in  higher  latitudes  where  they  fall  obliquely.  In  the  torrid 
zone  the  surface  of  the  sea  is  about  3° -5  of  Fahrenheit  warmer  than 
the  air  above  it ;  because  the  polar  winds,  and  the  great  evaporation 
which  absorbs  the  heat,  prevent  equilibrium ;  and  as  a  great  mass 
of  water  is  slow  in  following  the  changes  in  the  atmosphere,  the 
vicissitude  of  day  and  night  has  little  influence,  whereas  in  the  tem- 
perate zones  it  is  perceptible. 

The  line  of  maximum  temperature,  or  that  which  passes  through 
all  the  points  of  greatest  heat  in  the  ocean,  is  very  irregular,  and 
does  not  coincide  with  the  terrestrial  equator ;  six-tenths  of  its  extent 
lies  on  an  average  5°  to  the  north  of  it,  and  the  remainder  runs  at 
a  mean  distance  of  3°  on  its  southern  side.  It  cuts  the  terrestrial 
equator  in  the  middle  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  in  21°  E.  longitude  in 
passing  from  the  northern,  to  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  again 
between  Sumatra  and  the  peninsula  of  Malacca  in  returning  from 
the  southern  to  the  northern.  Its  maximum  temperature  in  the 
Pacific  is  88° -5  of  Fahrenheit  on  the  northern  shores  of  New  Guinea, 
where  it  touches  the  terrestrial  equator,  and  its  highest  temperature 
in  the  Atlantic,  which  is  exactly  the  same,  lies  in  the  Gulf  of  Mex- 
ico, which  furnishes  the  warm  water  of  the  Gulf-stream. 

The  superficial  water  of  the  Pacific  is  much  cooled  on  the  east  by 
the  Antarctic  current;  it  sends  a  cold  stream  along  the  coasts  of 
Chile  and  Peru,  which  has  great  influence  on  the*  climate  of  both 


214  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

countries;  it  was  first  observed  by  Baron  Humboldt,  and  is  known 
as  Humboldt's  current. 

It  is  more  than  14°  colder  than  the  adjacent  ocean,  and  renders 
the  air  11°  cooler  than  the  surrounding  atmosphere. 

In  the  Indian  Ocean  the  highest  temperature  of  the  surface-water 
(87° -4)  is  in  the  Arabian  Sea,  between  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb 
and  the  coast  of  Hindostan ;  it  decreases  regularly  from  south  to 
north  in  the  Red  Sea. 

The  superficial  temperature  diminishes  from  the  tropics  with  the 
increase  of  the  latitude  more  rapidly  in  the  southern  than  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  till  towards  the  poles  the  sea  is  never  free  from 
ice.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean  the  surface  is  at  the  freezing  point  even 
in  summer;  and  during  the  eight  winter  months  a  continuous  body 
of  ice  extends  in  every  direction  from  the  pole,  filling  the  area  of  a 
circle  between  3000  and  4000  miles  in  diameter.  The  outline  of 
this  circle,  though  subject  to  partial  variations,  is  found  to  be  nearly 
similar  at  the  same  season  of  each  succeeding  year,  yet  there  are 
periodical  changes  in  the  polar  ice  which  are  renewed  after  a  series 
of  years.  The  freezing  process  itself  is  a  bar  to  the  unlimited  in- 
crease of  the  oceanic  ice.  Fresh  water  congeals  at  the  temperature 
of  32°  of  Fahrenheit,  but  sea-water  must  be  reduced  to  28°-5  before 
it  deposits  its  salt,  and  begins  to  freeze  :  the  salt  thus  set  free,  and 
the  heat  given  out,  retard  the  process  of  congelation  more  and  more 
below. 

The  ice  from  the  North  Pole  comes  so  far  south  in  winter  as  to 
render  the  coast  of  Newfoundland  inaccessible :  it  envelopes  Green- 
land, sometimes  even  Iceland,  and  always  invests  Spitsbergen  and 
Nova  Zembla.  As  the  sun  comes  north  the  ice  breaks  up  into  enor- 
mous masses  of  what  is  called  packed  ice.  In  the  year  1806  Cap- 
tain Scoresby  forced  his  ship  through  250  miles  of  packed  ice,  in 
imminent  danger,  until  he  reached  the  parallel  of  81°  50',  his  near- 
est approach  to  the  pole  :  the  Frozen  Ocean  is  rarely  navigable  so 
far. 

In  the  year  1827,  Sir  Edward  Parry  arrived  at  the  latitude  of 
82°  45',  which  he  accomplished  by  dragging  a  boat  over  fields  of 
ice,  but  he  was  obliged  to  abandon  the  bold  and  hazardous  attempt 
to  reach  the  pole,  because  the  current  drifted  the  ice  southward 
more  rapidly  than  he  could  travel  over  it  to  the  north. 

The  following  considerations  have  induced  some  persons  to  believe 
that  there  is  sea  instead  of  land  at  the  north  pole.  The  average 
latitude  of  the  northern  shores  of  the  continent  is  70°,  so  that  the 
Arctic  Ocean  is  a  circle  whose  diameter  is  2400  geographical  miles, 
and  its  circumference  7200.  On  the  Asiatic  side  of  this  sea  are 
Nova  Zembla  and  the  New  Siberian  islands,  each  extending  to  about 
76°  N.  latitude.  On  the  European  and  American  sides  are  Spitz- 
bergen,  extending  to  80°,  and  a  part  of  Old  Greenland,  whose  north- 


CHAP.  XVI.  POLAR    ICE. 

era  termination  is  unknown.  Facing  America  is  a  large  island  — 
Melville  Island  —  with  some  others  not  extending  so  far  north  as 
those  mentioned;  consequently  all  of  them  may  be  considered  con- 
tinental islands.  As  there  are  no  large  islands  very  far  from  land 
in  the  other  great  oceans,  there  is  reason  to  presume  that  the  same 
structure  may  prevail  here  also,  and  consequently  it  may  be  open 
sea  at  the  north  pole.  Possibly  also  it  may  be  free  from  ice,  for 
Admiral  Wrangel  found  a  wide  and  open  sea,  free  from  ice  and 
navigable,  beginning  16  miles  north  of  the  island  of  Kotelnoi,  and 
extending  to  the  meridian  of  Cape  Jackan.  In  fine  summers  the 
ice  suddenly  clears  away  and  leaves  an  open  channel  of  sea  along 
the  western  coast  of  Spitzbergen  from  60  to  150  miles  wide,  reach- 
ing to  80°  or  even  to~80|°  N.  latitude,  probably  owing  to  warm  cur- 
rents from  low  latitudes.  It  was  through  this  channel  that  captain 
Scoresby  made  his  nearest  approach  to  the  pole.  A  direct  course 
from  the  Thames,  across  the  pole  to  Behring's  Straits,  is  3570  geo- 
graphical miles,  while  by  Lancaster  Sound  it  is  4660  miles.  The 
Russians  would  be  saved  a  voyage  of  18,800  geographical  miles 
could  they  go  across  the  pole  and  through  Behring's  Straits  to  their 
North  American  settlements,  instead  of  going  by  Cape  Horn. 

Floating  fields  of  ice,  20  or  30  miles  in  diameter,  are  frequent  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean :  sometimes  they  extend  100  miles,  so  closely 
packed  together  that  no  opening  is  left  between  them ;  their  thick- 
ness, which  varies  from  10  to  40  feet,  is  not  seen,  as  there  is  at  least 
two-thirds  of  the  mass  below  water.  Sometimes  these  fields,  many 
thousand  millions  of  tons  in  weight,  acquire  a  rotatory  motion  of 
great  velocity,  dashing  against  one  auother  with  a  tremendous  colli- 
sion. Packed  ice  always  has  a  tendency  to  drift  southwards,  even 
in  the  calmest  weather;  and  in  their  progress  the  ice-fields  are  rent 
in  pieces  by  the  swell  of  the  sea.  It  is  computed  that  20,000  square 
miles  of  drift-ice  are  annually  brought  by  the  current  along  the 
coast  of  Greenland  to  Cape  Farewell.  In  stormy  weather  the  fields 
and  streams  of  ice  are  covered  with  haze  and  spray  from  constant 
tremendous  concussions;  yet  our  seamen,  undismayed  by  the  appal- 
ling danger,  boldly  steer  their  ships  amidst  this  hideous  and  dis- 
cordant tumult. 

Huge  icebergs,  and  masses  detached  from  the  glaciers,  which  ex- 
tend from  the  Arctic  lands  into  the  sea,  especially  in  Baffin's  Bay, 
are  drifted  southwards  2000  miles  from  their  origin  to  melt  in  the 
Atlantic,  where  they  cool  the  water  sensibly  for  30  or  40  miles 
around,  and  the  air  to  a  much  greater  distance.  They  vary  from  a 
few  yards  to  miles  in  circumference,  and  rise  hundreds  of  feet  above 
the  surface.  Seven  hundred  such  masses  have  been  seen  at  once  in 
the  polar  basin.  When  there  is  a  swell,  the  loose  ice  dashing  against 
them  raises  the  spray  to  their  very  summits ;  and  as  they  waste  away 
they  occasionally  lose  equilibrium  and  roll  over,  causing  a  swell 


216  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

which  breaks  up  the  neighbouring  field-ice ;  the  commotion  spreads 
far  and  wide,  and  the  uproar  resounds  like  thunder. 

Icebergs  have  the  appearance  of  chalk-cliffs  with  a  glittering  sur- 
face and  emerald  green  fractures :  pools  of  water  of  azure-blue  lie 
on  their  surface  or  fall  in  cascades  into  the  sea.  The  field-ice  also, 
and  the  masses  that  are  heaped  up  on  its  surface,  are  extremely 
beautiful  from  the  vividness  and  contrast  of  their  colouring.  A 
peculiar  blackness  in  the  atmosphere  around  a  bright  haze  at  the 
horizon  indicates  their  position  in  a  fog,  and  their  place  and  charac- 
ter are  shown  at  night  by  the  reflection  of  the  snow-light  on  the 
horizon.  An  experienced  seaman  can  readily  distinguish  by  the 
blink,  as  it  is  termed,  whether  the  ice  is  newly  formed,  heavy,  com- 
pact, or  open.  The  blink  or  snow-light  of  field-ice  is  the  most  lucid, 
and  is  tinged  yellow ;  of  packed  ice  it  is  pure  white :  ice  newly 
formed  has  a  greyish  blink,  and  a  deep  yellow  tint  indicates  snow 
on  land. 

Icebergs  come  to  a  lower  latitude  by  10°  from  the  south  pole  than 
from  the  north,  and  appear  to  bo  larger ;  they  have  been  seen  near 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  are  often  of  great  size ;  one  observed 
by  Captain  Dumontd'Urville  was  13  miles  long,  with  perpendicular 
sides  100  feet  high  :  they  are  less  varied  than  those  on  the  northern 
seas ;  a  tabular  form  is  the  most  prevalent.  The  discovery  ships 
under  the  command  of  Sir  James  Ross  met  with  multitudes  with 
flat  surfaces,  bounded  by  perpendicular  cliffs  on  every  side,  from 
100  to  180  feet  high,  sometimes  several  miles  in  circumference. 
Their  size  must  have  been  enormous,  since  more  than  two-thirds  of 
their  mass  was  below  water.  From  the  condensation  of  moisture 
in  the  surrounding  air  by  their  cold,  they  are  often  enveloped  in 
mist,  which  makes  them  still  more  formidable  to  navigators.  On 
one  occasion  they  fell  in  with  a  chain  of  stupendous  bergs  close  to 
one  another,  extending  farther  than  the  eye  could  reach  even  from 
the  mast-head.  Packed  ice  too  is  often  in  immense  quantities  :  these 
ships  forced  their  way  through  a  pack  1000  miles  broad,  often  under 
the  most  appalling  circumstances.  It  generally  consists  of  smaller 
pieces  than  the  packs  in  the  comparatively  tranquil  North  Polar 
seas,  where  they  are  often  several  miles  in  diameter,  and  where 
fields  of  ice  extend  beyond  the  reach  of  vision.  The  Antarctic 
Ocean,  on  the  contrary,  is  almost  always  agitated;  there  is  a  per- 
petual swell,  and  terrific  storms  are  common,  which  break  up  the 
ice  and  render  navigation  perilous.  The  floe  pieces  are  rarely  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  in  circumference,  and  generally  much  smaller. 

A  more  dreadful  situation  can  hardly  be  imagined  than  that  of 
ships  Ifeset  during  a  tempest  in  a  dense  pack  of  ice  in  a  dark  night, 
thick  fog,  and  drifting  snow,  with  the  spray  beating  perpetually 
over  the  decks,  and  freezing  instantaneously.  Sir  James  Ross's 
own  words  can  alone  give  an  idea  of  the  terrors  of  one  of  the  many 


CHAP.  XVI.  POLAR    ICE.  217 

gales  which  the  two  ships  under  his  command  encountered : — "  Soon 
after  midnight  our  ships  were  involved  in  an  ocean  of  rolling  frag- 
ments of  ice,  hard  as  floating  rocks  of  granite,  which  were  dashed 
against  them  by  the  waves  with  so  much  violence,  that  their  masts 
quivered  as  if  they  would  fall  at  every  successive  blow;  and  the 
destruction  of  the  ships  seemed  inevitable  from  the  tremendous 
shocks  they  received.  In  the  early  part  of  the  storm  the  rudder 
of  the  Erebus  was  so  damaged  as  to  be  no  longer  of  any  use ;  and 
about  the  same  time  I  was  informed  by  signal  that  the  Terror's  was 
completely  destroyed  and  nearly  torn  away  from  the  stern-post. 
Hour  passed  away  after  hour  without  the  least  mitigation  of  the 
awful  circumstances  in  which  we  were  placed.  The  loud  crashing 
noise  of  the  straining  and  working  of  the  timbers  and  decks,  as 
they  were  driven  against  some  of  the  heavier  pieces  of  ice,  which 
all  the  exertions  of  our  people  could  not  prevent,  was  sufficient  to 
fill  the  stoutest  heart,  that  was  not  supported  by  trust  in  Him  who 
controls  all  events,  with  dismay ;  and  I  should  commit  an  act  of  in- 
justice to  my  companions  if  I  did  not  express  my  admiration  of 
their  conduct  on  this  trying  occasion.  Throughout  a  period  of  28 
hours,  during  any  one  of  which  there  appeared  to  be  little  hope  that 
we  should  live  to  see  another,  the  coolness,  steady  obedience,  and 
untiring  exertions  of  each  individual  were  every  way  worthy  of 
British  seamen. 

"  The  storm  gained  its  height  at  2  p.  M.,  when  the  barometer 
stood  at  28-40  inches,  and  after  that  time  began  to  rise.  Although 
we  had  been  forced  many  miles  deeper  into  the  pack,  we  could  not 
perceive  that  the  swell  had  at  all  subsided,  our  ships  still  rolling  and 
groaning  amidst  the  heavy  fragments  of  crushing  bergs,  over  which 
the  ocean  rolled  its  mountainous  waves,  throwing  huge  masses  upon 
one  another,  and  then  again  burying  them  deep  beneath  its  foaming 
waters,  dashing  and  grinding  them  together  with  fearful  violence." 
For  three  successive  years  were  these  dangers  encountered  during 
this  bold  and  hazardous  enterprise.  It  was  impossible  to  pass  the 
winter  in  these  southern  seas,  but  in  the  various  expeditions  to  the 
North  Polar  Ocean  the  ships  were  frozen  fast  in  boundless  fields  of 
ice  for  many  months,  ready  to  continue  their  perilous  voyage  as  soon 
as  the  late  and  short  summer  should  break  up  the  ice.  The  still- 
ness and  dead  silence  of  these  sunless  islands  and  frozen  seas  was 
strongly  contrasted  with  the  wild  tumult  of  the  floating  ice,  through 
which  they  had  to  tread. 

The  ocean  is  one  mass  of  water,  which,  entering  into  the  interior 
of  the  continents,  has  formed  seas  and  gulfs  of  great  magnitude, 
which  afford  easy  and  rapid  means  of  communication,  while  they 
temper  the  climates  of  the  widely  expanding  continents. 

The  inland  seas  communicating  with  the  Atlantic  are  larger,  and 
penetrate  more  deeply  into  the  continents,  than  those  connected  with 
19 


218  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

the  great  ocean;  a  circumstance  which  gives  a  coast  of  48,000  miles 
to  the  former,  while  that  of  the  great  ocean  is  only  44,000.  Most 
of  these  internal  seas  have  extensive  river  domains,  so  that  by  in- 
land navigation  the  Atlantic  virtually  enters  into  the  deepest  re- 
cesses of  the  land,  brings  remote  regions  into  contact,  and  improves 
the  condition  of  the  less  cultivated  races  of  mankind  by  commercial 
intercourse  with  those  that  are  more  civilized. 

The  Baltic,  which  occupies  125,000  square  miles  in  the  centre 
of  northern  Europe,  is  one  of  the  most  important  of  the  inland  seas 
connected  with  the  Atlantic,  and,  although  inferior  to  the  others  in 
size,  the  drainage  of  more  than  a  fifth  of  Europe  flows  into  it. 
Only  about  a  fourth  part  of  the  boundary  of  its  enormous  basin  of 
900,000  square  miles  is  mountainous ;  and  so  many  navigable  rivers 
flow  into  it  from  the  watershed  of  the  great  European  plain,  that  its 
waters  are  one-fifth  less  salt  than  those  of  the  Atlantic :  it  receives 
at  least  250  streams.  Its  depth  nowhere  exceeds  167  fathoms,1  and 
generally  it  is  not  more  than  40  or  50.  From  that  cause,  together 
with  its  freshness  and  northern  latitude,  the  Baltic  is  frozen  five 
months  in  the  year.  From  the  flatness  of  the  greater  part  of  the 
adjacent  country,  the  climate  of  the  Baltic  is  subject  to  influences 
coming  from  regions  far  beyond  the  limits  of  its  river-basin.  The 
winds  from  the  Atlantic  bring  warmth  and  moisture,  which,  con- 
densed by  the  cold  blasts  from  the  Arctic  plains,  falls  in  rain  in 
summer,  and  deep  snow  in  winter,  which  also  makes  the  sea  less 
salt.  The  tides  are  imperceptible;  but  the  waters  of  the  Baltic 
occasionally  rise  more  than  three  feet  above  their  usual  level  from 
some  unknown  cause — possibly  from  oscillations  in  its  bed,  or  from 
changes  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

The  Black  Sea,  which  penetrates  most  deeply  into  the  continent 
of  all  the  seas  in  question,  has,  together  with  the  Sea  of  Azov,  an 
area  of  190,000  square  miles :  it  was  at  a  remote  period  probably 
united  with  the  Caspian  Lake,  their  united  waters  covering  all  the 
steppe  of  Astracan.  It  receives  some  of  the  largest  European 
rivers,  and  drains  about  950,000  square  miles,  consequently  its 
waters  are  brackish  and  freeze  on  its  northern  shores  in  winter.  It 
is  very  deep,  no  bottom  having  been  reached  with  a  line  of  140 
fathoms :  on  the  melting  of  the  snow,  such  a  body  of  water  is 
poured  into  it  by  the  great  European  rivers  that  a  rapid  current  is 
produced,  which  sets  along  the  western  shore  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Dnieper  to  the  Bosphorus. 

Of  all  the  branches  of  the  Atlantic  that  enter  deeply  into  the 
bosom  of  the  land,  the  Mediterranean  is  the  largest  and  most  beau- 
tiful, covering  with  its  dark-blue  waters  more  than  760,000  square 
miles.  Situate  in  a  comparatively  low  latitude,  exposed  to  the  heat 

1  By  Captain  Albrecht's  soundings. 


CHAP.  XVI.  INLAND     SEAS.  219 

of  the  African  deserts  on  the  south,  and  sheltered  on  the  north  by 
the  Alps,  the  evaporation  is  great;  on  that  account  the  water  of  the 
Mediterranean  is  salter  than  that  of  the  ocean,  and  for  the  same 
reason  the  temperature  at  its  surface  is  3|°  degrees  of  Fahrenheit 
higher  than  that  of  the  Atlantic ;  it  does  not  decrease  so  rapidly 
downwards  as  in  tropical  seas,  and  it  becomes  constant  at  depths  of 
from  340  to  1000  fathoms,  according  to  the  situations.1  Although 
its  own  river  domain  is  only  250,000  square  miles,  the  constant  cur- 
rent that  sets  in  through  the  Dardanelles  brings  a  great  part  of  the 
drainage  of  the  Black  Sea,  so  that  it  is  really  fed  by  the  melted 
snow  and  rivers  from  the  Caucasus,  Asia  Minor,  Abyssinia,  the 
Atlas,  and  the  Alps.  Yet  the  quantity  of  water  that  flows  into  the 
Mediterranean  from  the  Atlantic,  by  the  superficial  current  in  the 
Straits  of  Gibraltar,  exceeds  that  which  goes  out  by  the  inferior  cur- 
rents. 

Near  Alexandria  the  surface  of  this  sea  is  26  feet  6  inches  lower 
than  the  level  of  the  Red  Sea  at  Suez  at  low  water,  and  about  30 
feet  lower  at  high  water.2 

On  the  shore  of  Cephalonia  there  is  a  cavity  in  the  rocks,  into 
which  the  sea  has  been  flowing  for  ages.3 

The  Mediterranean  is  divided  into  two  basins  by  a  shallow  that 
runs  from  Cape  Bon  on  the  African  coast  to  the  Strait  of  Messina, 
on  each  side  of  which  the  water  is  exceedingly  deep,  and  said  to  be 
unfathomable  in  some  parts.  M.  Berard  has  sounded  to  the  depth 
of  more  than  1000  fathoms  in  several  places  without  reaching  the 
bottom.  At  Nice,  within  a  few  yards  of  the  shore,  it  is  nearly  700 
fathoms  deep ;  and  Captain  Smyth,  R.N.,  ascertained  the  depth  to 
be  960  fathoms  between  Gibraltar  and  Ceuta.  This  sea  is  not  ab- 
solutely without  tides;  in  the  Adriatic  they  rise  five  feet  in  the  port 
of  Venice,  and  at  the  Great  Syrtis  to  five  feet  at  new  and  full  moon, 
at  Naples  about  12  inches,  but  in  most  other  places  they  are  scarcely 

1  The  anomaly  of  the  waters  of  the  Mediterranean  being  at  a  higher 
temperature  at  great  depths  than  in  the  ocean,  is  explained  by  the  exist- 
ence of  a  constant  current  of  heated  water  setting  towards  the  Atlantic, 
preventing  the  entrance  of  the  cold  polar  current  to  replace  the  upper  one 
which  enters  the  Mediterranean  from  the  ocean,  through  the  Straits  of 
Gibraltar. 

It  may  be  regarded  as  a  general  rule,  that  the  temperature  of  all  inland 
seas,  at  great  depths,  represents  the  mean  temperature  of  the  earth  in  the 
latitudes  where  they  are  situated ;  whilst  in  the  ocean,  the  low  tempera- 
ture at  the  bottom,  in  every  latitude,  is  produced  by  the  cold  currents  set- 
ting eternally  from  the  polar  regions,  and  which  maintain  the  water  at  an 
almost  constant  temperature,  that  of  its  maximum  density,  39°  Fahren- 
heit. 

a  By  the  measurement  of  M.  Lepere  during  the  French  expedition  to 
Egypt.  It  would  appear,  however,  from  surveys  recently  executed,  that 
the  difference  of  level  between  the  two  seas,  if  any,  is  very  trifling. 

3  Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Geological  Society,  vol.  ii.  p.  210. 


220  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVI. 

perceptible.  The  surface  is  traversed  by  various  currents,  two  of 
which,  opposing  one  another,  occasion  the  celebrated  whirlpool  of 
Charybdis,  whose  terrors  were  much  diminished  by  the  earthquake 
of  1783.  Its  bed  is  subject  to  violent  volcanic  paroxysms,  and  its 
surface  is  studded  with  islands  of  all  sizes,  from  the  magnificent 
kingdom  of  Sicily  to  mere  barren  rocks  —  some  actively  volcanic, 
others  of  volcanic  formation,  and  many  of  the  secondary  geological 
period. 

Various  parts  of  its  coasts  are  in  a  state  of  great  instability ;  in 
some  places  they  have  sunk  down  and  risen  again  more  than  once 
within  the  historical  period. 

Far  to  the  north  the  Atlantic  penetrates  the  American  continent 
by  Davis' s  Straits,  and  spreads  out  into  Baffin's  Bay,  twice  the  size 
of  the  Baltic,  very  deep,  and  subject  to  all  the  rigours  of  an  arctic 
winter  —  the  very  storehouse  of  icebergs  —  the  abode  of  the  walrus 
and  the  whale.  Hudson's  Bay,  though  without  the  Arctic  Circle, 
is  but  little  less  dreary. 

Very  different  is  the  character  of  those  vast  seas  where  the  At- 
lantic comes  "cranking  in"  between  the  northern  and  southern 
continents  of  America.  The  surface  of  the  sea  in  Baffin's  Bay  is 
seldom  above  the  freezing  point ;  here,  on  the  contrary,  it  is  always 
88° -5  of  Fahrenheit,  while  the  Atlantic  Ocean  in  the  same  latitude 
is  not  above  77°  or  78°.  Of  that  huge  mass  of  water,  partially 
separated  from  the  Atlantic  by  a  long  line  of  islands  and  banks,  the 
Caribbean  Sea  is  the  largest;  it  is  as  long  from  east  to  west  as  the 
distance  between  Great  Britain  and  Newfoundland,  and  occupies  a 
million  of  square  miles.  Its  depth  in  many  places  is  very  great, 
and  its  water  is  limpid.  The  Gulf  of  Mexico,  fed  by  the  Missis- 
sippi, one  of  the  greatest  of  rivers,  is  more  than  half  its  size,  or 
about  800,000  square  miles,  so  that  the  whole  forms  a  sea  cf  great 
magnitude.  Its  shores,  and  the  shores  of  the  numerous  islands,  are 
dangerous  from  shoals  and  coral-reefs,  but  the  interior  of  these  seas 
is  not.  The  trade-winds  prevail  there ;  they  are  subject  to  severe 
northern  gales,  and  some  parts  are  occasionally  visited  by  tremendous 
hurricanes. 

By  the  levelling  across  the  Isthmus  of  Panama  by  Mr.  Lloyd,  in 
1828,  the  mean  height  of  the  Pacific  above  that  of  the  Atlantic  was 
found  to  be  about  three  feet.  The  rise  of  the  tide  on  the  Atlantic 
side  does  not  exceed  two  feet,  while  at  Panam&  it  is  more  than 
eighteen ;  and  it  is  high  water  at  the  same  time  on  both  sides  of 
the  Isthmus. 

The  Pacific  does  not  penetrate  the  land  in  the  same  manner  that 
the  Atlantic  does  the  continent  of  Europe.  The  Red  Sea  and  Per- 
sian Gulf  are  joined  to  it  by  very  narrow  straits ;  but  almost  all  the 
internal  seas  on  the  eastern  coast  of  Asia,  except  the  Yellow  Sea, 
are  great  gulfs  shut  in  by  islands,  like  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  the 


CHAP.  XVII.  SPRINGS.  221 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  to  which  the  China  Sea,  the  Sea  of  Japan,  and 
that  of  Okhotsk  are  perfectly  analogous. 

The  set  of  the  great  oceanic  currents  has  scooped  out  and  indented 
the  southern  and  eastern  coasts  of  the  Asiatic  continent  into  enor- 
mous bays  and  gulfs,  and  has  separated  large  portions  of  the  land, 
which  now  remain  as  islands  —  a  process  which  probably  has  been 
ncreased  by  the  submarine  fires  extending  along  the  eastern  coast 
irom  the  equator  nearly  to  the  Arctic  Circle. 

The  perpetual  agitation  of  the  ocean  by  winds,  tides,  and  currents 
is  continually,  but  slowly,  changing  the  form  and  position  of  the 
land  —  steadily  producing  those  vicissitudes  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  to  which  it  has  been  subject  for  ages,  and  to  which  it  will  as- 
suredly be  liable  in  all  time  to  come. 


CHAPTER   XVII. 

Springs  —  Basins  of  the  Ocean  —  Origin,  Course,  and  Heads  of  Rivers  — 
Hydraulic  Systems  of  Europe — African  Rivers  —  the  Nile,  Niger,  &c. 

THE  vapour  which  rises  invisibly  from  the  land  and  water  ascends 
in  the  atmosphere  till  it  is  condensed  by  the  cold  into  clouds,  which 
restore  it  again  to  the  earth  in  «the  form  of  rain,  hail,  and  snow; 
hence  there  is  probably  not  a  drop  of  water  on  the  globe  that  has 
not  been  borne  on  the  wings  of  the  wind.  Part  of  this  moisture 
restored  to  the  earth  is  re-absorbed  by  the  air,  part  supplies  the 
wants  of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  a  portion  is  carried  off  by  the 
streams,  and  the  remaining  part  penetrates  through  porous  soils  till 
it  arrives  at  a  stratum  impervious  to  water,  where  it  accumulates  ia 
subterranean  lakes  often  of  great  extent.  The  mountains  receive 
the  greatest  portion  of  the  aerial  moisture,  and,  from  the  many  al- 
ternations of  permeable  and  impermeable  strata  they  contain,  a 
complete  system  of  reservoirs  is  formed  in  them,  which,  continually 
overflowing,  form  perennial  springs  at  different  elevations,  which 
unite  and  run  down  their  sides  in  incipient  rivers.  A  great  portion 
of  the  water  at  these  high  levels  penetrates  the  earth  till  it  comes 
to  an  impermeable  stratum  below  the  plains,  where  it  collects  in  a 
sheet,  and  is  forced  by  hydraulic  pressure  to  rise  in  springs,  through 
cracks  in  the  ground,  to  the  surface.  In  this  manner  the  water 
which  falls  on  hills  and  mountains  is  carried  through  highly-inclined 
strata  to  great  depths,  and  even  below  the  bed  of  the  ocean,  in  many 
parts  of  which  there  are  springs  of  fresh  water.  In  boring  Artesian 
wells  the  water  often  rushes  up  with  such  impetuosity  by  the  hydro- 
19  * 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVTI. 

static  pressure  as  to  form  jets  40  or  50  feet  high.  In  this  opera- 
tion several  successive  reservoirs  have  been  met  with ;  at  St.  Ouen, 
near  Paris,  five  sheets  of  water  were  found ;  the  water  in  the  first 
four  not  being  good,  the  operation  was  continued  to  a  greater  depth ; 
it  consists  merely  in  boring  a  hole  of  small  diameter,  and  lining  it 
with  a  metallic  tube.  It  rarely  happens  that  water  may  not  be  pro- 
cured in  this  way ;  and  as  the  substratum  in  many  parts  of  deserts 
is  an  argillaceous  marl,  it  is  probable  that  Artesian  wells  might  be 
bored  with  success  in  the  most  arid  regions. 

A  spring  will  be  intermittent  when  it  issues  from  an  opening  in 
the  side  of  a  reservoir  fed  from  above,  if  the  supply  be  not  equal  to 
the  waste,  for  the  water  will  sink  below  the  opening,  and  the  spring 
will  stop  till  the  reservoir  is  replenished.  Few  springs  give  the 
same  quantity  of  water  at  all  times ;  they  also  vary  much  in  the 
quantity  of  foreign  matter  they  contain.  Mountain-springs  are 
generally  very  pure :  the  carbonic  acid  gas  almost  always  found  in 
them  escapes  into  the  atmosphere,  and  their  earthy  matter  is  de- 
posited as  they  mn  along,  so  that  river-water  from  such  sources  is 
soft,  while  wells  and  springs  in  the  plains  are  hard,  and  more  or 
less  mineral.  . ,.:• 

The  water  of  springs  takes  its  temperature  from  that  of  the  strata 
through  which  it  passes ;  mountain-springs  are  cold,  but  if  the  water 
has  penetrated  deep  into  the  earth,  it  requires  a  temperature  de- 
pending on  that  circumstance. 

The  temperature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth  varies  with  the  sea- 
sons to  a  certain  depth,  where  it  becomes  permanent  and  equal  to 
the  mean  annual  temperature  of  the  air  above.  It  is  evident  that 
the  depth  at  which  this  stratum  of  invariable  temperature  lies  must 
vary  with  the  latitude.  At  the  equator  the  effect  of  the  seasons  is 
imperceptible  at  the  depth  of  a  foot  below  the  surface  :  between  the 
parallels  of  40°  and  52°  the  temperature  of  the  ground  in  Europe 
is  constant  at  the  depth  of  from  55  to  60  feet :  and  in  the  high 
Arctic  regions  the  soil  is  perpetually  frozen  a  foot  below  the  surface. 
Now,  in  every  part  of  the  world  where  experiments  have  been  made, 
the  temperature  of  the  earth  increases  with  the  depth  below  the 
constant  stratum  at  the  rate  of  1°  of  Fahrenheit  for  every  50  or  60 
feet  of  perpendicular  depth ;  hence,  should  the  increase  continue  to 
follow  the  same  ratio,  even  granite  must  be  in  fusion  at  little  more 
than  five  miles  below  the  surface.  In  Siberia  the  stratum  of  frozen 
earth  is  some  hundred  feet  thick,  but  below  that  the  increase  of 
heat  with  the  depth  is  three  times  as  rapid  as  in  Europe.  The  tem- 
perature of  springs  must  therefore  depend  on  the  depth  to  which 
the  water  has  penetrated  before  it  has  been  forced  to  the  surface, 
either  by  the  hydraulic  pressure  of  water  at  higher  levels  or  by 
steam.  If  it  never  goes  below  the  stratum  of  invariable  tempera- 
ture, the  heat  of  the  spring  will  vary  with  the  seasons,  more  or  less, 


CHAP.  xvn.  SPRINGS.  223 

according  to  the  depth  below  the  surface :  should  the  water  come 
from  the  constant  stratum  itself,  its  temperature  will  be  invariable  ; 
and  if  from  below  it,  the  heat  will  be  in  proportion  to  the  depth  to 
which  it  has  penetrated.  Thus,  there  may  be  hot  and  even  boiling 
springs  hundreds  of  miles  distant  from  volcanic  action  and  volcanic 
strata,  of  which  there  are  many  examples,  though  they  are  more 
frequent  in  volcanic  countries  and  those  subject  to  earthquakes. 
The  temperature  of  hot  springs  is  very  constant,  and  that  of  boiling 
springs  has  remained  unchanged  for  ages:  shocks  of  earthquakes 
sometimes  affect  the  temperature,  and  have  even  stopped  them  alto- 
gether. Jets  of  steam  of  high  tension  are  frequent  in  volcanic 
countries,  as  in  Iceland. 

Both  hot  and  cold  water  dissolves  and  combines  with  many  of  the 
mineral  substances  it  meets  with  in  the  earth,  and  comes  to  the  sur- 
face from  great  depths  as  medicinal  springs,  containing  various  ingre- 
dients. So  numerous  are  they  that  in  the  Austrian  dominions  alone 
there  are  1500;  and  few  countries  of  any  extent  are  destitute  of 
them.  They  contain  hydro-sulphuric  and  carbonic  acids,  sulphur, 
iron,  magnesia,  and  other  substances.  Boiling  springs  deposit  silex, 
as  in  Iceland  and  in  the  Azores ;  and  others  of  lower  temperature 
deposit  carbonate  of  lime  in  great  quantities  all  over  the  world. 
Springs  of  pure  brine  are  rare ;  those  in  Cheshire  are  rich  in  salt, 
and  have  flowed  unchanged  1000  years,  a  proof  of  the  tranquil  state 
of  that  part  of  the  globe.  Many  substances  that  lie  beyond  our 
reach  are  brought  to  the  surface  by  springs,  as  naphtha,  petroleum, 
and  boracic  acid ;  petroleum  is  particularly  abundant  in  Persia,  and 
numberless  springs  and  lakes  of  it  surround  some  parts  of  the  Cas- 
pian Sea.  It  is  found  in  immense  quantities  in  various  parts  of  the 
world. 

1UVERS. 

Rivers  have  had  a  greater  influence  on  the  location  and  fortunes 
of  the  human  race  than  almost  any  other  physical  cause,  and,  since 
their  velocity  has  been  overcome  by  steam-navigation,  they  have 
become  the  highway  of  the  nations. 

They  frequently  rise  in  lakes,  which  they  unite  with  the  sea;  in 
other  instances  they  spring  from  small  elevations  in  the  plains,  from 
perennial  sources  in  the  mountains,  alpine  lakes,  melted  snow  and 
glaciers ;  but  the  everlasting  storehouses  of  the  mightiest  floods  are 
the  ice-clad  mountains  of  table-lands. 

Rivers  are  constantly  increased,  in  descending  the  mountains  and 
traversing  the  plains,  by  tributaries,  till  at  last  they  flow  into  the 
ocean,  their  ultimate  destination  and  remote  origin.  "  All  rivers  run 
into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea  is  not  full/'  because  it  gives  in  evaporation 
an  equivalent  for  what  it  receives. 


224  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVTT. 

The  Atlantic,  the  Arctic,  and  the  Pacific  Oceans  are  directly  or 
indirectly  the  recipients  of  all  the  rivers,  therefore  their  basins  are 
bounded  by  the  principal  watersheds  of  the  continents ;  for  the  basin 
of  a  sea  or  ocean  does  not  mean  only  the  bed  actually  occupied  by 
the  water,  but  comprehends  also  all  the  land  drained  by  the  rivers 
which  fall  into  it,  and  is  bounded  by  an  imaginary  line  passing 
through  all  their  sources.  These  lines  generally  run  through  the 
elevated  parts  of  a  country  that  divide  the  streams  which  flow  in  one 
direction  from  those  that  flow  in  another.  But  the  watershed  does 
not  coincide  in  all  cases  with  mountain-crests  of  great  elevation,  as 
the  mere  convexity  of  a  plain  is  often  sufficient  to  throw  the  streams 
into  different  directions. 

From  the  peculiar  structure  of  the  high  land  and  mountain-chains, 
by  far  the  greater  number  of  important  rivers  on  the  globe  flow  into 
the  ocean  in  an  easterly  direction,  those  which  flow  to  the  south  and 
north  being  the  next  in  size,  while  those  that  flow  in  a  westerly 
direction  are  small  and  unimportant. 

The  course  of  all  rivers  is  changed  when  they  pass  from  one  geo- 
logical formation  to  another,  or  by  dislocations  of  the  strata :  the 
sudden  deviations  in  their  directions  are  generally  owing  to  these 
circumstances. 

None  of  the  European  rivers  flowing  directly  into  the  Atlantic 
exceed  the  fourth  or  fifth  magnitude,  except  the  Rhine ;  the  rest  of 
the  principal  streams  come  to  it  indirectly  through  the  Baltic,  the 
Black  Sea,  and  the  Mediterranean.  It  nevertheless  receives  nearly 
half  the  waters  of  the  old  continent,  and  almost  all  of  the  new,  be- 
cause the  Andes  and  Rocky  Mountains,  which  form  the  watershed 
of  the  American  continent,  lie  along  its  western  side,  and  the  rivers 
which  rise  on  their  western  slopes  flow  to  the  east,  whilst  the  Alle- 
ghanies  are  tributaries  to  the  Mississippi,  which  comes  indirectly 
into  the  Atlantic  by  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

The  Arctic  Ocean  drains  the  high  northern  latitudes  of  America, 
and  receives  those  magnificent  Siberian  rivers  that  originate  in  the 
Altai  range  from  the  Steppe  of  the  Kerghis  to  the  extremity  of 
Kamtchatka,  as  well  as  the  very  inferior  streams  of  North  European 
Russia.  The  running  waters  of  the  rest  of  the  world  flow  into  the 
Pacific.  The  Caspian  and  Lake  Aral  are  mere  salt-water  lakes, 
which  receive  rivers,  but  emit  none.  However,  nearly  one-half  of 
all  the  running  water  in  Europe  falls  into  the  Black  Sea  and  the 
Caspian. 

Mountain  torrents  gradually  lose  velocity  in  their  descent  to  the 
low  lands  by  friction,  and  when  they  enter  the  plains  their  course 
becomes  still  more  gentle,  and  their  depth  greater.  A  slope  of  one 
foot  in  200  prevents  a  river  from  being  navigable,  and  a  greater  in- 
clination forms  a  rapid  or  cataract.  The  speed,  however,  does  not 
depend  entirely  upon  the  slope,  but  also  upon  the  height  of  the 


CHAP.  XVII.  COURSE    OF    RIVERS.  225 

source  of  the  river,  and  the  pressure  of  the  body  of  water  in  the 
upper  part  of  its  course ;  consequently,  under  the  same  circumstan- 
ces, large  rivers  run  faster  than  small,  but  in  each  individual  stream 
the  velocity  is  perpetually  varying  with  the  form  of  the  banks,  the 
winding  of  the  course,  and  the  changes  in  the  width  of  the  channel. 
The  Rhone,  one  of  the  most  rapid  European  rivers,  has  a  declivity 
of  one  foot  in  2620,  and  flows  at  the  rate  of  120  feet  in  a  minute ; 
the  sluggish  rivers  in  Flanders  have  only  one-half  that  velocity. 
The  Danube,  the  Tigris,  and  the  Indus  are  among  the  most  rapid  of 
the  large  rivers.  In  flat  countries  rivers  are  generally  more  mean- 
dering, and  thus  they  afford  a  greater  amount  of  irrigation;  the 
windings  of  the  Vistula  are  nearly  equal  to  nine-tenths  of  its  direct 
course  from  its  source  to  its  mouth. 

When  one  river  falls  into  another,  the  depth  and  velocity  are  in- 
creased, but  not  always  proportionally  to  the  width  of  the  channel, 
which  sometimes  even  becomes  less,  as  at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio 
with  the  Mississippi.  When  the  angle  of  junction  is  very  obtuse, 
and  the  velocity  of  the  tributary  stream  great,  it  sometimes  forces 
the  waters  of  its  primary  to  recede  a  short  distance.  The  Arve, 
swollen  by  a  freshet,  occasionally  drives  the  water  of  the  Rhone 
back  into  the  Lake  of  Geneva;  and  it  once  happened  that  the  force 
was  so  great  as  to  make  the 'mill-wheels  revolve  in  a  contrary  direc- 
tion. 

Streams  sometimes  suddenly  vanish,  and  after  flowing  underground 
to  some  distance  reappear  at  the  surface,  as  in  Derbyshire.  In- 
stances have  occurred  of  rivers  suddenly  stopping  in  their  course  for 
some  hours,  and  leaving  their  channels  dry.  On  the  56th  of  No- 
vember, 1838,  the  water  failed  so  completely  in  the  Clyde,  Nith, 
and  Teviot,  that  the  mills  were  stopped  eight  hours  in  the  lower  part 
of  their  streams.  The  cause  was  the  coincidence  of  a  gale  of  wind 
and  a  strong  frost,  which  congealed  the  water  near  their  sources. 
Exactly  the  contrary  happens  in  the  Siberian  rivers,  which  flow  from 
south  to  north  over  so  many  hundreds  of  miles ;  the^upper  parts  are 
thawed,  while  the  lower  are  still  frozen,  and  the  water,  not  finding 
an  outlet,  inundates  the  country. 

The  alluvial  soil  carried  down  by  streams  is  gradually  deposited 
as  their  velocity  diminishes ;  and  if  they  are  subject  to  inundations, 
and  the  coast  flat,  it  forms  deltas  at  their  mouths ;  there  they  gene- 
rally divide  into  branches,  which  often  join  again,  or  are  united  by 
transverse  channels,  so  that  a  labyrinth  of  streams  and  islands  is 
formed.  Deltas  are  sometimes  found  in  the  interior  of  the  conti- 
nents at  the  junction  of  rivers,  exactly  similar  to  those  on  the  ocean, 
though  less  extensive :  deltas  are  said  to  be  maritime,  lacustrine,  or 
fluviatile,  according  as  the'stream  that  forms  them  falls  into  the  sea, 
a  lake,  or  another  river. 

Tides  flow  up  rivers  to  a  great  distance,  and  to  a  height  far  above 


226  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVII. 

the  level  of  the  sea :  the  tide  is  perceptible  in  the  river  of  the  Ama- 
zon 576  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  it  ascends  255  miles  in  the  Ori- 
noco. 

In  the  temperate  zones  rivers  are  subject  to  floods  from  autumnal 
rains,  and  the  melting  of  the  snow,  especially  on  mountain-ranges. 
The  Po,  for  example,  spreads  desolation  far  and  wide  over  the  plains 
of  Lombardy;  but  these  torrents  are  as  variable  in  their  recurrence 
and  extent  as  the  climate  which  produces  them.  The  inundations 
of  the  rivers  in  the  torrid  zone,  on  the  contrary,  occur  with  a  regu- 
larity peculiar  to  a  region  in  which  meteoric  phenomena  are  uniform 
in  all  their  changes.  These  floods  are  due  to  the  periodical  rains, 
which,  in  tropical  countries,  follow  the  cessation  of  the  trade-winds 
after  the  vernal  equinox  and  at  the  turn  of  the  monsoons,  and  are 
thus  dependent  on  the  declination  of  the  sun,  the  immediate  cause 
of  all  these  variations.  The  melting  of  the  snow  no  doubt  adds 
greatly  to  the  floods  of  the  tropical  rivers  which  rise  in  high  moun- 
tain-chains, but  it  is  only  an  accessary  circumstance ;  for  although 
the  snow-water  from  the  Himalaya  swells  the  streams  considerably 
before  the  rains  begin,  yet  the  principal  effect  is  owing  to  the  latter, 
as  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya  is  not  beyond  the  influence  of 
the  monsoon,  and  the  consequent  periodical  rains,  which  besides 
prevail  all  over  the  plains  of  India  traversed  by  the  great  rivers  and 
their  tributaries. 

Under  like  circumstances,  the  floods  of  rivers,  whose  sources  have 
the  same  latitude,  take  place  at  the  same  season ;  but  the  periods  of 
the  inundations  of  rivers  on  one  side  of  the  equator  are  exactly  the 
contrary  of  what  they  are  in  rivers  on  the  other  side  of  it,  on  ac- 
count of  the  declination  of  the  sun.  The  flood  in  the  Orinoco  is  at 
its  greatest  height  in  the  month  of  August,  while  that  of  the  river 
Amazon,  south  of  the  equinoctial  line,  is  at  its  greatest  elevation  in 
March.1  The  commencement  and  end  of  the  annual  inundations  in 
each  river  depend  upon  the  average  time  of  the  beginning,  and  on 
the  duration  of  the  rains  in  the  latitudes  traversed  by  its  affluents. 
The  periods  of  the  floods  in  such  rivers  as  run  towards  the  equator 
are  different  from  those  flowing  in  an  opposite  direction ;  and  as  the 
rise  requires  time  to  travel,  it  happens  at  regular  but  different  periods 
in  various  parts  of  the  same  river,  if  very  long.  The  height  to 
which  the  water  rises  in  the  annual  floods  depends  upon  the  nature 
of  the  country,  but  it  is  wonderfully  constant  in  each  individual  river 
where  the  course  is  long;  for  the  inequality  in  the  quantity  of  rain 
in  a  district  drained  by  any  of  its  affluents  is  imperceptible  in  the 
general  flood,  and  thus  the  quantity  of  water  carried  down  is  a  mea- 
sure of  the  mean  humidity  of  the  whole  country  comprised  in  its 
basifl  from  year  to  year.  By  the  admirable  arrangement  of  these 

Baron  Humboldt's  Personal  Narrative. 


CHAP.  XVII.        HYDRAULIC   SYSTEMS   OF   EUROPE.  227 

periodical  inundations  the  fresh  soil  of  the  mountains,  borne  down 
by  the  water,  enriches  countries  far  remote  from  their  source.  The 
waters  from  the  high  lands  designated  as  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon, 
and  of  Abyssinia,  have  fertilized  the  banks  of  the  Nile  through  a 
distance  of  2500  miles  for  thousands  of  years. 

When  rivers  rise  in  mountains,  water  communication  between 
them  in  the  upper  parts  of  their  course  is  impossible ;  but  when 
they  descend  to  the  plains,  or  rise  in  the  low  lands,  the  boundaries 
between  the  countries  drained  by  them  become  low,  and  the  different 
systems  may  be  united  by  canals.  It  sometimes  happens  in  exten- 
sive and  very  level  plains,  that  the  tributaries  of  the  principal  streams 
either  unite  or  are  connected  by  a  natural  canal  by  which  a  commu- 
nication is  formed  between  the  two  basins  —  a  circumstance  advan- 
tageous to  the  navigation  and  commerce  of  both,  especially  where 
the  junction  takes  place  far  inland,  as  between  the  Orinoco  and  Ama- 
zon in  the  interior  of  South  Amersca.  The  Rio  Negro,  one  of  the 
largest  affluents  of  the  latter,  is  united  to  the  Upper  Orinoco  in  the 
plains  of  Esmeralda  by  the  Cassiquiare  —  a  stream  as  large  as  the 
Rhine,  with  a  velocity  of  12  feet  in  a  second.  Baron  Humboldt 
observes  that  the  Orinoco,  sending  a  branch  to  the  Amazon,  is, 
with  regard  to  distance,  as  if  the  Rhine  should  send  one  to  the 
Seine  or  Loire.  At  some  future  period  this  junction  will  be  of  great 
importance.  These  bifurcations  are  frequent  in  the  deltas  of  rivers, 
but  very  rare  in  the  interior  of  continents.  The  Chiana,  which  con- 
nects the  upper  branches  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Arno,  is  the  most 
remarkable  instance  of  this  kind  of  junction  in  Europe.  The  Maha- 
nuddy  and  Godavery,  in  Hindostan,  offer  something  of  the  kind; 
and  there  are  several  instances  in  the  great  rivers  of  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese peninsula. 

The  hydraulic  system  of  Europe  is  eminently  favourable  to  in- 
land navigation,  small  as  the  rivers  are  in  comparison  with  those  in 
other  parts  of  the  world;  but  the  flatness  of  the  great'  plain,  and 
the  lowness  of  its  watershed,  are  very  favourable  to  the  construction. 
of  canals.  In  the  west,  however,  the  Alps  and  German  mountains 
divide  the  waters  that  flow  to  the  Atlantic  on  one  side,  and  to  the 
Mediterranean  and  Black  Sea  on  the  other ;  but  in  the  eastern  parts 
of  Europe  the  division  of  the  waters  is  merely  a  more  elevated  ridge 
of  the  plain  itself,  for  in  all  plains  such  undulations  exist,  though 
often  imperceptible  to  the  eye.  This  watershed  begins  on  the 
northern  declivity  of  the  Carpathian  Mountains  about  the  23rd  me- 
ridian, in  a  low  range  of  hills  running  between  the  sources  of  the 
Dnieper  and  the  tributaries  of  the  Vistula,  from  whence  it  winds  in 
a  tortuous  course  along  the  plain  to  the  Valdai  table-land,  which  is 
its  highest  point,  1200  feet  above  the  sea;  it  then  declines  north- 
ward towards  Onega,  about  the  60th  parallel,  and  lastly  turns  in  a 
very  serpentine  line  to  the  sources  of  the  Kama  in  the  Ural  naoun- 


228  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVII. 

tains  near  the  62nd  degree  of  north  latitude.  The  waters  north  of 
this  line  run  into  the  Baltic  and  White  Sea,  and,  on  the  south  of 
it,  into  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian. 

Thus  Europe  is  divided  into  two  principal  hydraulic  systems ;  but 
since  the  basin  of  a  river  comprehends  all  the  plains  and  valleys 
drained  by  it  and  its  tributaries  from  its  source  to  the  sea,  each 
country  is  subdivided  into  as  many  natural  divisions  or  basins  as  it 
has  primary  rivers,  and  these  generally  comprise  all  the  rich  and 
habitable  parts  of  the  earth,  and  are  the  principal  centres  of  civili- 
zation, or  are  capable  of  becoming  so. 

The  streams  to  the  north  of  the  general  watershed  are  very  nu- 
merous; those  to  the  south  are  of  greater  magnitude.  The  sys- 
tems of  the  Volga  and  Danube  are  the  most  extensive  in  Europe ; 
the  former  has  a  basin  comprising  640,000  square  miles,  and  is  navi- 
gable throughout  the  greater  part  of  its  course  of  1900  miles.  It 
rises  in  a  small  lake  on  the  slopes  of  the  Valdai  table-land,  550  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  ocean,  and  falls  into  the  Caspian,  which  is  83 
feet  7  inches  below  the  level  of  the  Black  Sea,  so  that  it  has  a  fall 
of  633  feet  in  a  course  of  more  than  2400  miles.  It  carries  to  the 
Caspian  one-seventh  of  all  the  river-water  of  Europe. 

The  Danube  drains  300,000  square  miles,  and  receives  60  navi- 
gable tributaries.  Its  quantity  of  water  is  nearly  as  much  as  that 
of  all  the  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into  the  Black  Sea  taken 
together.  Its  direct  course  is  900  miles,  its  meandering  line  is 
2400.  It  rises  in  the  Black  Forest  at  an  elevation  of  2850  feet 
above  the  level  of  the  sea,  so  that  it  has  considerable  velocity, 
which,  as  well  as  rocks  and  rapids,  impedes  its  navigation  in  many 
places,  but  it  is  navigable  downwards,  through  Austria,  for  600 
miles,  to  New  Orsova,  from  whence  it  flows  in  a  gentle  current  to 
the  Black  Sea.  The  commercial  importance  of  these  two  rivers  is 
much  increased  by  their  flowing  into  inland  seas.  By  canals  between 
the  Volga  and  the  rivers  north  of  the  watershed,  the  Baltic  and 
White  Seas  are  connected  with  the  Black  Sea  and  the  Caspian ;  and 
the  Baltic  and  Black  Sea  are  also  connected  by  a  canal  between  the 
Don  and  the  Dnieper.  Altogether  the  water  system  of  Russia  is 
the  most  extensive  in  Europe. 

The  whole  of  Holland  is  a  collection  of  deltoid  islands,  formed 
by  the  Rhine,  the  Meuse,  and  the  Scheldt  —  a  structure  very  fa- 
vourable to  commerce,  and  which  has  facilitated  an  extensile  internal 
navigation.  The  Mediterranean  is  already  connected  with  the  North 
Sea  by  the  canal  which  runs  from  the  Rhone  to  the  Rhine ;  and 
this  noble  system,  extended  over  the  whole  of  France  by  7591  miles 
of  inland  navigation,  has  conduced  mainly  to  the  improved  state 
of  that  great  country. 

Many  navigable  streams  rise  in  the  Spanish  mountains;  of  these 
the  Tagus  has  depth  enough  for  the  largest  ships  as  high  as  Lisbon. 


CHAP.  XVII.         HYDRAULIC    SYSTEMS   OP   EUROPE.  229 

Its  actual  course  is  480  miles,  but  its  direct  line  much  less.  In 
point  of  magnitude,  however,  the  Spanish  rivers  are  of  inferior 
order,  but  canals  have  rendered  them  beneficial  to  the  country. 
Italy  is  less  favoured  in  her  rivers,  which  only  admit  vessels  of 
small  burthen ;  those  on  the  north  are  by  much  the  most  important, 
especially  the  Po  and  its  tributaries,  which  by  canals  connect  Venice 
and  Milan  with  various  fertile  provinces  of  Northern  Italy ;  but 
whatever  advantages  nature  has  afforded  to  the  Italian  states  have 
been  improved  by  able  engineers,  both  in  ancient  and  modern  times. 

The  application  of  the  science  of  hydraulics  to  rivers  took  its  rise 
in  Northern  Italy,  which  has  been  carried  to  such  perfection  in  some 
points,  that  China  is  the  only  country  which  can  vie  with  it  in  the 
practice  of  irrigation.  •  The  lock  on  canals  was  in  use  in  Lombardy 
as  early  as  the  13th  century,  and  in  the  end  of  the  15th  it  was  ap- 
plied to  two  canals  which  unite  the  Ticino  and  the  Adda,  by  that 
great  artist  and  philosopher  Leonardo  da  Vinci ;  about  the  same 
time  he  introduced  the  use  of  the  lock  into  France.1 

Various  circumstances  combine  to  make  the  British  rivers  more 
useful  than  many  others  of  greater  magnitude.  The  larger  streams 
are  not  encumbered  with  rocks  or  rapids ;  they  all  run  into  branches 
of  the  Atlantic ;  the  tides  flow  up  their  channels  to  a  considerable 
distance ;  and  above  all,  though  short  in  their  course,  they  end  in 
wide  estuaries  and  sounds,  capable  of  containing  whole  navies  —  a 
circumstance  that  gives  an  importance  to  streams  otherwise  insigni- 
ficant, when  compared  with  the  great  rivers  of  either  the  old  or  new 
continent. 

The  Thames,  whose  basin  is  only  5027  square  miles,  and  whose 
whole  length  is  but  240  miles,  of  which,  however,  204  are  navigable, 
spreads  its  influence  over  the  remotest  parts  of  the  earth ;  its  depth 
is  sufficient  to  admit  large  vessels  even  up  to  London,  and  through- 
out its  navigable  course  a  continued  forest  of  masts  display  the  flags 
of  every  nation :  its  banks,  which  are  in  a  state  of  perfect  cultiva- 
tion, are  the  seat  of  the  highest  civilization,  moral  and  political. 
Local  circumstances  have  undoubtedly  been  favourable  to  this  supe- 
rior development,  but  the  earnest  and  energetic  temperament  of  the 
Saxon  races  has  rendered  the  advantages  of  their  position  available. 
The  same  may  be  said  of  other  rivers  in  the  British  islands,  where 
commercial  enterprise  and  activity  vie  with  that  on  the  Thames. 
There  are  2790  miles  of  canal  in  Britain,  and,  including  rivers, 

1  Leonardo  da  Vinci  was  appointed  Director  of  Hydraulic  Operations  in 
Lombardy  by  the  Duke  of  Milan,  and  during  the  time  he  was  painting  the 
"Last  Supper"  he  completed  the  Canal  of  Martesana,  extending  from  the 
Adda  to  Milan,  and  improved  the  course  of  the  latter  river  from  where  it 
emerges  from  the  Lake  of  Como  to  the  Po.  By  means  of  the  Naviglio 
Grande,  the  Martesana  Canal  establishes  a  water  communication  between 
the  Adda  and  the  Ticino,  the  Lakes  of  Como  and  Maggiore. 
20 


230  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVII. 

5430  miles  of  inland  navigation,  which,  in  comparison  with  the  size 
of  the  country,  is  very  great ;  it  is  even  said  that  no  part  of  England 
is  more  than  15  miles  distant  from  water  communication. 

On  the  whole,  Europe  is  fortunate  with  regard  to  its  water  sys- 
tems, and  its  inhabitants  are  for  the  most  part  alive  to  the  bounties 
which  Providence  has  bestowed. 


AFRICAN  RIYEES. 

In  Africa  the  tropical  climate  and  the  extremes  of  aridity  and 
moisture  give  a  totally  different  character  to  its  rivers.  The  most 
southerly  part  is  comparatively  destitute  of  them,  and  those  that  do 
exist  are  of  inferior  size,  except  the  Gariep,  or  Orange  River,  which 
has  a  long  course  on  the  table-land,  but  is  nowhere  navigable.  From 
the  eastern  edge  of  the  table-land  of  South  Africa,  which  is  very 
abrupt,  rise  all  those  rivers  which  flow  across  the  plains  of  Mozam- 
bique and  Zanguebar  to  the  Indian  Ocean.  Of  these  the  Zambesi, 
or  Quillimane,  is  probably  the  largest :  it  is  said  to  have  a  course  of 
900  miles,  and  to  be  navigable  during  the  rains  for  200  or  300  miles 
from  its  mouth.  The  Ozay,  not  far  south  of  the  equator,  is  also 
believed  to  be  of  great  extent,  and  the  Juba,  more  to  the  north;  all 
these  streams  have  little  water  at  their  mouths  during  the  dry  sea- 
son, but  in  the  rainy  season  they  are  navigable.  Some  of  those  still 
farther  north  do  not  reach  the  sea  at  all  times  of  the  year,  but  end 
in  lakes  and  marshes,  as  the  Haines,  or  Webbi,  and  Hawash.  The 
first,  after  coming  to  within  a  small  distance  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
runs  southward  parallel  to  the  coast,  and  falls  into  a  very  large  and 
deep  lake  about  a  degree  north  of  the  equator.  Between  the  Ha- 
wash and  the  Straits  of  Bab-el-Mandeb  there  is  no  river  of  any  note. 
In  many  parts  of  the  coast,  near  the  rivers,  grain  ripens  all  the 
year,  and  every  eastern  vegetable  production  might  be  raised.  The 
Hawash  runs  through  a  low  desert  country  inhabited  by  the  Dankali 
Beduins  :  that  river  is  the  recipient  of  the  waters  which  come  from 
the  eastern  declivity  of  the  table-land  of  Abyssinia,  while  the  Nile 
receives  those  of  the  opposite  slope. 

The  part  of  the  table-land  between  the  18th  parallel  of  south 
latitude  and  the  equator  is  the  origin  from  whence  the  waters  flow 
to  the  Atlantic  on  one  hand,  and  to  the  Mediterranean  on  the  other. 
Those  which  go  to  the  Atlantic  rise  south  of  Lake  N'yassi,  chiefly 
in  a  ridge  of  no  great  elevation  which  runs  from  S.W.  to  N.E.  to 
the  west  of  the  dominions  of  the  Cambeze,  and,  after  falling  in  cas- 
cades and  rapids  through  the  chains  that  border  the  table-land  on  th§ 
west,  fertilize  the  luxuriant  maritime  plains  of  Benguela,  Congo, 
Angola,  and  Loando.  The  Zaire,  or  Congo,  by  much  the  krgest  of 
these,  is  navigable  for  140  miles,  where  the  ascent  of  the  tide  is 
stopped  by  cataracts.  The  lower  course  of  this  river  is  5  or  6  miles 


CHAP.  XVII.  THE    NILE.  231 

broad,  full  of  islands,  and  160  fathoms  deep  at  its  mouth.  Its 
upper  course,  like  that  of  most  of  these  rivers,  is  unknown ;  the 
greater  number  are  fordable  on  the  table-land,  but,  from  the  abrupt 
descent  of  the  high  country  to  the  maritime  plains,  none  of  them 
afford  access  to  the  interior  of  South  Africa. 

The  mountainous  edge  of  the  table-land,  with  its  terminal  pro- 
jections, Senegambia  and  Abyssinia,  which  separate  the  northern 
from  the  southern  deserts,  are  the  principal  source  of  running  water 
in  Africa.  Various  rivers  have  their  origin  in  these  mountainous 
regions,  of  which  the  Nile  and  the  Niger  yield  in  size  only  to  some 
of  the  great  Asiatic  and  American  rivers.  In  importance  and  his- 
torical interest  the  Nile  is  inferior  to  none. 

Two  large  rivers  unite  their  streams  to  form  the  Nile — the  Bahr- 
el-Abiad,  or  White  JRiver,  and  the  Bahr-el-Azrek,  or  Blue  River; 
but  the  latter  is  so  far  inferior  to  the  Bahr-el-Abiad  that  it  may  al- 
most be  regarded  as  a  tributary.  The  main  stream  has  never  been 
ascended  by  any  traveller  above  4°  9'  north  latitude,  the  point 
reached  recently  by  the  missionary  Knoblecher,  and  who  could  see 
the  river  for  30  miles  farther  coming  from  the  south-west.  Bahr- 
el-Abiad,  or  the  true  Nile,  was  supposed,  from  the  report  of  the 
natives,  to  rise,  under  the  name  of  the  Tubiri,  at  a  comparatively 
small  distance  from  the  sea,  in  the  country  of  Mono  Moezi,  which 
is  a  continuation  of  the  high  plateau  of  Abyssinia,  situate  to  the 
north  of  the  great  Lake  Zambe"ze,  or  N'yassi.  The  natives  say  that 
it  flows  from  the  lake  itself;  at  all  events  it  seems  to  be  pretty  cer- 
tain that  its  origin  is  in  the  mountainous  or  hilly  country  of  Mono 
Moezi,  a  word  which  in  all  the  languages  of  that  part  of  Africa  sig- 
nifies the  Moon :  hence  the  Nile  has  been  said,  since  the  days  of 
Ptolemy,  to  rise  in  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  Dr.  Beke  even 
supposes  that  it  may  have  its  upper  sources  in  the  snowy  range  of 
Kilimanjaro,  situated  south  of  the  equator.  Amidst  many  windings 
it  takes  a  general  direction  towards  the  N.E.  to  the  14th  northern 
parallel,  whence  it  follows  the  same  course  till  its  junction  near 
Khartum  with  the  Blue  Nile  in  the  plains  of  Sennaar. 

One  of  the  largest  affluents  of  the  White  Hiver,  if  it  be  not  its 
highest  branch,  rises  by  numerous  heads  in  the  mountainous  coun- 
tries of  Euarya  and  Kaffa,  between  7°  and  9°  North.  The  Grojab 
and  Borora  are  its  chief  tributaries;  the  latter,  which  encircles  the 
country  of  Enarea,  is,  according  to  M.  d'Abbadie,  the  principal 
source  of  the  White  River,  and  rises  in  the  forest  of  Babya,  in  lati- 
tude 8°  N.,  at  an  elevation  of  nearly  6000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  These  united  streams  form  the  river  Uma,  and  perhaps  the 
Shoaberri ;  but  scarcely  anything  is  known  of  the  latter  between  the 
high  lands  of  Ethiopia  and  where  it  is  said  to  empty  itself  into  the 
Bahr-el-Abiad. 

The  Abyssinian  branch  of  the  Nile,  known  as  the  Bahr-el-Azrek, 


232  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVII. 

or  Blue  River,  rises  under  the  name  of  the  Didhesa  in  the  Galla 
country,  south  of  Abyssinia,  about  73  miles  west  of  Saka,  the  capital 
of  Enarea.  It  springs  from  a  swampy  meadow  in  the  same  elevated 
plains  where  the  Godjeb  and  other  affluents  of  the  White  Nile  ori- 
ginate, in  which  it  separates  the  kingdoms  of  Guma  and  Enarea,  and 
maintains  a  general  north-westerly  direction  till  it  joins  the  White 
Nile  at  Khartum.  Of  the  many  tributaries  to  the  Blue  River,  the 
Abai,  the  Nile  of  Brijce,  is  the  greatest  and  most  celebrated.  Its 
sources  are  in  a  swampy  meadow  near  Mount  Giesk,  in  the  district 
of  Sakkata,  from  whence  it  takes  a  circular  direction  round  the  penin- 
sula of  Gojam,  passing  through  Lake  Deinbea,  and  receiving  many 
affluents  from  the  mountain-chain  that  forms  the  centre  of  the  penin- 
sula, and  at  last  falls  into  the  Didhesa  or  Bahr-el-Azrek,  in  about 
11°  N.  latitude.  From  that  point  the  only  streams  of  any  conse- 
quence that  join  either  the  Blue  River  or  the  united  streams  of  the 
Blue  and  White  Rivers,  are  the  Rahad  and  Dender,  which  rise  in 
Abyssinia,  160  miles  below  their  confluence,  where  the  Atbarah, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Gwang  and  Takkazie,  falls  into  it. 
This  river,  which  is  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Nile,  is  formed  by 
two  branches.  The  Takkazie  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Lasta,  a  day's 
journey  from  Lalibala,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  places  in  Abyssi- 
nia, remarkable  for  its  churches  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock,  and  the 
Tselari,  which  springs  from  Mount  Biala,  the  northern  extremity  of 
the  high  land  of  Lasta,  which  divides  the  head  waters  of  the  two 
branches.  The  united  stream,  after  winding  like  the  other  rivers  of 
this  country,  joins  the  Nile  in  18°  N.  latitude,  the  northern  limit  of 
the  tropical  rains. 

The  Abyssinian  rivers  in  the  upper  part  of  their  course  are  little 
more  than  muddy  brooks  in  the  dry  season,  but  during  the  rains 
they  inundate  the  plains.  They  break  from  the  table-lands  through 
fissures  in  the  rocky  surface,  which  are  at  first  only  a  few  yards  wide, 
but  gradually  increase  to  several  miles ;  the  streams  form  cataracts 
from  80  to  more  than  100  feet  high,  and  then  continue  to  descend 
by  a  succession  of  falls  and  rapids,  which  decrease  in  height  as  they 
go  northwards  to  join  the  main  streams.  The  Takkazie  takes  its 
name  of  "The  Terrible"  from  the  impetuosity  with  which  it  rushes 
through  the  chasms  and  over  the  precipices  of  the  mountains.1 

A  peculiarity  of  most  of  the  principal  affluents  of  the  Nile  is  their 
spiral  course,  so  that,  after  forming  a  curve  of  greater  or  less  extent, 
generally  round  insulated  mountain  masses,  they  return  upon  them- 
selves at  a  short  distance  from  their  sources.  It  is  by  no  means  im- 
probable that  the  head  stream  of  the  Nile  itself  takes  a  spiral  course 

1  According  to  M.  d'Abbadie,  Takkazie  is  the  ancient  Abyssinian  name 
for  river.  See  Exod.  vii.  15. 


CHAP.  XVII.        CATARACTS     OP    THE     NILE.  233 

round  a  lofty  mountain  mass,  similar  to  the  snow-clad  mountains  of 
Samien  and  Kaffa.1 

From  the  Takkazie  down  to  the  Mediterranean,  a  distance  of  1200 
miles,  the  Nile  does  not  receive  a  single  brook.  The  first  part  of 
that  course  is  interrupted  by  cataracts,  from  the  geological  structure  of 
the  Nubian  desert,  which  consists  of  a  succession  of  broad  sterile 
terraces,  separated  by  ranges  of  rocks  running  east  and  west.  Over 
these  the  Nile  falls  in  nine  or  ten  cataracts,  the  last  of  which  is  at 
Es-Souan  (Syene),  where  it  enters  Egypt.  Most  of  them  are  only 
rapids,  where  each  successive  fall  of  water  is  not  a  foot  high.  That 
they  were  higher  at  a  former  period  has  recently  been  ascertained  by 
Dr.  Lepsius,  the  very  intelligent  traveller  sent  by  the  King  of 
Prussia  at  the  head  of  a  mission  to  explore  that  country.  He  found 
a  series  of  inscriptions  on  the  rocks  at  Sennaar,  marking  the  height 
of  the  Nile  at  different  periods  :  and  it  appears  from  these,  that  in 
that  country  the  bed  of  the  river  had  been  30  feet  higher  than  it  is 
now. 

Fifteen  miles  below  Cairo,  and  at  90  miles  from  the  sea,  the  Nile 
is  divided  into  two  branches,  of  which  one,  running  in  a  northerly 
direction,  enters  the  Mediterranean  below  llosetta ;  the  other,  cutting 
Lower  Egypt  into  two  nearly  equal  parts,  enters  the  sea  above  Da- 
mietta,  so  that  the  delta  between  these  two  places  has  a  sea-coast  of 
187  miles.  The  fall  from  the  great  cataract  to  the  sea  is  two  inches 
in  a  mile. 

The  basin  of  the  Nile,  occupying  an  area  of  500,000  square 
miles,  has  an  uncommon  form;  it  is  wide  in  Ethiopia  and  Nubia, 
but  for  the  greater  part  of  a  winding  course  of  2750  miles2  it  is 
merely  a  verdant  line  of  the  softest  beauty,  suddenly  and  strongly 
contrasted  with  the  dreary  waste  of  the  lied  Desert.  Extending 
from  the  equatorial  far  into  the  temperate  zone,  its  aspect  is  less 
varied  than  might  have  been  expected  on  account  of  the  parched 
and  showerless  country  it  passes  through.  Nevertheless,  from  the 
great  elevation  of  the  origin  of  the  river,  the  upper  part  has  a  per- 
petual spring,  though  within  a  few  degrees  of  the  equator.  At  the 
foot  of  the  table-land  of  Abyssinia  the  country  is  covered  with 
dense  tropical  jungles,  while  the  rest  of  the  valley  is  rich  soil,  the 
detritus  of  the  mountains  for  thousands  of  years. 

1  Dr.  Beke  on  the  Nile  and  its  affluents.     See  also  Researches  of  M. 
d'Abbadie  on  the  higher  branches  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Journal  de  la  Socie"te" 
de  Geographic,  1849 ;  and  in  the  Athenaeum. 

2  If  we  consider  the  Uraa  as  the  highest  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  adopt 
M.  Arnaud's  estimation  of  the  windings  of  the  Bahr  el  Abiad  from  Khar- 
tum upwards,  it  is  probable  that  the  winding  course  of  the  river  will  be 
found  much  greater  than  that  given  in  the  text:  indeed  M.  d'Abbadie  has 
calculated  from  these  data  that  the  course  of  the  Nile,  if  developed  on  a 
meridian  line,  would  reach  from  the  Equator  to  Tornea,  in  Lapland,  3950 
geographical  miles. 

20* 


234  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVII. 

As  the  mean  velocity  of  the  Nile,  when  not  in  flood,  is  about  two 
miles  and  a  half  an  hour,  a  particle  of  water  would  take  twenty-two 
days  and  a  half  to  descend  from  the  junction  of  the  Takkazie  to 
the  sea ;  hence  the  retardation  of  the  annual  inundations  of  the  Nile 
in  its  course  is  a  peculiarity  of  this  river,  owing  to  some  unknown 
cause  towards  its  origin  which  affects  the  whole  stream.  In  Abys- 
sinia and  Sennaar  the  river  begins  to  swell  in  April,1  yet  the  flood 
is  not  sensible  at  Cairo  till  towards  the  summer  solstice  j  it  then 
continues  to  rise  about  a  hundred  days,  and  remains  at  its  greatest- 
height  till  t'ne  middle  of  October,  when  it  begins  to  subside,  and 
arrives  at  its  lowest  point  in  April  and  May.  The  height  of  the 
flood  in  Upp'er  Egypt  varies  from  30  to  35  feet;  at  Cairo  it  is  23, 
and  in  the  northern  part  of  the  delta  only  4  feet. 

Anubis,  or  Sirius,  the  Dog-star,  was  worshipped  by  the  Egyp- 
tians, from  its  supposed  influence  on  the  rising  of  the  Nile.  Ac- 
sording  to  Champollion,  their  calendar  commenced  when  the  heliacal 
rising  of  that  star  coincided  with  the  summer  solstice — the  time  at 
which  the  Nile  began  to  swell  at  Cairo.  Now  this  coincidence  made 
the  nearest  approach  to  accuracy  3291  years  before  the  Christian 
era ;  and  as  the  rising  of  the  river  still  takes  place  precisely  at  the 
same  time  and  in  the  same  manner,  it  follows  that  the  heat  and  pe- 
riodical rains  in  Upper  Ethiopia  have  not  varied  for  5000  years.  In 
the  time  of  Hipparchus  the  summer  solstice  was  in  the  sign  of  Leo, 
and  probably  about  that  period  the  flowing  of  the  fountains  from 
the  mouths  of  lions  of  basalt  and  granite  was  adopted  as  emblemat- 
ical of  the  pouring  forth  of  the  floods  of  the  Nile.  The  emblem  is 
still  common  in  Rome,  though  its  origin  is  probably  forgotten,  and 
the  signs  of  the  Zodiac  have  moved  backwards  more  than  30°. 

The  two  greatest  African  rivers,  the  Nile  and  the  Niger,  are  dis- 
similar in  almost  every  circumstance ;  the  Nile  discharging  for  ages 
into  the  sea,  the  centre  of  commerce  and  civilization,  has  been  re- 
nowned by  the  earliest  historians,  sacred  and  profane,  for  the  exu- 
berant fertility  of  its  banks,  and  for  the  learning  and  wisdom  of 
their  inhabitants,  who  have  left  magnificent  and  imperishable  mon- 
uments of  their  genius  and  .power.  Egypt  was  for  ages  the  seat  of 
science,  and  by  the  Red  Sea  it  had  intercourse  with  the  most  highly 
cultivated  nations  of  the  East  from  time  immemorial.  The  Niger, 
on  the  contrary,  though  its  rival  in  magnitude,  and  running  through 

1  The  April  rains  in  Abyssinia  are  slight,  and  coincide  with  the  passage 
of  the  sail  in  the  prime  vertical,  and  a  partial  rise  of  the  Nile  correspond- 
ing to  them  has  been  observed  at  Cairo,  but  the  principal  rains,  the  pro- 
bable cause  .of  the  great  rise  in  the  waters  of  the  Nile,  take  place  at  a 
later  period  in  Enarea,  and  probably  throughout  all  Ethiopia,  between  7° 
and  9°  N.  It  rains  there  every  day  in  September,  and  as  the  maximum, 
rise  of  the  Nile  at  Cairo  is  in  October,  these  two  phenomena  are  evidently 
connected. — D'Abbadie. 


CHAP.  XVII.  THE    NIGER.  235 

a  country  glowing  with  all  the  brilliancy  of  tropical  vegetation,  has 
ever  been  inhabited  by  barbarous  or  serai-barbarous  nations;  and  its 
course  till  lately  was  little  known,  as  its  source  still  is.  In  early 
ages,  before  the  Pillars  of  Hercules  had  been  passed,  and  indeed 
long  afterwards,  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Africa  was  an  unknown  re- 
gion, and  thus  the  flowing  of  the  Niger  into  that  lonely  ocean  kept 
the  natives  in  their  original  rude  state.  Such  dre  the  effects  of  local 
circumstances  on  the  intellectual  advancement  of  man. 

The  sources  of  the  Niger,  Joliba,  or  Quorra,  are  supposed  to  be  on 
the  northern  side  of  the  Kong  Mountains,  in  the  country  of  Bam- 
barra,  more  than  1600  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  From  thence 
it  runs  north,  and,  after  passing  Lake  Debo,  makes  a  wide  circuit 
in  the  plains  of  Soudan  to  Timbuctoo  through  eight  or  nine  degrees 
of  latitude;  then  bending  round,  it  again  approaches  the  Kong 
Mountains,  at  the  distance  of  1000  miles  in  a  straight  line  from  its 
source;  and  having  threaded  them,  it  flows  across  the  low  lands  into 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  a  course  of  2300  miles.  In  the  plains  of 
Soudan  it  receives  many  very  large  affluents  from  the  high  land  of 
Senegambia  on  the  west,  and  the  Tchadda  on  the  east — a  navigable 
river  larger  than  itself,  probably  the  outlet  of  the  great  lake  Tchad, 
and  falls  into  it  a  little  below  Fundah,  after  a  course  of  some  hun- 
dred miles  :  thus  the  Niger  probably  affords  an  uninterrupted  water- 
communication  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  heart  of  Africa.1  Long 
before  leaving  the  plains  of  Soudan  it  becomes  a  noble  river  with  a 
smooth  stream,  running  at  the  rate  of  from  5  to  8  miles  an  hour, 
varying  in  breadth  from  1  to  8  miles.  Its  banks  are  studded  with 
densely  populous  towns  and  villages,  groves  of  palm-trees,  and  cul- 
tivated fields. 

This  great  river  divides  into  three  branches  near  the  head  of  a 
delta  which  is  equal  in  area  to  Ireland,  intersected  by  navigable 
branches  of  the  principal  stream  in  every  direction.  The  soil  is  rich 
in  mould,  and  the  vegetation  so  rank  that  the  trees  seem  to  grow 
out  of  the  water.  The  Nun,  which  is  the  principal  or  central 
branch,  flows  into  the  sea  near  Cape  Formosa,  and  is  that  which  the 
brothers  Lander  descended.  There  are,  however,  six  rivers  which 
run  into  the  Bight  of  Benin,  all  communicating  with  the  Niger, 
and  with  one  another.  The  old  Calabar  is  the  most  eastern  ;  it  rises 
in  the  high  land  of  Calbongos,  and  is  united  to  the  Niger  by  a 
natural  canal.  The  Niger,  throughout  its  long  winding  course,  lies 
entirely  within  the  tropic  of-  Cancer,  and  is  consequently  subject  to 
periodical  inundations,  which  reach  their  greatest  height  in  August, 
about  40  or  50  days  after  the  summer  solstice.  The  plains  of 
Soudan  are  then  covered  with  water  and  crowded  by  boats.  These 
fertile  regions  are  inaccessible  to  Europeans  from  the  pernicious  cli- 

1  Captain  W.  Allen,  R.N. 


236  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XVIH. 

mate,  and  dangerous  from  the  savage  condition  of  many  of  the 
tribes. 

The  coast  of  Guinea,  west  from  the  Niger,  is  watered  by  many 
streams,  of  no  great  magnitude,  from  the  Kong  Mountains.  The 
table-land  of  Senegambia  is  the  origin  of  the  Rio  Grande,  the 
Gambia,  the  Senegal,  and  others  of  great  size;  and  also  of  many  of 
an  inferior  order  that  fertilize  the  luxuriant  maritime  plains  on  the 
Atlantic.  Their  navigable  course  is  cut  short  by  a  semi-circular 
chain  of  mountains  which  forms  the  boundary  of  the  high  land, 
through  which  they  thread  their  way  in  rapids  and  cataracts.  The 
Gambia  rises  in  Foula  Toro,  and  after  a  course  of  about  600  miles 
enters  the  Atlantic  by  many  branches  connected  by  natural  channels, 
supposed  at  one  time  to  be  separate  rivers.  The  Senegal,  the  largest 
river  in  this  part  of  Africa,  is  850  miles  long.  It  receives  many 
tributaries  in  the  upper  part  of  its  course,  and  the  lower  is  full  of 
islands.  It  drains  two  lakes,  and  is  united  to  the  basin  of  the 
Gambia  by  the  river  Neriko. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

Asiatic  Rivers — Euphrates  and  Tigris — River  Systems  South  of  the  Hima 
laya — Chinese  Rivers  —  Siberian  Rivers. 

THE  only  river  system  of  importance  in  Western  Asia  is  that  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  in  the  basin  of  which,  containing  an  area 
230,000  square  miles,  immense  mounds  of  earth,  in  a  desolate  plain, 
point  out  the  sites  of  some  of  the  most  celebrated  cities  of  antiquity 
• — of  Nineveh  and  Babylon.  Innumerable  remains  and  inscriptions, 
the  records  of  times  very  remote,  have  been  discovered  by  adventu- 
rous travellers,  and  bear  testimony  to  the  truth  of  some  of  the  most 
interesting  pages  of  history.  The  Euphrates,  and  its  affluent  the 
Merad-Chai  (supposed  to  be  the  stream  forded,  as  the  Euphrates,  by 
the  Ten  Thousand  in  their  retreat),  rise  in  the  heart  of  Armenia, 
and,  after  running  1800  miles  on  the  table-land  to  38°  41'  of  north 
latitude,  they  join  the  northern  branch  of  the  Euphrates,  which 
rises  in  the  Gheul  Mountains,  near  Erzeroum.  The  whole  river 
then  descends  in  rapids  through  the  Taurus  chain,  north  of  Rom- 
kala,  to  the  plains  of  Mesopotamia. 

The  Tigris  rises  in  the  mountains  to  the  N.  and  W.  of  Dyar-bekir, 
and  after  receiving  several  tributaries  from  the  high  lands  of  Kur- 
distan, it  pierces  the  Taurus  range  about  100  miles  above  Mosul, 
from  whence  it  descends  in  a  tortuous  course  through  the  plain  of 


CHAP.  XVIII.        EUPHRATES    AND    TIGRIS.  237 

ancient  Assyria,  receiving  many  streams  from  the  Tyari  Mountains, 
inhabited  by  the  Nestorian  Christians,  and,  farther  south,  from  those 
of  Luristan.  The  country  through  which  it  flows  is  rich  in  corn- 
fields, date-groves,  and  forest- trees.1  Near  to  the  city  of  Bagdad  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates  approach  to  within  12  miles  of  each  other, 
where  they  were  once  connected  by  two  great  canals.  From  this 
point  they  run  nearly  parallel  for  more  than  100  miles,  encircling 
the  plain  of  Babylon  or  Southern  Mesopotamia  —  the  modern  Irak- 
Arabi.  The  two  rivers  unite  at  Korna,  and  form  one  stream,  which, 
under  the  name  of  Shat  el  Arab,  runs  for  150  miles  before  it  falls 
into  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  banks  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
once  the  seat  of  an  extensive  population,  and  of  art,  civilization,  and 
industry,  are  now  nearly  deserted,  covered  with  brushwood  and  grass, 
dependent  on  the  rains  alone  for  that  luxuriant  vegetation  which, 
under  an  admirable  system  of  irrigation,  formerly- covered  them. 
Excepting  the  large  centres  of  population,  Bagdad  and  Mosul,  the 
inhabitants  consist  of  nomade  Kurdish  tribes.  What  remains  of 
civilization  has  taken  refuge  in  the  mountains,  where  the  few  traces 
of  primitive  and  most  ancient  Christianity,  under  the  misapplied 
denomination  of  Nestorian  Christians,  are  to  be  found  in  the  Tyari 
range.  The  floods  of  the  rivers  are  very  regular  in  their  period ; 
beginning  in  March,  they  attain  their  greatest  height  in  June. 

The  Persian  Gulf  may  be  navigated  by  steam  all  the  year,  the 
Euphrates  only  eight  months ;  it  might,  however,  afford  easy  inter- 
course with  eastern  Asia,  as  it  did  an  former  times.  The  distance 
from  Aleppo  to  Bombay  by  the  Euphrates  is  2870  miles,  of  which 
2700,  from  Bir  to  Bombay,  are  by  water;  in  the  time  of  Queen 

1  It  is  in  the  space  comprised  between  two  of  the  eastern  tributaries  of 
the  Tigris,  the  Khaus  and  the  Great  Zab,  or  Abou  Selman  of  the  Arabs, 
that  the  extensive  ruins  of  Koyunjik,  Khorsabad,  and  especially  of  Nim- 
roud,  are  situated,  the  last  of  which  have  been  so  satisfactorily  identified 
with  the  capital  of  Assyria — the  ancient  Nineveh — by  our  enterprising  and 
talented  countryman  Mr.  Layard,  to  whose  exertions,  under  circumstances 
of  peculiar  difficulty,  surrounded  by  every  privation,  our  national  Museum 
is  indebted  for  that  magnificent  collection  of  Assyrian  monuments  which 
at  this  moment  forms  the  admiration  of  the  British  public.  In  the  former 
edition  of  this  book  we  expressed  a  hope  that  our  Government  would  follow 
up  the  researches  commenced  by  Mr.  Layard,  and  that  several  of  the  gi- 
gantic sculptures  removed  by  him  with  such  perseverance  and  labour,  to 
Bussorah,  would  ere  long  be  added  to  the  riches  of  the  British  Museum. 
These  hopes  have  been  partially  responded  to ;  Mr.  Layard  being  again 
enabled  to  Teturn  to  the  scene  of  his  former  labours  by  the  liberality  of 
Her  Majesty's  Government.  But  much  yet  remains  to  be  effected;  the 
field  of  research  is  so  vast,  and  pecuniary  assistance  only  wanting  to  reap 
in  it. 

See  Mr.  Lnyard's  work  on  'Nineveh  find  its  Remains,'  2  vols.  8vo.,  and 
his  illustrated  work  in  folio  —  the  former  one  of  the  most  interesting  nar- 
ratives ever  published  on  the  antiquities  of  Central  Asia. 


PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XVIII 

Elizabeth  this  was  the  common  route  to  India,  and  a  fleet  was  then 
kept  at  Bir,  expressly  for  that  navigation. 

Six  rivers  of  the  first  magnitude  descend  from  the  southern  side 
of  the  table-land  of  eastern  Asia  and  its  mountain  barriers,  all  dif- 
ferent in  origin,  direction,  and  character,  while  they  convey  to  the 
ocean  a  greater  volume  of  water  than  all  the  rivers  of  the  rest  of 
the  continent  conjointly.  Of  these,  the  Indus,  the  double  system 
of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra,  and  the  three  parallel  rivers  in 
the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  water  the  plains  of  southern  Asia ;  the 
great  system  of  rivers  that  descend  from  the  eastern  terraces  of  tha 
table-land  irrigates  the  fertile  land  of  China ;  and  lastly  the  Siberian 
rivers,  not  inferior  to  any  in  magnitude,  carry  the  waters  of  the  Altai 
and  northern  slope  of  the  table-land  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

The  hard-fought  battles  and  splendid  victories  recently  achieved 
by  British  valour  over  a  bold  and  well-disciplined  foe  have  added  to 
the  historical  interest  of  the  Indus  and  its  tributary  streams,  now 
the  western  boundaries  of  our  Asiatic  empire. 

The  sources  of  the  Indus  were  only  ascertained  in  1812;  the 
Ladak,  the  largest  branch  of  the  Indus,  has  its  origin  in  the  snowy 
mountains  of  Karakoruin ;  and  the  Shyook,  which  is  the  smaller 
stream,  rises  in  the  Kentese  or  Gangri  range,  a  ridge  parallel  to  the 
Himalaya,  which  extends  along  the  table-lands  of  Tibet,  north  and 
west  of  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasarowar.  These  two  streams  join 
north-west  of  Ladak,  and  form  the  Indus ;  the  Sutlej,  its  principal 
tributary,  springs  from  the  lake  of  Rakas  Tal,  which  communicates 
with  that  of  Manasarowar,  both  situated  in  a  valley  between  the 
Himalaya  and  Gangri  chain  at  the  great  elevation  of  15,200  feet. 
These  rivers,  fed  by  streams  of  melted  snow  from  the  northern  side 
of  the  Himalaya,  both  flow  westward  along  the  extensive  longitudi- 
nal valley  of  western  Tibet.  The  Sutlej  breaks  through  the  Hi- 
malaya about  the  75th  meridian,  and  traverses  the  whole  breadth  of 
the  chain,  in  frightful  chasms  and  clefts  in  the  rocks,  to  the  plains 
of  the  Punjab;  the  Indus,  after  continuing  its  course  on  the  table- 
land through  several  degrees  of  longitude  farther,  descends  near  the 
junction  of  the  Himalaya  and  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  west  of  the  val- 
ley of  Cashmere,  to  the  same  plain.  Three  tributaries — the  Jelum 
or  Hydaspes,  the  Chenab  or  Acescines,  and  the  Ravee  or  Hydraotes, 
all  superior  to  the  Rhone  in  size — flow  from  the  southern  face  of  the 
Himalaya,  and  with  the  Sutlej  (the  ancient  Hyphasis)  join  the  In- 
dus before  it  reaches  Mittun ;  hence  the  name  Punjab,  "  the  plain 
of  the  five  rivers,"  now  one  of  the  most  valuable  countries  in  the 
East.  From  Mittun  to  the  ocean,  the  Indus,  like  the  Nile,  does  not 
receive  a  single  accessary,  from  the  same  cause — the  sterility  of  the 
country  through  which  it  passes.  The  Cabul  river,  which  rises  near 
Guzni,  and  is  joined  by  a  larger  affluent  from  the  southern  declivi- 
ties of  the  Hindoo  Coosh,  flows  through  picturesque  and^dangerous 


CHAP.  XVIII.         SOURCES    OF    THE    INDUS.  239 

defiles,  and  joins  the  Indus  at  the  town  of  Attock,  and  is  the  only 
tributary  of  any  magnitude  that  conies  from  the  west. 

The  Indus  is  not  favourable  to  navigation :  for  70  miles  after  it 
leaves  the  mountains  the  descent  in  a  boat  is  dangerous,  and  it  is 
only  navigable  for  steam-vessels  of  small  draught  of  water;  yet, 
from  the  fertility  of  the  Punjab,  and  the  near  approach  of  its  basin 
to  that  of  the  Ganges  at  the  foot  of  the  mountains,  it  must  ulti- 
mately be  a  valuable  acquisition,  and  the  more  especially  because  it 
commands  the  principal  roads  between  Persia  and  India,  one  through 
Cabul  and  Peshawer,  and  the  other  from  Herat  through  Candahar. 
The  delta  of  the  Indus,  formerly  celebrated  for  its  civilization,  has 
long  been  a  desert;  but  from  the  luxuriance  of  the  soil,  and  the 
change  of  political  circumstances,  it  may  again  resume  its  pristine 
aspect.  It  is  60  miles  long,  and  presents  a  face  of  120  miles  to  the 
sea  in  the  Gulf  of  Oman,  where  the  river  empties  itself  by  many 
mouths,  of  which  only  three  or  four  are  navigable ;  one  only  can  be 
entered  by  vessels  of  50  tons,  and  all  are  liable  to  change.  The  tide 
ascends  them  with  extraordinary  rapidity  for  75  miles,  and  so  great 
is  the  quantity  of  mud  carried  by  it,  and  the  absorbing  violence  of 
the  eddies,  that  a  vessel  wrecked  on  the  coast  was  buried  in  sand 
and  mud  in  two  tides.  The  annual  floods  begin  with  the  melting  of 
the  snow  in  the  Himalaya  in  the  end  of  April,  come  to  their  height 
in  July,  and  end  in  September.  The  length  of  this  river  is  1500 
miles,  and  it  drains  an  area  of  400,000  square  miles. 

The  second  group  of  South  Indian  rivers,  and  one  of  the  greatest, 
is  the  double  system  of  the  Ganges  and  the  Brahmapootra.  These 
two  rivers,  though  wide  apart  at  their  courses,  have  their  sources 
little  removed  from  each  other,  on  opposite  sides  of  the  central  ridge 
of  the  Himalaya,  and  which,  converging  to  a  common  delta,  consti- 
tute one  of  the  most  Important  river  systems  on  the  globe. 

Mr.  Alexander  Elliot,  of  the  Body  Guard  in  Bengal,  son  of  Ad- 
miral Elliot,  with  his  friends,  are  the  first  who  have  accomplished 
the  arduous  expedition  to  the  sources  of  the  Ganges.  The  river 
flows  at  once  in  a  very  rapid  stream  not  less  than  40  yards  across, 
from  a  huge  cave  in  a  perpendicular  wall  of  ice  at  the  distance  of 
about  three  marches  from  the  Temple  of  Gungootree,  to  which  the 
pilgrims  resort.  Mr.  Elliot  says,  "  The  view  from  the  glacier  was 
perfectly  amazing ;  beautiful  or  magnificent  is  no-  word  for  it,  —  it 
was  really  quite  astonishing.  If  you  could  fancy  a  bird's-eye  of  all 
the  mountains  of  the  world  in  one  cluster,  and  every  one  of  them 
covered  with  snow,  it  would  hardly  give  you  an  idea  of  the  sight 
which  presented  itself." 

Many  streams  from  the  southern  face  of  the  Himalaya  unite  at 
Hurdwar  to  form  the  great  body  of  the  river.  It  flows  from  thence 
in  a  south-easterly  direction  through  the  plains  of  Bengal,  receiving 
in  its  course  the  tribute  of  19  or  20  rivers,  of  which  12  are  larger 


240  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XVIII. 

than  the  Rhine.  About  220  miles  in  a  direct  line  from  the  Bay  of 
Bengal,  into  which  the  Granges  flows,  the  innumerable  channels  and 
branches  into  which  it  splits  form  an  intricate  maze  over  a  delta 
twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  Nile. 

The  Brahmapootra,  a  river  equal  in  the  volume  of  its  waters  to 
the  Ganges,  may  be  considered  as  the  continuation  of  the  Dzangho 
Tchou  or  river  of  Lassa,  which  rises  near  the  sources  of  the  Sutlej 
and  the  Indus,  in  long.  82°  E.  After  watering  the  great  longitu- 
dinal valley  of  eastern  Tibet,  it  makes  a  sudden  bend  to  the  south 
in  long.  90°  E.,  cutting  through  the  Himalaya  chain,  as  the  Indus 
does  at  its  opposite  extremity  between  Iskardo  and  Attock ;  after 
which  it  receives  several  tributaries  from  the  northern  mountains  of 
the  Birman  empire ;  but  very  little  is  known  of  this  part  of  its  basin. 
The  upper  part  of  the  Brahmapootra  is  parallel  to  the  Himalaya 
chain,  until  it  enters  Upper  Assam,  where,  passing  through  the 
sacred  pool  of  Brahma-Koond,  it  receives  the  name  which  it  bears 
in  the  lower  part  of  its  course  —  Brahmapootra,  the  "offspring  of 
Brahma :"  the  natives  call  it  the  Lahit,  Sanscrit  for  the  "  Red 
River."  In  Upper  Assam,  through  which  it  winds  500  miles  and 
forms  some  extensive  channel  islands,  it  receives  six  very  consider- 
able accessories,  of  which  the  origin  is  unknown,  though  some  are 
supposed  to  come  from  the  table-land  of  Tibet.  They  are  only  navi- 
gable in  the  plains,  but  vessels  of  considerable  burthen  ascend  the 
parent  stream  as  far  as  Sundiva.  Before  it  enters  the  plains  of 
Bengal,  below  Goyalpara,  the  Brahmapootra  runs  with  rapidity  and 
in  great  volume,  and,  after  receiving  the  rivers  of  Bhotan  and  other 
streams,  branches  of  it  unite  with  those  of  the  Ganges  about  40 
miles  from  the  coast,  but  the  two  rivers  enter  the  sea  by  different 
mouths,  though  they  sometimes  approach  within  two  miles.  The 
length  of  the  Brahmapootra  is  estimated  at  1500  miles,  or  nearly 
the  same  as  that  of  the  Ganges  :  the  volume  of  water  discharged  by 
it  during  the  dry  season  is  about  146,188  cubic  feet  in  a  second; 
the  quantity  discharged  by  the  Ganges  in  the  same  time  and  under 
the  same  circumstances  is  only  80,000  cubic  feet.  In  the  perennial 
floods  the  quantity  of  water  poured  through  the  tributaries  of  the 
Brahmapootra  through  their  snowy  sources  is  incredible ;  the  plains 
of  Upper  Assam  are  an  entire  sheet  of  water  from  the  15th  of  June 
to  the  15th  of  September,  and  there  is  no  communication  but  by 
elevated  causeways  eight  or  ten  feet  high  :  the  two  rivers,  with  their 
branches,  lay  the  plain  of  Bengal  under  water  for  hundreds  of  miles 
annually.  They  begin  first  to  swell  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  on 
the  mountains;  but,  before  their  inferior  streams  overflow  from  that 
cause,  all  the  lower  parts  of  Bengal  adjacent  to  the  Ganges  and 
Brahmapootra  are  under  water  from  the  swelling  of  these  rivers  by 
the  rains.  The  increase  is  arrested  before  the  middle  of  August, 
by  the  cessation  of  the  rains  in  the  mountains,  though  they  continue 


CHAP.  XVin  GANGES  AND   BRAHMAPOOTRA.  241 

to  fall  longer  on  the  plains.  The  delta  is  traversed  in  every  direction 
by  arms  of  the  rivers.  The  Hoogly  branch,  at  all  times  navigable, 
passes  Calcutta  and  Chandernagor ;  and  the  Hauringotta  arm  is  also 
navigable,  as  well  as  the  Granges  properly  so  called.  The  channels, 
however,  are  perpetually  changing,  from  the  strength  of  the  current, 
and  the  prodigious  quantity  of  matter  washed  from  the  high  lands ; 
the  Ganges  alone  carries  to  the  sea  6,000,000,000  cubic  feet  of  mud 
annually,  the  effects  of  which  are  perceptible  60  miles  from  the  coast. 
The  elevation  of  the  mountains,  and  indeed  of  the  land  generally, 
must  have  been  enormous,  since  it  remains  still  so  stupendous  after  ages 
of  such  degradation.  The  Sunderbunds,  a  congeries  of  innumerable 
river  islands  formed  by  the  endless  streams  and  narrow  channels  of 
the  rivers,  as  well  as  by  the  indentations  of  arms  of  the  sea,  line  the 
coast  of  Bengal  for  180  miles,  a  wilderness  of  jungle  and  heavy 
timber.  The  united  streams  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra  drain 
an  area  of  650,000  square  miles,  and  there  is  scarcely  a  spot  in 
Bengal  more  than  20  miles  distant  from  a  river  navigable  even  in' 
the  dry  season. 

These  three  great  rivers  of  Southern  India  do  not  differ  more 
widely  in  their  physical  circumstances  than  in  the  races  of  men  who 
inhabit  their  banks,  yet  from  their  position  they  seem  formed  to 
unite  nations  the  most  varied  in  their  aspect  and  speech-.  The  tri- 
butaries of  the  Ganges  and  Indus  come  so  near  to  each  other  at  the 
foot  of  the  mountains,  that  a  canal  only  two  miles  long  would  unite 
them,  and  thus  an  inland  navigation  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal  to  the 
Gulf  of  Oman  might  be  established. 

An  immense  volume  of  water  is  poured  in  a  series  of  nearly 
parallel  rivers  of  great  magnitude,  and  running  in  the  direction  of 
the  meridian  through  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  to  empty  them- 
selves into  the  ocean  on  either  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Malacca. 
They  rise  in  those  elevated  regions  at  the  south-eastern  angle  of  the 
table-land  of  Tibet,  the  lofty  but  unknown  province  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  and  water  the  great  valleys  that  extend  from  north  to  south 
with  perfect  uniformity,  between  chains  of  mountains  no  less  uni- 
form, which  spread  out  like  a  fan  as  they  approach  the  sea.  Scarcely 
anything  is  known  of  the  origin  or  upper  parts  of  these  rivers,  and 
with  a  few  exceptions  almost  as  little  of  the  lower. 

Their  number  amounts  to  six  or  seven,  all  large,  though  three 
surpass  the  rest — the  Irrawady,  which  waters  the  Birman  empire, 
and  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  at  the  Gulf  of  Martaban;  the 
Menam,  or  river  of  Siam ;  and  the  river  Cambodja;  which  flows 
through  the  empire  of  Annam :  the  last  two  fall  into  the  Gulf  of 
Siam  and  the  China  Sea. 

The  sources  of  the  Irrawady  are  in  the  same  chain  of  mountains 
with  the  eastern  affluents  of  the  Brahmapootra  more  to  the  south. 
Its  course  is  through  countries  hardly  known  to  Europeans,  but  it 
21 


242  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.   XVIII. 

seems  to  be  navigable  by  boats  before  coming  to  the  city  of  Amara- 
poora,  south  of  which  it  enters  the  finest  and  richest  plain  of  the 
empire,  containing  its  four  capital  cities.  There  it  receives  two  large 
affluents,  one  from  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan,  which  flows 
into  the  Irrawady  at  the  city  of  Ava,  446  miles  from  the  sea,  the 
highest  point  attained  by  the  British  forces  during  the  Burmese 
war. 

From  Ava  to  its  delta  the  Irrawady  is  a  magnificent  river,  more 
than  four  miles  broad  in  some  places,  but  encumbered  with  channel 
islands.  In  this  part  of  its  course  it  receives  its  largest  tributary, 
and  forms  in  its  delta  one  of  the  most  extensive  systems  of  internal 
navigation.  The  Rangoon  is  the  only  one  of  its  14  mouths  that  is 
always  navigable,  and  in  it  the  commerce  of  the  empire  is  concen- 
trated. The  internal  communication  is  extended  by  the  junction 
of  the  two  most  navigable  deltoid  branches  with  the  rivers  Saliiaen 
and  Pegu  by  natural  canals :  that  joining  the  former  is  200  miles 
long;  the  canal  uniting  the  latter  is  only  navigable  at  high  water. 

The  Menam,  one  of  the  largest  Asiatic  rivers,  is  less  known  than 
the  Irrawady ;  it  comes  from  the  Chinese  province  of  Yunnan,  and 
runs  through  the  kingdom  of  Siam,  which  it  cuts  into  several  islands 
by  many  diverging  branches,  and  enters  the  Gijlf  of  Siam  by  three 
principal  arms,  the  most  easterly  of  which  forms  the  harbour  of 
Bangkok.1  It  is  joined  to  the  Menam  Kong,  or  Cambodja,  by  the 
small  river  Anan-Myit. 

The  river  of  Cambodja  has  the  longest  course  of  any  in  the  pe- 
ninsula :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  Lantsan-Kiang,  which  rises  in  the 
high  land  of  K'ham,  in  eastern  Asia,  not  far  from  the  sources  of 
the  great  Chinese  river,  the  Yang-tse-Kiang.  After  traversing  the 
elevated  plain  of  Yunnan,  where  it  is  navigable,  it  rushes  through 
the  mountain  barriers,  and,  on  reaching  a  wider  valley,  about  300 
miles  from  its  mouth,  it  is  joined  to  the  Menam  by  the  natural  canal 
of  the  Anan-Myit.  More  to  the  south  it  is  said  to  split  into 
branches  which  unite  again. 

The  ancient  capital  of  Annam  is  situate  on  the  Cambodja,  about 
150  miles  from  the  sea;  a  little  to  the  south  its  extensive  delta  be- 
gins, projects  far  into  the  ocean,  and  is  cut  in  all  directions  by  arms 
of  the  river,  navigable  during  the  floods;  three  of  its  mouths  are 
permanently  so  for  large  vessels  up  to  the  capital.  The  Sating,  more 
to  the  east,  is  much  shorter  than  the  Cambodja,  though  said  to  be 
1000  miles  long,  but  Europeans  have  not  ascended  higher  than  the 
town  of  Sai-Gon.  Near  its  mouth  it  sends  off  several  branches  to 
the  eastern  arm  of  the  Cambodja.  All  rivers  of  this  part  of  Asia 

['  The  city  of  Bangkok  is  upon  the  river  Menam,  about  20  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  is  accessible  to  vessels  of  300  tons  burthen ;  technically,  there 
\e  no  harbour  of  Bangkok.] 


CHAP.  XVIII.  MEN  AM    AND    CAMBODJA.  243 

are  subject  to  periodical  inundations,  which  fertilize  the  plains  at  the 
expense  of  the  mountains. 

The  parallelism  of  the  mountain  chains  constitutes  formidable 
barriers  between  the  upper  basins  of  the  Indo-Chinese  rivers,  and 
decided  lines  of  separation  between  the  inhabitants  of  the  inter- 
vening valleys ;  but  this  inconvenience  is  in  some  degree  compen- 
sated by  the  natural  canals  of  junction  and  the  extensive  water 
communication  towards  the  mouths  of  the  rivers. 

Four  great  systems  of  rivers  take  their  origin  on  the  eastern  de- 
clivity of  the  great  table-land  of  central  Asia,  and  running  from 
west  to  east,  traverse  the  Chinese  empire  : — the  Hong-Kiang,  which, 
rising  in  the  province  of  Yunnan,  empties-  itself  into  the  bay  of 
Canton ;  the  Yang-tse-Kiang,  or  Son  of  the  Ocean ;  the  Hoang-Ho ; 
and  the  great  river  of  Amur. 

The  length  of  the  Hoang-Ho  or  Yellow  River  is  2000  miles,  that 
of  the  Yang-tse-Kiang  2900.  Though  near  their  sources  they  are 
widely  separated  by  the  mountain-chains  that  border  the  table-land, 
they  approach  as  they  proceed  on  their  eastern  course,  and  are  not 
more  than  100  miles  apart  when  they  enter  the  Yellow  Sea.  From 
a  map  constructed  by  the  Jesuit  missionaries  in  the  18th  century 
it  appears  that  the  mouth  of  the  Hoang-Ho  has  shifted  to  the  enor- 
mous distance  of  126  leagues  from  its  former  position.  The  Yang- 
tse-Kiang  and  the  Yellow  Riper  in  the  lower  part  of  their  course 
are  united  by  innumerable  canals,  forming  the  grandest  system  of 
irrigation  and  of  internal  navigation  in  existence. 

The  Hoang-Ho  has  derived  its  name  of  "Yellow"  River  from 
the  large  quantity  of  earthy  matter  it  brings  down  with  it  to  the  sea, 
like  the  Tiber  of  old. 

Strong  tides  ascend  these  rivers  to  the  distance  of  400  miles,  and 
for  the  time  prevent  the  descent  of  the  fresh  water,  which  forms 
large  interior  seas,  frequented  by  thousands  of  trading-vessels,  and 
they  irrigate  the  productive  lands  of  central  China,  from  time  im- 
memorial the  most  highly  cultivated  and  the  most  densely  peopled 
region  of  the  globe. 

Almost  all  the  Chinese  rivers  of  less  note — and  they  are  numerous 
— feed  these  giant  streams,  with  the  exception  of  the  Ta-si  or  Hong- 
Kiang  and  the  Pee-ho  or  White  River,  which  have  their  own  basins. 
The  former,  rising  to  the  east  of  the  town  of  Yunnan,  flows  through 
the  plains  of  Canton  eastward  to  the  Gulf  of  Canton,  into  which  it 
discharges  itself,  increased  in  its  course  by  the  Sekiang. 

The  White  River,  rising  in  the  mountains  near  the  Great  Wall, 
becomes  navigable  a  few  miles  east  of  Pekin,  unites  with  the  Eu-ho, 
joins  the  Great  Canal,  and,  as  the  tide  ascends  it  for  80  miles,  it  is 
crowded  with  shipping. 

The  Amur,  the  sources  of  which  are  partly  in  the  Russian  domi- 
nions, though  its  course  is  chiefly  in  the  Mantchourian  territory  of 


244  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XVIII 

China,  is  2000  miles  long,  including  its  windings,  and  has  a  basin 
of  853,000  square  miles.  Almost  all  its  tributaries  come  from 
that  part  of  the  Baikalian  group  called  the  Yablonnoi  Khrebit  by 
the  Russians,  and  Khing-Khan-Oola  by  the  Chinese.  The  river 
Onon,  which  is  the  parent  stream,  has  its  origin  in  the  Khentai 
Khan,  a  branch  of  the  latter;  and  though  its  course  is  through  an 
uninhabited  country,  it  is  celebrated  as  the  birthplace  and  the  scene 
of  the  exploits  of  Tshingis  Khan.  After  passing  through  the  lake 
of  Dalai-nor,  which  is  210  miles  in  circumference,  it  takes  the  name 
of  Argun,  and  forms  the  boundary  between  the  Chinese  and  Rus- 
sians for  400  miles;  it  is  then  joined  by  the  Shilka,  where  it  assumes 
the  Tunguse  name  of  the  Amur  or  Great  River :  the  Mantchoos 
call  it  the  Saghalin  or  Black  Water.  It  receives  most  of  the  un- 
known rivers  which  come  from  the  mountain-slopes  of  the  Great 
Gobi,  and  falls  into  the  Pacific  opposite  to  the  island  of  Saghalin, 
after  having  traversed  three  degrees  of  latitude  and  thirty-three  of 
longitude. 

Three  great  rivers,  the  Lena,  the  Yenessei,  and  the  double  system 
of  the  Irtish  and  Oby,  not  inferior  in  size  to  any  of  the  rivers  of 
Asia,  carry  off  the  waters  of  the  Altai  chain,  and  of  the  mountains 
which  bound  the  northern  border  of  the  great  Asiatic  table-land. 
The  Lena,  whose  basin  occupies  800,000  square  miles,  springs  from 
mountains  north  of  the  Lake  of  Baikal,  and  runs  north-east  through 
more  than  half  its  course  to  the  Siberian  town  of  Yakutzk,  the 
coldest  town  on  the  face  of  the  earth,  receiving  in  its  course  the 
Vitim  and  the  Olekina,  its  two  principal  affluents,  the  former  from 
the  Baikal  mountains,  the  latter  from  Stannovoi  Khrebit,  the  most 
southerly  part  of  the  Aldan  range.  North  of  Yakutzk,  about  the 
63rd  parallel  of  latitude,  the  Lena  receives  the  Aldan,  its  greatest 
tributary,  which  also  comes  from  the  Stannovoi  Khrebit;  it  then 
goes  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  between  banks  of  frozen  mud,  prodigious 
masses  of  which  are  hurled  down  by  the  summer  floods,  and  bring 
to  view  the  bones  of  those  huge  extinct  species  of  elephant  and  rhi- 
noceros, which  at  some  remote  period  had  found  their  nourishment 
in  these  desert  plains.1  The  length  of  the  Lena,  including  its  wind- 
ings, is  1900  miles. 

The  Yenessei,  a  much  larger  river  than  the  Lena,  drains  about 
1,000,000  square  miles,  and  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  Great 

1  The  elephant  and  rhinoceros  of  Siberia  belong  to  species  that  are  widely 
scattered  over  the  whole  of  Europe,  and  one  of  which  is  even  found  in  Ame- 
rica. The  Siberian  individuals  were  covered  with  a  thick  coating  of  hair 
and  fur,  so  different  from  any  of  their  living  congeners,  which  suggested 
to  Cuvier  the  explanation  of  their  being  able  to  exist  in  so  cold  a  climate, 
where,  from  their  extraordinary  state  of  preservation,  they  must  evidently 
have  lived,  by  their  hairy  coats  enabling  them  to  brave  an  excessive  climate, 
whilst  they  found  nourishment  in  the  birch  and  pine  forests  of  these  high 
latitudes.  See  Cuvier,  Ossemens  Fossiles,  article  Elephants  Fossiles. 


CHAP.  XVIII.  SIBERIAN     RIVERS.  245 

and  Little  Kem.  The  former  rises  at  the  junction  of  the  Sayansk 
range  with  the  Baikalian  mountains  to  the  north-west  of  Lake  Kas- 
sagol ;  the  latter  comes  from  the  Egtag  or  Little  Altai',  in  quite  an 
opposite  direction,  so  that  these  two  meet  nearly  at  right  angles,  and 
take  the  name  of  Yenessei  j  it  then  crosses  the  Sagaetses  range  in 
cataracts  and  rapids,  entering  the  plains  of  Siberia  below  the  town 
of  Krasnojarsk.  Below  this  many  rivers  join  it,  chiefly  the  Angara 
from  the  Lake  Baikal ;  but  its  greatest  tributaries,  the  Upper  and 
Lower  Tunguska,  both  large  rivers  from  the  Baikalian  mountains, 
join  it  lower  down,  the  first  to  the  south,  the  latter  to  the  north  of 
the  town  of  Yeniseisk,  whence  it  runs  north  to  the  Icy  Ocean,  there 
forming  a  large  gulf,  its  length,  measured  along  its  bed,  being  2500 
miles. 

The  Oby  rises  in  the  Lake  of  Toleskoi,  "  the  Lake  of  Gold,"  in 
Great  Tartary ;  all  the  streams  of  the  Lesser  Altai  unite  to  swell  it 
and  its  great  tributary  the  Irtish.  The  rivers  which  come  from  the 
northern  declivity  of  the  mountains  go  to  the  Oby,  those  from  the 
western  side  to  the  Irtish,  which  springs  from  numerous  streams  on 
the  south-western  declivity  of  the  Little  Altai,  and  run  westward 
into  Lake  Zaidzan,  200  miles  in  circumference.  Issuing  from  thence, 
it  takes  a  westerly  course  to  the  plain  on  the  north  of  Semipolatinsk. 
In  the  plain  it  is  joined  by  the  Tobol,  which  crosses  the  steppe  of 
the  Kirghiz  Cossacks  from  the  Ural  Mountains,  and  soon  unites  with 
the  Oby;  the  joint  stream  then  proceeds  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  in  67° 
N.  lat.  The  Oby  is  2000  miles  long,  and  the  basin  of  these  two 
rivers  occupies  a  third  part  of  Siberia. 

Before  the  Oby  leaves  the  mountains,  at  a  distance  of  1200  miles 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean,  its  surface  has  an  absolute  elevation  of  not 
more  than  400  feet,  and  the  Irtish,  at  the  same  distance,  is  only  72 
feet  higher ;  both  are  consequently  sluggish.  When  the  snow  melts, 
they  cover  the  country  like  seas ;  and  as  the  inclination  of  the  plains 
in  the  middle  and  lower  parts  of  their  course  is  not  sufficient  to  carry 
off  the  water,  those  immense  lakes  and  marshes  are  formed  which 
characterize  this  portion  of  Siberia. 

The  bed  of  the  Oby  is  very  deep,  and  there  are  no  soundings  at 
its  mouth  ;  hence  the  largest  vessels  might  ascend  at  least  to  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Irtish.  Its  many  affluents  also  might  admit  ships,  did 
not  the  climate  form  an  insurmountable  obstacle  the  greater  part  of 
the  year.  Indeed  all  Siberian  rivers  are  frozen  annually  for  many 
months,  and  even  the  ocean  along  the  Arctic  coasts  is  rarely  disen- 
cumbered from  ice ;  therefore  these  vast  rivers  never  can  be  import- 
ant as  navigable  streams.  They  abound  in  fish  and  water-fowl,  for 
which  the  Siberian  peasant  braves  the  extremest  severity  of  the 
climate. 

Local  circumstances  have  nowhere  produced  a  greater  difference 
in  the  human  race  than  in  the  basins  of  the  great  rivers  north  and 
21* 


246  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

south  of  the  table-land  of  eastern  Asia.  The  Indian,  favoured  by 
the  finest  climate,  and  a  soil  which  produces  the  luxuries  of  life,  in- 
tersected with  rivers  navigable  at  all  seasons,  and  affording  easy  com- 
munication with  the  surrouuding  nations,  attained  early  a  high  degree 
of  civilization ;  while  the  Siberian  and  Samoide,  doomed  to  contend 
with  the  rigours  of  the  polar  blasts  in  order  to  maintain  mere  exist- 
ence, have  never  risen  beyond  the  lowest  grade  of  humanity  •  but 
custom  softens  the  rigour  of  this  stern  life,  so  that  even  here  a  share 
of  happiness  is  enjoyed. 


CHAPTER  XIX. 

River  Systems  of  North  America — Rivers  of  Central  America — Rivers  of 
South  America  and  of  Australia. 

NORTH  AMERICA  is  divided  into  four  distinct  water  systems  by 
the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  Alleghanies,  and  a  table-land  which  con- 
tains the  great  lakes,  and  separates  the  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Arc- 
tic Ocean  from  those  which  go  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  table- 
land, which  is  a  level,  nowhere  more  than  1200  or  1500  feet  above 
the  surface  of  the  sea,  is  the  watershed  of  the  Mackenzie,  the  Mis- 
sissippi, the  St.  Lawrence,  and  of  the  rivers  that  flow  into  Hudson's 
Bay.  The  St.  Lawrence  rises  under  the  name  of  the  St.  Louis 
in  47°  43'  N.  lat.  and  93°  W.  long. ;  after  joining  the  Lakes  Supe- 
rior, Huron,  Erie,  and  Ontario,  it  issues  from  the  last  by  the  name 
of  the  Iroquois,  and,  expanding  in  its  north-easterly  course  into  the 
Lakes  of  St.  Francis,  St.  Louis,  and  St.  Peter,  it  is  first  known  as 
the  St.  Lawrence  at  Montreal,  from  whence  it  runs  north-east  into 
the  Atlantic  and  ends  in  an  estuary  100  miles  wide.  It  has  a  basin 
of  297,600  square  miles,  of  which  94,000  are  covered  with  water, 
exclusive  of  the  many  lesser  lakes  with  which  it  is  in  communica- 
tion. 

North  of  the  watershed  there  is  an  endless  and  intricate  labyrinth 
of  lakes  and  rivers,  almost  all  connected  with  one  another.  But  the 
principal  streams  of  these  Arctic  lands  are  —  the  Great  Fish  River, 
which  flows  north-east  in  a  continued  series  of  dangerous  and  all  but 
impassable  rapids  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Melville  Strait;  the  Cop- 
per-mine River,  of  much  the  same  character,  which,  after  traversing 
many  lakes,  enters  the  Icy  Sea  at  George  the  Fourth's  Gulf;  the 
Mackenzie  River,  a  stream  of  greater  magnitude,  formed  by  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Peace  River  and  the  Athabasca  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which,  after  flowing  north  over  16  degrees  of  latitude, 


CHAP.  XIX.  THE    MISSISSIPPI. 

enters  the  Frozen  Ocean  in  the  Esquimaux  country  beyond  the 
Arctic  Circle ;  and  the  Colville,  a  very  large  river,  the  upper  course 
of  which  in  the  Russian  possessions  is  very  little  known,  enters  the 
sea  near  Point  Barrow,  in  152°  W.  longitude.  All  these  rivers  are 
frozen  more  than  half  the  year,  and  the  Mackenzie,  in  consequence 
of  its  length  and  direction  from  south  to  north,  is  subject  to  floods 
like  the  Siberian  rivers,  because  its  lower  course  remains  frozen  for 
several  hundred  miles  long  after  the  upper  part  is  thawed,  and  the 
water,  finding  no  outlet,  flows  over  the  ice  and  inundates  the 
plains. 

South  of  the  table-land  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi  extends  for 
1000  miles,  and  this  greatest  of  North  American  rivers  has  its  ori- 
gin in  the  junction  of  the  streams  from  the  small  lakes  Itasca  and 
Ussawa,  on  the  table-land  at  no  greater  height  than  1500  feet  above 
the  sea.  Before  their  junction  these  streams  frequently  spread  out 
into  sheets  of  water,  and  the  Mississippi  does  the  same  in  the  upper 
part  of  its  course.  This  river  flows  from  north  to  south  through 
more  degrees  of  latitude  than  any  other,  and  receives  so  many  tri- 
butaries of  the  higher  order,  that  it  would  be  difficult  even  to  name 
them.  Among  those  that  swell  its  volume  from  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, the  Missouri,  the  Arkansas,  and  the  Red  River  are  the  largest, 
each  being  in  itself  a  mighty  stream,  receiving  tributaries  without 
number.  Before  their  junction  the  Missouri  is  a  stream  much  supe- 
rior to  the  Mississippi  both  in  length  and  volume,  and  has  many 
affluents  larger  than  the  Rhine.  It  rises  in  about  44°  N.  lat.,  and 
runs  partly  in  a  longitudinal  valley  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  and 
partly  at  their  foot,  and  drains  the  whole  of  the  country  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Mississippi  between  the  49th  and  40th  parallels  of  north 
latitude.  It  descends  in  cataracts  through  the  mountain  regions, 
and  in  the  plains  it  sometimes  passes  through  large  prairies  and 
sometimes  through  dense  forests,  in  all  accomplishing  3000  miles  in 
a  very  tortuous  and  generally  south-eastern  direction  till  it  joins  the 
Mississippi  near  the  town  of  St.  Louis.  Lower  down,  the  Missis- 
sippi is  joined  by  the  Arkansas,  2000  miles  long,  with  many  tribu- 
taries, and  then  by  the  Red  River,  the  former  from  the  Rocky 
Mountains;  the  latter,  which  rises  in  the  table-land  of  New  Mex- 
ico, is  fed  by  rivers  from  the  Sierra  del  Sacramento,  and  enters  the 
main  stream  not  far  from  the  beginning  of  the  delta,  at  the  head  of 
which  the  Mississippi  sends  off  a  large  branch  called  the  Atchafa- 
laya  to  the  south,  and  then  turning  to  the  east  it  discharges  itself  by 
five  mouths  at  the  extremity  of  a  long  tongue  of  land  which  stretches 
50  miles  into  the  Grulf  of  Mexico,  having  formed  a  delta  consider- 
ably larger  than  that  of  the  Nile.  The  shore  is  lined  with  shallow 
salt  lagoons ;  the  greater  part  of  the  delta  is  covered  with  water  and 
unhealthy  marshes,  the  abode  of  the  crocodile,  and  during  the  floods 
it  is  a  muddy  sea.  This  river  is  navigable  for  2240  miles.  Its 


248  PHYSICAL    GEOGEAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

valley  is  of  variable  width,  but  at  its  greatest  width,  at  the  junction 
of  the  White  River,  it  is  80  miles. 

The  tributaries  from  the  Rocky  Mountains,  though  much  longer, 
run  through  countries  of  less  promise  than  those  which  are  traversed 
by  the  Ohio  and  the  other  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Mississippi  on 
the  east,  which  offer  advantages  unrivalled  even  in  this  wonderful 
country,  only  beginning  to  be  developed. 

The  Ohio  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the  rivers  Alleghany  and 
Monongahela,  the  latter  from  the  Laurel  ridge  of  the  Alleghany 
chain  in  Virginia ;  the  former  comes  from  sources  near  Lake  Erie, 
and  the  two  unite  at  Pittsburg,  from  whence  the  river  winds  948 
miles  through  some  of  the  finest  states  of  the  Union,  till  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Mississippi,  having  received  many  accessories,  six  of 
which  are  navigable  streams.  There  are  some  obstacles  to  naviga- 
tion in  the  Ohio,  but  they  have  been  avoided  by  canals.  Other 
canals  join  both  the  Mississippi  and  its  branches  with  Lake  Erie,  so 
that  there  is  an  internal  water  communication  between  the  St.  Law- 
rence and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  whole  length  of  the  Missis- 
sippi is  3160  miles,  but,  if  the  Missouri  be  considered  the  main 
stem,  it  is  4265,  and  the  joint  stream  drains  an  area  of  about  a  mil- 
lion and  a  quarter  of  square  miles.  The  breadth  of  the  river  no- 
where corresponds  with  its  length.  At  the  confluence  of  the  Mis- 
souri each  river  is  half  a  mile  wide,  and  after  the  junction  of  the 
Ohio  it  is  not  more.  A  steamer  may  ascend  the  Mississippi  for 
2000  miles  from  Balize  without  any  perceptible  difference  in  its 
breadth.  The  depth  is  168  feet  where  it  enters  the  Gulf  of  Mexico 
at  New  Orleans :  the  fall  of  the  river  at  Cape  Girardeau  is  four 
inches  in  a  mile.  The  river  is  a  rapid  desolating  torrent  loaded  with 
mud ;  its  violent  floods,  from  the  melting  of  the  snow  in  the  high 
latitudes,  sweep  away  whole  forests,  by  which  the  navigation  is  ren- 
dered very  dangerous,  and  the  trees,  being  matted  together  in  masses 
many  yards  thick,  are  carried  down  by  the  spring  floods,  and  de- 
posited over  the  delta  and  Gulf  of  Mexico  for  hundreds  of  square 
miles. 

North  America  can  boast  of  two  other  great  water  systems,  one 
from  the  eastern  versant  of  the  Alleghanies,  which  flows  into  the 
Atlantic,  and  another  from  the  western  declivity  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  which  runs  into  the  Pacific. 

All  the  streams  that  flow  eastward  through  the  United  States  to 
the  Atlantic  are  short,  and  comparatively  small,  but  of  the  highest 
utility,  because  many  of  them,  especially  those  to  the  north,  end  in 
gulfs  of  vast  magnitude,  and  the  whole  are  so  united  by  canals  that 
few  places  are  not  accessible  by  water  —  one  of  the  greatest  advan- 
tages a  country  can  possess.  There  are  at  least  24  canals  in  the 
United  States,  the  length  of  which  is  3101  miles.  [At  the  close 
of  the  year  1845,  the  aggregate  distance  navigable  in  the  United 


CHAP.  XIX.        RIVER   SYSTEM   OF   NORTH   AMERICA.  249 

States  by  canal  was  3,450  miles :  3000  miles  of  canal  in  the  free 
states  cost  about  $8^,000,000,  and  the  450  miles  in  the  slave  states 
cost  about  $22,000,000  in  their  construction.] 

Many  of  the  streams  which  ultimately  come  to  the  Atlantic  rise 
in  the  western  ridges  of  the  Alleghany  chain,  and  traverse  its  lon- 
gitudinal valleys  before  leaving  the  mountains  to  cross  the  Atlantic 
slope,  which  terminates  in  a  precipitous  ledge  for  300  miles  parallel 
to  the  range.  By  falling  over  this  rocky  barrier  in  long  rapids  and 
picturesque  cascades  they  afford  an  enormous  and  extensive  water- 
power  j  and  as  the  rivers  are  navigable  from  the  Atlantic  quite 
across  the  maritime  plains,  these  two  circumstances  have  determined 
the  location  of  most  of  the  principal  cities  of  the  United  States  at 
the  foot  of  this  rocky  ledge,  which,  though  not  more  than  300  feet 
high,  has  had  a  greater  influence  on  the  political  and  commercial 
interests  of  the  Union  than  the  highest  chains  of  mountains  have 
had  in  other  countries.  The  Hudson  in  the  north  is  navigable  to 
Albany;  the  Delaware  and  Susquehanna,  ending  in  bays,  are  im- 
portant rivers :  and  the  Potomac,  which  falls  into  Chesapeake  Bay, 
passes  Washington,  the  capital  of  the  United  States,  to  which  the 
largest  ships  can  ascend. 

The  watershed  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  lies  at  a  greater  distance 
from  the  Pacific  than  that  of  the  Alleghanies  from  the  Atlantic; 
consequently  the  rivers  are  longer,  but  they  are  few,  and  little 
known ;  the  largest  are,  the  Oregon  or  Columbia,  and  the  Rio  Colo- 
rado. The  former  ha$  its  sources  not  far  from  those  of  the  Missouri 
and  of  the  Rio  del  Norte ;  and  after  an  exceedingly  tortuous 
course,  in  which  it  receives  many  tributaries,  it  falls  into  the  Pacific 
below  Astoria.  The  Colorado  is  a  considerable  stream,  which  comes 
from  the  Serra  Verde  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  California.  The  Sacra-  • 
mento  with  its  tributaries,  a  Californian  stream,  lying  between  the 
two,  and  much  inferior  to  either,  has  been  brought  into  notice  of 
late  from  the  extensive  and  rich  auriferous  country  through  which 
it  flows  in  its  course  to  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  on  the  Pacific. 

On  the  table-land  of  Mexico  there  is  a  basin  of  continental 
streams,  which,  rising  from  springs  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Serra 
Madre,  and  fed  by  the  periodical  rains,  flow  northward  and  termi- 
nate in  lakes,  which  part  with  their  superfluous  water  by  evapora- 
tion. Of  these  the  Rio  Grande,  which,  after  a  course  of  300  miles, 
fulls  into  the  Parras,  is  the  greatest. 

The  largest  river  in  the  isthmus  of  Mexico  is  the  Rio  de  Lerma 
or  Rio  Grande  Santiago,  which  rises  on  the  table-land  of  Toluca, 
passes  through  Lake  Chapala,  forms  numerous  cascades,  and  falls 
into  the  Pacific  after  a  course  of  400  miles.  The  River  Guasacti- 
alco,  which  traverses  the  Isthmus  nearly  from  sea  to  sea,  emptying 
itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  has  by  some  been  considered  as  the 
best  point  for  a  sea  canal  between  the  two  oceans.  There  are  many 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

streams  in  Central  America,  and  above  10  rivers  that  are  navigable 
for  some  miles ;  six  of  these  fall  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and  Ca- 
ribbean Sea,  and  four  into  the  Pacific.  Of  these  the  Rio  Montagua, 
which  rises  in  the  mountains  near  Guatemala,  flows  into  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  and  the  Blewfields  river,  the  greater  part  of  whose  course 
is  in  the  Mosquito  territory. 

In  the  southern  part  of  the  State  of  Guatemala  is  situated  the 
River  of  San  Juan,  which  drains  the  Lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Leon, 
and  by  which  it  is  supposed  a  water  communication  could  be  easily 
effected  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific. 

The  Andes,  the  extensive  watershed  of  South  America,  are  so 
close  to  the  sea,  that  there  are  no  rivers  of  considerable  size  which 
empty  themselves  into  the  Pacific;  even  some  of  the  streams  that 
rise  in  the  western  Cordilleras  find  their  way  to  the  eastern  plains. 

The  Magdalena,  at  the  northern  end  of  the  Andes,  though  a 
secondary  river  in  America,  is  620  miles  long.  It  rises  in  the  cen- 
tral chain,  at  the  divergence  of  the  Cordilleras  of  Suma  Paz  and 
Quindiu,  and  enters  the  Caribbean  Sea  by  various  channels :  it  is 
navigable  as  far  as  Honda.  The  Cauca,  its  only  feeder  on  the  west, 
comes  from  Popayan,  and  is  nearly  as  large  as  its  primary,  to  which 
it  runs  parallel  the  greater  part  of  its  course.  Many  streams  join 
the  Magdalena  on  the  right,  as  the  stream  which  waters  the  elevated 
plain  of  Bogota,  and  forms  the  cataract  of  Tequendama,  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  and  wildest  scenes  in  the  Andes.  The  river  rushes 
through  a  chasm  30  feet  wide,  which  appears  to  have  been  formed  by 
an  earthquake,  and  at  a  double  bound  descends  530  feet  into  a  dark 
gloomy  pool,  illuminated  only  at  noon  by  a  few  feeble  rays.  A  dense 
cloud  of  vapour  rising  from  it  is  visible  at  the  distance  of  15  miles. 
At  the  top  the  vegetation  is  that  of  a  temperate  climate,  while  palms 
grow  at  the  bottom. 

The  river  Atrato,  parallel  to  the  Cauca  and  Magdalena,  but  less 
considerable,  empties  itself  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  The  rivers 
of  Patia,  of  San  Juan,  of  Las  Esmeraldas,  and  of  Guayaquil,  all 
rise  on  the  western  declivity  of  the  Andes  to  flow  into  the  Pacific. 
With  these  exceptions  all  the  water  from  the  inexhaustible  sources 
of  the  Andes  north  of  Chile  is  poured  into  the  Orinoco,  the  River 
Amazon,  and  the  Rio  de  la  Plata,  which  convey  it  eastward  across 
the  continent  to  the  Atlantic.  In  the  far  south,  indeed,  there  are 
the  Colorado  and  Rio  Negro,  but  they  are  insignificant  when  com- 
pared with  these  giant  floods. 

The  basins  of  these  three  rivers  are  separated  in  their  lower  parts 
by  the  mountains  and  high  lands  of  the  Parima  and  Brazil ;  but  the 
central  parts  of  the  basins  of  all  three,  toward  the  foot  of  the  Andes, 
form  an  extensive  level,  and  are  only  divided  from  one  another  by 
imperceptible  elevations  in  the  plains,  barely  sufficient  to  form  the 
watersheds  between  the  tributaries  of  these  majestic  rivers.  This 


CHAP.  XIX.         SOUTH    AMERICAN    RIVERS.  251 

peculiar  structure  is  the  cause  of  the  natural  canal  of  the  Cassiqui- 
are,  which  joins  the  Upper  Orinoco  with  the  Rio  Negro,  a  principal 
affluent  of  the  Amazon.  Ages  hence,  when  the  wilds  are  inhabited 
by  civilized  man,  the  tributaries  of  these  three  great  rivers,  many 
of  which  are  navigable  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes,  will,  by  means  of 
canals,  form  a  water  system  infinitely  superior  to  any  that  now 
exists. 

The  Orinoco,  altogether  a  Colombian  river,  rises  in  the  Serra 
del  Parima,  200  miles  east  of  the  elevated  Peak  of  Duida,  and 
maintains  a  westerly  course  to  San  Fernando  de  Atabapo,  where  it 
receives  the  Atabapo,  and  Guaviare,  which  is  larger  than  the 
Danube ;  here  ends  the  Upper  Orinoco.  The  river  then  forces  a 
passage  through  the  Serra  del  Parima,  and  runs  due  north  for  three 
degrees  of  latitude,  between  banks  almost  inaccessible;  its  bed  is 
traversed  by  dykes,  and  filled  with  boulders  of  granite  and  islands 
clothed  with  a  variety  of  magnificent  palm-trees.  Large  portions 
of  the  river  are  here  engulfed  in  crevices,  forming  subterranean  cas- 
cades; and  in  this  part  are  the  celebrated  falls  of  the  Atures  and 
Apures,  36  miles  apart,  which  are  heard  at  the  distance  of  many 
miles.  At  the  end  of  this  tumultuous  part  of  its  course  it  is  joined 
by  the  Meta,  and  farther  north  by  the  Apure,  two  very  large  rivers, 
which  drain  the  whole  eastern  side  of  the  Andes  in  an  extent  of  10 
degrees  of  latitude,  and  then  runs  eastward  to  its  mouth,  where  it 
forms  an  extensive  delta  and  enters  the  Atlantic  by  many  channels. 
As  the  Upper  Orinoco  runs  west,  and  the  Lower  Orinoco  east,  it 
makes  a  complete  circuit  round  the  Parima  mountains,  so  that  its 
mouth  is  only  two  degrees  distant  from  the  meridian  of  its  sources. 

The  Cassiquiare  leaves  the  Orinoco  near  the  south  base  of  the 
Peak  of  Duida,  and  joins  the  Rio  Negro,  a  chief  tributary  of  the 
Amazon,  at  the  distance  of  180  miles. 

The  Orinoco  is  navigable  for  1000  miles  at  all  seasons ;  a  fleet 
might  ascend  it  from  the  Dragon's  Mouth  to  within  45  miles  of 
Santa  F6  de  Bogota.  It  receives  many  navigable  rivers,  of  which 
the  Guaviare,  the  Atures,  and  the  Meta  are  each  larger  than  the 
Danube.  The  Meta  may  be  ascended  to  the  foot  of  the  Andes ;  its 
mean  depth  is  36  feet,  and  in  many  places  80  or  90.  It  rises  so 
high  in  the  Andes  that  Baron  Humboldt  says  the  vegetable  produc- 
tions at  its  source  differ  as  much  from  those  at  its  confluence  with 
the  Orinoco,  though  in  the  same  latitude,  as  the  vegetation  of  France 
does  from  that  of  Senegal.  The  larger  feeders  of  the  Orinoco  come 
from  the  Andes,  though  many  descend  to  it  from  both  sides  of  the 
Parima,  in  consequence  of  its  long  circuit  among  these  mountains. 

The  basin  of  the  Orinoco  has  an  area  of  300,000  square  miles, 
of  which  the  upper  part  is  impenetrable  forest,  the  lower  is  Llanos. 

The  floods  of  the  Orinoco,  like  those  of  all  rivers  entirely  within 
the  torrid  zone,  are  very,  regular,  and  attain  their  height  nearly  at 


252  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

I 

the  same  time  with  those  of  the  Ganges,  the  Niger,  and  the  Gambia. 
They  begin  to  swell  about  the  25th  of  March,  and  arrive  at  their 
full  and  begin  to  decrease  on  the  25th  of  August.  The  inundations 
are  very  great,  owing  to  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  wooded 
regions,  which  exceeds  100  inches  in  a  year. 

Below  the  confluence  of  the  Apure  the  river  is  three  miles  and  a 
quarter  broad,  but  during  the  floods  it  is  three  times  as  much.  By 
the  confluence  of  four  of  its  greatest  tributaries  at  the  point  at  which  ^ 
it  bends  to  the  east,  a  low  inland  delta  is  formed,  in  consequence  of 
which  3600  square  miles  of  the  plain  are  under  water  during  the 
inundation.  The  Orinoco  in  many  places  smells  of  musk  from  the 
number  of  dead  crocodiles. 

Upper  Peru  is  the  cradle  of  the  Amazon,  the  greatest  of  rivers, 
which  drains  the  chain  of  the  Andes  from  the  equator  to  the  20th 
parallel  of  southern  latitude.  Its  highest  branch,  which  bears  the 
name  of  Maranon,  issues  in  two  streams  from  the  Lake  of  Lauri- 
cocha  in  the  plain  of  Bonbon,  [latitude  10°  14'  S.,  distant  32  leagues 
in  a  direction  north-west  from  the  city  of  Lima,]  at  a  great  elevation 
in  the  Andes :  it  runs  in  a  deep  longitudinal  valley  from  south  to 
north,  till  it  bursts  through  the  eastern  ridge  at  the  Pongo  de  Man- 
seriche,  near  the  town  of  San  Borja,  [latitude  5°  30'  S.,]  from 
whence  it  follows  an  uniform  eastern  course  of  nearly  4000  miles 
including  its  windings,  till  it  reaches  the  Atlantic.  West  of  San 
Borja  and  on  its  southern  bank  it  receives  the  Huallaga  and  Uca- 
yali,  the  latter  a  river  of  great  size  which  rises  in  the  Andes  of  Vil- 
canota,  S.  of  Cusco,  where  its  source  was  visited  and  its  position 
determined  by  Mr.  Pentland.  The  Amazon  is  supposed  to  drain  an 
area  of  two  millions  and  a  half  of  square  miles,  which  is  ten  times 
the  size  of  France.  In  some  places  it  has  a  great  depth ;  it  is  navi- 
gable 2200  miles  from  its  mouth,  where  it  is  96  miles  wide. 

The  name  of  the  river  is  three  times  changed  in  its  course :  [at 
its  head  waters  it  is  named  the  Taguaragua;]  it  is  known  as  the 
Maranon  from  its  source  to  the  confluence  of  the  Ucayali;  from  that 
point  to  its  junction  with  the  Bio  Negro  it  is  called  the  Solimoes ; 
and  from  the  Rio  Negro  till  it  enters  the  ocean  it  is  the  River 
Amazon. 

[The  Amazon  was  navigated  in  its  whole  length  by  the  Fray 
Manuel  Sobreviela,  in  the  year  1790.  It  was  then  supposed  that 
through  this  channel  the  Viceroy  at  Lima  might  communicate  with 
the  court  at  Madrid  in  three  months.] 

The  number,  length,  and  volume  of  its  tributaries  are  in  propor- 
tion to  its  magnitude ;  even  the  affluents  of  its  affluents  are  noble 
streams.  More  than  20  superb  rivers,  navigable  almost  to  their 
sources,  pour  their  waters  into  it,  and  streams  of  'less  importance  are 
numberless.  Two  of  the  largest  are  the  Huallaga  and  the  Ucayali : 
like  their  primary,  the  former  has  its  origin  near  the  mining  district 


CHAP.  XIX.         SOUTH    AMERICAN    RIVERS.  253 

t 

of  the  Cerro  Pasco,  and  after  a  long  northern  course  between  the  Cor- 
dilleras it  breaks  through  a  gorge  similar  to  that  of  Manseriche  and 
joins  the  Maranon  in  the  plains;  it  is  almost  a  mile  broad  above  its 
junction.  The  Spanish  governor  of  Peru  sent  Pedro  de  Orsoa  down 
this  river  in  the  year  1560  to  search  for  the  Lake  of  Parima  and  the 
city  of  El  Dorado.  The  Ucayali,  not  inferior  to  the  Maranon  itself, 
is  believed  by  some  eminent  geographers  to  be  the  true  Maranon. 
[The  Ucayali  has  its  principal  source  in  the  Apurimac,  which  arises 
in  the  Peruvian  province  of  Tinta,  latitude  16°  S.  and  pursues  an 
easterly  direction.  In  latitude  12°  6'  S.  it  receives  the  river  Jauja, 
which  arises  from  the  Lake  Chincha-y-cocha,  on  the  plains  of 
Bonbon.  About  latitude  10°  45'  S.  it  is  joined  by  the  Beni,  which 
has  its  origin  in  the  Cordilleras  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Cusco. 
More  than  40  streams  empty  into  the  Apurimac  before  the  Beni 
reaches  it;  at  its  junction  with  this  river  it  takes  the  name  of  Uca- 
yali, which  pursues  a  north-easterly  direction.  It  was  explored  in 
the  year  1790,  by  the  Fray  Narciso  Girbal  y  Barcelo;  an  interest- 
ing account  of  his  perigrinations  was  published  the  following  year, 
in  the  "Mercuris  Peruano."]  In  a  course  of  1080  miles  it  is  fed 
by  accessaries  from  a  wide  extent  of  country,  and  at  its  junction  with 
the  main  stream,  near  the  mission  of  San  Joaquin  de  Omaguas, 
[latitude  4°  45'  S.,]  a  line  of  50  fathoms  does  not  reach  the  bottom, 
and  in  breadth  U  is  more  like  a  sea  than  a  river.  By  these  streams 
there  is „  access  to  Peru,  and  there  is  communication  between  the 
Amazon  and  the  most  distant  regions  around  by  other  navigable 
feeders.  Little  is  known  of  the  rivers  that  empty  themselves  into 
the  Amazon  on  its  southern  bank,  between  the  Ucayali  and  the 
Madeira;  the  latter,  which  is  its  greatest  affluent,  rises  near  the 
sources  of  the  Paraguay,  the  principal  tributary  of  the  Bio  de  la 
Plata.  The  River  Amazon  is  not  less  extensively  connected  on  the 
north.  The  high  lands  of  Colombia  are  accessible  by  the  Putumayo, 
the  Japura,  and  other  great  navigable  rivers ;  the  Bio  Negro,  nearly 
nine  miles  broad,  a  little  way  above  its  junction  with  the  Amazon, 
unites  it  with  the  Orinoco  by  the  Cassiquiare ;  and  lastly,  the  sources 
of  the  Rio  Branco  come  very  near  to  those  of  the  Essequibo,  an  in- 
dependent river  of  Demerara. 

The  main  stream,  from  its  mouth  nearly  throughout  its  length,  is 
full  of  river  islands,  and  most  of  its  tributaries  have  deltoid  branches 
at  their  junction  with  it.  The  annual  floods  of  the  Amazon  are  less 
regular  than  those  of  the  Orinoco,  and,  as  the  two  rivers  are  in  dif- 
ferent hemispheres,  [the  northern  and  southern,]  they  occur  at  oppo- 
site seasons.  The  Amazon  begins  to  rise  in  December,  is  at  its 
greatest  height  in  March,  and  its  least  in  July  and  August.  The 
quantity  of  rain  that  falls  in  the  deep  forests  traversed  by  this  river 
is  so  great  that,  were  it  not  for  the  enormous  evaporation,  and  the 
streams  that  carry  it  off,  the  country  would  be  flooded  annually  to 
22 


254  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

* 

the  depth  of  eight  feet.  The  Amazon  is  divided  into  two  branches 
at  its  mouth,  of  which  one  joins  the  Para  south  of  the  island  of  Das 
Johannes  or  Marajo,  the  other  enters  the  ocean  to  the  north  of  it. 

The  water  of  some  of  the  rivers  in  equatorial  America  is  white ; 
in  others  it  is  of  a  deep  coffee-colour,  or  dark  green  when  seen  in 
the  shade,  but  perfectly  transparent,  and,  when  ruffled  by  a  breeze, 
of  a  vivid  green,  like  some  of  the  Swiss  lakes.  In  Scotland  the 
brown  waters  come  from  peat-mosses;  but  it  is  not  so  in  America, 
since  they  occur  as  often  in  forests  as  in  savannahs.  Sir  Kobert 
Schornburgk  thinks  they  are  stained  by  the  iron  in  the  granite ;  how- 
ever, the  colouring  matter  has  not  been  chemically  ascertained.  The 
Orinoco  and  the  Cassiquiare  are  white ;  Rio  Negro,  as  its  name  im- 
plies, is  black,  yet  the  water  does  not  stain  the  rocks,\hich  are  of  a 
dazzling  white.  Black  waters  are  sometimes,  though  rarely,  found 
on  the  table-lands  of  the  Andes. 

The  Rio  de  la  Plata  forms  the  third  great  water  system  of  South 
America.  The  Rio  Grande,  its  principal  stream,  rises  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Minas  Geraes,  in  Brazil,  and  runs  500  miles  on  the  table- 
land from  north  to  south  before  it  takes  the  name  of  Parana.  For 
more  than  100  miles  it  is  a  continued  series  of  cataracts  and  rapids, 
the  greatest  of  which,  El  Salto  Grande,  is  in  about  24°  5'  lat.  Above 
the  fall  the  river  is  three  miles  broad,  when  all  at  once  it  is  confined 
in  a  rocky  pass  only  60  yards  wide,  through  which  "it  rushes  over  a 
ledge  with  thundering  noise,  heard  at  the  distance  of  many  miles. 
The  Parana  receives  three  large  rivers  on  the  right — the  Paraguay, 
the  Pilcomayo,  and  the  Vermejo :  all  generally  tend  to  the  south, 
and  unite  at  different  distances  before  entering  their  primary  at  Cor- 
rientes.  The  Paraguay,  1200  miles  long,  is  the  finest  of  the  three  : 
in  its  upper  part  it  is  singularly  picturesque,  adorned  with  palms 
and  other  tropical  vegetation,  and  its  channel  islands  are  covered 
with  orange-groves.  It  springs  from  a  chain  of  seven  lakes,  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Campos  Pareicis,  in  Brazil,  and  may  be  as- 
cended by  vessels  of  considerable  burthen  through  nineteen  degrees 
of  latitude.  The  Pilcomayo  and  Vermejo  both  come  from  Bolivia ; 
the  former  traverses  the  desert  of  El  Gran  Chaco,  the  latter  the  dis- 
trict of  Tarija.  At  Santa  Fe  the  La  Plata  turns  eastward,  and 
before  entering  the  Atlantic  is  augmented  by  the  Uraguay  from  the 
north,  which  takes  its  name  from  the  turbulence  of  its  streams. 

The  Rio  de  la  Plata  is  2700  miles  long,  and  for  200  miles  from 
its  mouth,  up  to  Buenos  Ayres,  it  is  never  less  than  170  miles 
broad.  Were  it  not  for  the  freshness  of  its  water,  it  might  be  mis- 
taken for  the  ocean  :  it  is,  however,  shallow,  and  loaded  with  mud, 
which  discolours  the  Atlantic  for  200  miles  from  its  mouth. 

The  Paraguay  is  subject  to  dreadful  floods.  In  1812  the  atmo- 
pphere  was  poisoned  by  the  putrid  carcases  of  drowned  animals.  The 


CHAP.  XIX.        SOUTH    AMERICAN    RIVERS.  255 

ordinary  annual  inundations  of  the  Parana,  the  principal  or  upper 
branch  of  the  La  Plata,  cover  86,000  square  miles. 

In  consequence  of  the  vast  extent  of  the  very  level  plains  along 
the  base  of  the  Andes,  the  basins  of  the  three  great  rivers  are  ap- 
parently united.  So  small  are  the  elevations  that  determine  their 
direction,  that  with  the  exception  of  a  portage  of  three  miles,  a 
water  conveyance  might  be  established  from  Buenos  Ayres  in  35° 
S.  lat.  to  the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco  in  9°  N.  lat.  by  inland  naviga- 
tion. 

The  Colorado,  which  runs  in  a  long  shallow  stream  through  the 
Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  to  the  Atlantic,  is  formed  of  two  principal 
branches,  one  from  the  west,  and  the  other  from  the  north,  which 
unite  at  a  great  distance  from  the  Atlantic,  into  which  the  river 
flows. 

The  Rio  Negro,  or  Cusu-Lebu,  rises  at  a  great  elevation,  and  sepa- 
rates the  Pampas  from  Patagonia.  In  its  long  course  through  arid 
deserts  to  the  Atlantic  it  does  not  receive  a  single  adjunct,  but  it 
forms  a  communication  between  that  ocean  and  Chile,  as  it  reaches 
a  pass  in  the  Andes  that  is  free  from  snow.  There  is  some  vegeta- 
tion in  its  immediate  neighbourhood  ;  it  has  a  bar  at  its  mouth,  and 
is  navigable  only  for  four  miles  above  Carmen ;  it  has  floods  twice 
in  the  year,  one  from  the  rains,  the  other  from  the  melting  of  the 
snow  in  the  Andes. 

Some  other  streams  from  the  Chilian  Andes  run  through,  but  do 
not  fertilize,  the  desolate  plains  of  Patagonia. 

There  are  various  rivers  in  South  America,  unconnected  with  those 
described,  which  in  any  other  country  would  be  esteemed  of  a  high 
order.  Of  many  which  descend  from  the  mountains  of  Guiana,  the 
Essequibo  is  the  largest;  its  general  width  is  a  mile  and  a  quarter; 
its  water,  though  black,  is  transparent;  and  on  its  banks,  and  those 
of  all  its  adjuncts,  the  forest  reigns  in  impenetrable  thickness.  It 
rises  in  the  Serra  Acaray,  which  separates  its  basin  from  that  of  the 
Amazon,  and,  after  a  northerly  course,  falls  into  the  Atlantic  near 
7°  N.  lat.  by  an  outlet  14  miles  broad,  separated  by  three  low 
islands  into  four  branches.  Sir  Robert  Schomburgk,  whose  scien- 
tific journeys  have  made  us  acquainted  with  a  country  of  which  so 
little  was  known,  has  shown  that,  by  cutting  a  canal  three  miles 
long  between  the  Madeira  and  the  Guapore,  an  affluent  of  the  Ma- 
more,  an  inland  navigation  might  be  opened  from  Demerara  to  Bue- 
nos Ayres,  over  an  extent  of  42  degrees  of  latitude,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  a  portage  of  only  800  yards  in  the  rainy  reason  between 
Lake  Amucu  and  the  Quatata,  a  branch  of  the  Rupununi,  which 
flows  into  the  Essequibo.  But  that  is  not  the  only  water  commu- 
nication between  Guiana  and  remote  countries,  great  though  the  dis- 
tance be,  for  the  Napo,  a  tributary  of  the  Solimbes,  offers  commu- 
nication with  Quito,  the  Huallaga  with  Peru  and  countries  not  far 


256  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XIX. 

distant  from  the  Pacific  Ocean.  By  the  Rio  Negro,  the  Orinoco, 
the  Cassiquiare,  and  its  tributary  the  Meta,  there  is  uninterrupted 
navigation  to  New  Grenada  and  to  within  eight  miles  of  Santa  F6 
de  Bogota.  "  If,"  says  the  distinguished  traveller  already  men- 
tioned, "  British  Guiana  did  not  possess  the  fertility  which  is  such 
a  distinguishing  feature,  this  water  communication  alone  would  ren- 
der it  of  vast  importance ;  but,  blessed  as  it  is  with  abundant  fruit- 
fulness,  this  extensive  inland  navigation  heightens  its  value  as  a 
British  colony ;  and,  if  emigration  sufficient  to  make  its  resources 
available  were  properly  directed  thither,  the  port  of  Demerara  would 
rival  any  in  the  vast  continent  of  South  America."  It  is  certainly 
very  remarkable  that  the  tide  of  emigration  has  never  set  towards 
a  country  of  such  promise,  abounding  in  valuable  natural  produc- 
tions, and  so  much  nearer  to  Great  Britain  than  her  colonies  in  the 
Pacific. 

The  Par£i  and  San  Francisco  are  the  chief  Brazilian  rivers  :  both 
rise  on  the  table-land;  the  former  results  from  the  union  of  the 
Tocantins  and  Araguay ;  it  descends  from  the  high  lands  in  rapids 
in  its  northerly  course,  and,  after  running  1500  miles,  joins  the 
southern  branch  of  the  Amazon  before  entering  the  Atlantic  south 
of  the  island  of  Marajo.  •  The  San  Francisco  is  only  1275  miles 
long  :  it  rises  in  the  Serra  Qanastra  in  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes, 
and,  after  travelling  northward  between  mountain  ranges  parallel  to 
the  coast,  it  breaks  through  them  and  reaches  the  ocean  about  the 
llth  degree  of  S.  lat.  As  in  the  Appalachian  chain,  so  here,  many 
rivers  come  down  the  edge  of  the  table-land  to  the  level  maritime 
plains  of  the  Atlantic. 

The  historical  renown  and  high  civilization  of  Asia  and  Europe, 
their  great  wealth  and  population,  may  be  attributed  in  a  very  great 
degree  to  the  facility  of  transport  afforded  by  their  admirable  river 
systems,  and  still  more  to  the  genius  of  the  people  who  knew  how 
to  avail  themselves  of  them ;  the  same  may  be  said  of  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  United  States  of  America,  while  the  Indians  who  have 
possessed  these  countries  for  ages  never  took  advantage  of  the  noble 
streams  with  which  Providence  had  enriched  and  embellished  them. 


RIVERS  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

After  America,  the  land  of  the  river  and  the  flood,  Australia  ap- 
pears in  more  than  its  usual  aridity.  The  absence  of  large  rivers  is 
one  of  the  greatest  impediments  to  the  improvement  of  this  conti- 
nent. What  it  may  possess  in  the  interior  is  not  known,  but  it  is 
certain  that  no  large  river  discharges  its  water  into  the  ocean,  and 
most  of  the  small  ones  are  absorbed  before  they  reach  it. 

The  streams  from  the  mountains  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  conti- 
nent are  mere  torrents,  and  would  have  short  courses  did  they  not 


OHAP.  XX.  LAKES.  257 

run  into  longitudinal  valleys,  as  for  example  the  Hawkesbury.  The 
Murruinbigee,  the  Lachlan,  and  the  Macquarrie,  formed  by  the  ac- 
cumulation of  mountain  torrents,  are  the  largest. 

The  Murrumbigee  rises  in  the  ranges  west  of  St.  George's  Lake, 
and,  running  south-west,  meets  the  Lachlan,  of  unknown  origin, 
coming  from  the  east.  After  their  junction  they  run  into  the  Mur- 
ray, a  much  larger  stream,  though  only  350  feet  broad,  and  not  more 
than  20  feet  deep :  before  entering  the  ocean  in  Encounter  Bay,  it 
passes  through  the  Alexandrine  Marsh :  it  is  too  shallow  even  for 
boats.  The  Darling  is  supposed  to  be  merely  the  upper  part  of  the 
Murray,  probably  rising  towards  the  head  of  St.  Vincent's  Gulf. 
The  origin  of  the  Macquarrie  is  unknown  ;  it  is  called  the  Fish 
River  between  Bathurst  and  Sydney;  after  running  300  miles  north- 
west, it  is  lost  in  the  marshes. 

Swan  River,  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent,  has  much  the 
same  character;  and  from  that  river  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria, 
along  the  whole  of  the  western  and  northern  shores  of  the  conti- 
nent, there  are  none.  The  want  of  water  makes  it  hardly  possible 
to  explore  the  interior  of  this  continent.  No  country  stands  more 
in  need  of  a  complete  system  of  irrigation,  which  could  easily  be 
accomplished  from  the  nature  of  the  rivers,  which  lie  in  deep  chan- 
nels, and  might  be  converted  into  canals  by  dams,  whence  the  water 
might  be  conveyed  by  channels  over  the  surrounding  country,  as  in 
Lombardy. 


CHAPTER  XX. 

Lakes  in  general — European  Lakes — Northern  Europe — Of  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  Italy — Lake  of  Tiberias  and  Dead  Sea  —  Asiatic  Lakes  —  Cas- 
pian—  Lakes  of  Aral,  Baikal,  and  of  the  Himalaya  —  Sacred  Lakes  of 
Manasarowar — African  Lakes — Bahr  Assal — Zambeze — Ngami — Ameri- 
can Lakes  in  Canada  —  Nicaragua  —  Titicaca. 

THE  hollows  formed  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  by  the  ground 
sinking  or  rising,  earthquakes,  streams  of  lava,  craters  of  extinct 
volcanoes,  the  intersection  of  strata,  and  those  that  occur  along  the 
edges  of  the  different  formations,  are  generally  filled  with  water,  and 
constitute  systems  of  lakes,  some  salt  and  some  fresh.  Many  of  the 
former  may  be  remnants  of  an  ancient  ocean  left  in  the  depressions 
of  its  bed  as  the  waters  retired  when  the  continents  were  raised 
above  its  surface. 

Almost  all  lakes  are  fed  by  springs  rising  at  the  bottom,  and  they 
are  occasionally  the  sources  of  the  largest  rivers.  Some  have  neither 
tributaries  nor  outlets;  the  greater  number  have  both.  The  quan- 
22* 


258  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XX. 

tity  of  water  in  lakes  varies  with  the  seasons  everywhere,  especially 
from  the  melting  snow  on  mountain-chains  and  in  high  latitudes, 
and  from  periodical  rains  between  the  tropics.  Small  lakes  occur  in 
mountain-passes,  formed  by  water  which  runs  into  them  from  the 
surrounding  peaks ;  they  are  frequently,  as  in  the  Alps,  very  trans- 
parent, of  a  bright  green  or  azure  hue.  Large  lakes  are  common 
on  table-lands,  and  in  the  valleys  of  mountainous  countries,  but  the 
largest  are  on  extensive  plains.  The  basin  of  a  lake  comprehends 
all  the  land  drained  by  it ;  consequently  it  is  bounded  by  an  imagi- 
nary line  passing  through  the  sources  of  all  the  waters  that  fall 
into  it. 

There  are  more  lakes  in  high  than  in  low  latitudes,  because  eva- 
poration is  much  greater  in  low  latitudes  than  in  high,  and  in  this 
respect  there  is  a  great  analogy  between  the  northern  plains  of  the 
two  principal  continents.  Sheets  of  water  of  great  beauty  occur  in 
the  mountain  valleys  of  the  British  islands,  of  Norway,  and  Sweden, 
countries  similar  in  geological  structure ;  and  besides  these  there  are 
two  regions  in  the  old  world  in  which  lakes  particularly  abound. 
One  begins  on  the  low  coast  of  Holland,  goes  round  the  southern 
and  eastern  sides  of  the  Baltic,  often  passing  close  to  its  shores, 
along  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  and  through  the  Siberian  plains  to  Beh- 
ring's  Straits.  The  lakes  which  cover  so  much  of  Finland  and  the 
great  lakes  of  Ladoga  and  Onega  lie  in  a  parallel  direction ;  they 
occupy  transverse  rents  which  had  taken  place  across  the  palaeozoic 
strata,  while  rising  in  a  direction  from  S.W.  to  N.E.,  between  the 
Gulf  of  Finland  and  the  "White  Sea ;  that  elevation  was,  perhaps, 
the  cause  of  the  cavities  now  occupied  by  these  two  seas.  Ladoga 
is  the  largest  lake  in  this  zone,  having  a  surface  of  nearly  1000 
square  miles.  It  receives  tributary  streams,  and  sends  off  its  super- 
fluous water  by  rivers,  and  Onega  does  the  same;  but  the  multitude 
of  small  steppe  lakes  among  the  Ural  Mountains  and  in  the  basin 
of  the  river  Obi  neither  receive  nor  emit  rivers,  being  for  the  most 
part  mere  ponds,  though  of  great  size,  some  of  fresh  and  some  of 
salt  water,  lying  close  together — a  circumstance  which  has  not  been 
accounted  for :  those  on  the  low  Siberian  plains  have  the  same  char- 
acter.1 

The  second  system  of  lakes  in  the  old  continent  follows  the  zone 
of  the  mountain  mass,  and  comprehends  those  of  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  Apennines,  Asia  Minor,  the  Caspian,  the  Lake  Aral,  together 
with  those  on  the  table-land  and  in  the  mountains  of  central  Asia. 

In  the  Pyrenees  lakes  are  most  frequent  on  the  French  side ; 
many  are  at  such  altitudes  as  to  be  perpetually  frozen ;  one  on  Mont 
Perdu,  8393  feet  above  the  sea,  has  the  appearance  of  an  ancient 

1  The  salt-water  lakes  may  possibly  be  the  remains  of  the  Ancient  Ocean, 
while  the  hollows  containing  fresh  water  may  be  of  subsequent  formation. 


CHAP.  XX.  EUROPEAN    LAKES.  259 

volcanic  crater.  There  is  scarcely  a  valley  in  the  Alpine  range  and 
its  offsets  that  has  not  a  sheet  of  water,  no  doubt  owing  to  the  cavi- 
ties formed  during  the  elevation  of  the  ridges,  and  in  some  instances 
to  subsidence  of  the  soil :  Lake  Triib,  7200  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  is  the  most  elevated.  There  are  more  lakes  on  the  north 
than  on  the  south  side  of  the  Alps — the  German  valleys  are  full  of 
,them.  In  Bohemia,  Gallicia,  and  Moravia  there  are  no  less  than 
30,000  sheets  of  water,  besides  great  numbers  throughout  the  Aus- 
trian empire. 

Of  the  principal  lakes  on  the  northern  side  of  the  Alps,  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  or  Lake  Leman,  is  the  largest  and  most  beautiful,  from 
its  situation,  the  pure  azure  of  the  waters,  and  the  sublime  moun- 
tains that  surround  it.  Its  surface,  of  about  240  square  miles,  is 
1230  feet  above  the  sea,  and  near  Meillerie  it  is  1012  deep.  The 
Lake  of  Lucerne  is  1407  feet  above  the  sea,  and  the  lakes  of  Brienz 
1900  feet.  The  Italian  Lakes  are  at  a  lower  level;  the  Lago  Mag- 
giore  has  only  678  feet  of  absolute  altitude ;  they  are  larger  than 
most  of  those  on  the  north  of  the  Alps,  and,  with  the  advantage  of 
an  Italian  climate,  sky,  and  vegetation,  they  surpass  the  others  in 
beauty,  though  the  mountains  that  surround  them  are  less  lofty. 

These  great  lakes  are  fed  by  rivers  rising  in  the  glaciers  of  the 
higher  Alps,  and  many  large  rivers  issue  from  them.  In  this  re- 
spect they  differ  from  most  of  the  lakes  in  Lower  Italy,  some  of 
which  are  craters  of  ancient  volcanoes,  or  perhaps  ancient  craters  of 
elevation,  where  the  earth  had  been  swelled  up  by  subterranean 
vapour  without  bursting,  and  had  sunk  down  again  into  a  hollow 
when  the  internal  pressure  was  removed.1 

In  Syria,  the  Lake  of  Tiberias  and  the  Dead  Sea,  sacred  memo- 
rials to  the  Christian  world,  are  situate  in  the  deepest  cavity  on  the 
earth.  The  surface  of  the  Lake  Tiberias  is  329  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  Mediterranean,  surrounded  by  verdant  plains  bearing  aro- 
matic shrubs;  while  the  heavy  bitter  waters  of  the  Dead  Sea,  1312 
feet  below  the  level  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  a  scene  of  indescribable 
desolation  and  solitude,  encompassed  by  desert  sands,  and  bleak, 
stony,  salt  hills.  Thus  there  is  a  difference  of  level  of  983  feet  in 
little  more  than  60  miles,  which  makes  the  course  of  the  river 
Jordan  very  rapid.  The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  is  so  acrid  from  the 
large  proportion  of  saline  matter  it  contains,  that  it  irritates  the  skin : 
it  is  more  buoyant,  and  has  a  greater  proportion  of  salt,2  than  any 
that  is  known  except  the  small  lake  of  Eltonsk  east  of  the  Volga. 

1  The  Lake  of  Perugia  or  Thrasymene  is  an  exception. 

a  It  would  appear  to  be  completely  saturated  with  salt,  if  it  be  true,  aa 
stated  by  the  American  expedition  under  Lieut.  Lynch,  that  the  sounding 
lead  brought  up  crystals  of  salt  from  its  bottom  in  several  parts.  The  ex- 
treme saltness  of  the  Dead  Sea  appears  to  be  owing  to  the  saliferous  strata 


260  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XX. 

Though  extensive  sheets  of  water  exist  in  many  parts  of  Asia 
Minor,  especially  in  Bithynia,  yet  the  characteristic  feature  of  the 
country,  and  of  all  the  table-land  of  western  Asia  and  the  adjacent 
steppes,  is  the  number  and  magnitude  of  the  saline  lakes.  A  region 
of  salt  lakes  and  marshes  extends  at  least  200  miles  along  the 
northern  foot  of  the  Taurus  range,  on  a  very  elevated  part  of  the 
table-land  of  Anatolia.  TKere  are  also  many  detached  lakes,  some 
exceedingly  saline.  Fish  cannot  live  in  the  lake  of  Toozla ;  it  is 
shallow,  and  subject  to  excessive  evaporation.  Neither  can  any 
animal  exist  in  the  Lake  of  Shahee  or  Urmiah,  on  the  confines  of 
Persia  and  Armenia,  300  miles  in  circumference :  its  water  is  per- 
fectly clear,  and  contains  a  fourth  part  of  its  weight  of  saline  matter. 
These  lakes  are  fed  by  springs,  rain,  and  melted  snow,  and,  having 
no  emissaries,  the  surplus  water  is  carried  off"  by  evaporation. 

It  is  possible  that  the  volcanic  soil  of  the  table-land  may  be  the 
cause  of  this  exuberance  of  salt  water.  Lake  Van,  a  sheet  of  salt 
water  240  miles  in  circumference,  is  separated  from  the  equally  salt 
lake  Urmiah  only  by  a  low  range  of  hills :  and  there  are  many 
pieces  of  fresh  water  in  that  neighbourhood,  possibly  in  similar 
hollows. 

Persia  is  singularly  destitute  of  water ;  the  Lake  of  Zurrah,  on 
the  frontiers  of  Afghanistan,  having  an  area  of  18  square  miles,  is 
the  only  piece  of  water  on  the  western  part  of  the  table-land  of 
Iran. 

It  is  evident  from  the  saline  nature  of  the  soil,  and  the  shells  it 
contains,  that  the  plains  round  the  Caspian,  the  Lake  Aral,  and  the 
steppes,  even  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  had  once  formed  part  of  the 
Black  Sea;  57,000  square  miles  of  that  country  are  depressed  be- 
low the  level  of  the  ocean — a  depression  which  extends  northwards 
beyond  the  town  of  Saratov,  300  miles  distant  from  the  Caspian. 
The  surface  of  the  Caspian  itself,  which  is  82  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  ocean,  is  its  lowest  part,  and  has  an  area  of  140,000  square 
miles,  nearly  equal  to  the  area  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  In 
Europe  alone  it  drains  an  extent  of  850,000  square  miles,  receiving 
the  Volga,  the  Ural,  and  other  great  rivers  on  the  north.  It  has 
no  tide,  and  its  navigation  is  dangerous  from  heavy  gales,  especially 
from  the  south-east,  which  drive  the  water  miles  over  the  land  :  a 
vessel  was  stranded  46  miles  inland  from  the  shore.  It  is  3000  feet 
deep  in  some  parts,  but  is  shallower  to  the  east,  where  it  contains 
several  islands,  and  where  it  is  bounded  by  impassable  swamps  many 
miles  broad.  The  Lake  of  Eltonsk,  on  the  steppe  east  of  the  Volga, 
has  an  area  of  130  square  miles,  and  furnishes  two-thirds  of  the 

•which  form  its  banks,  especially  towards  the  south,  where  true  pillars  of 
salt,  as  stated  in  the  Bible,  were  found  projecting  from  the  sandstone  beds, 
by  the  American  surveyors. 


CHAP.  XX.  ASIATIC    LAKES.  261 

salt  consumed  in  Kussia.  Its  water  yields  29-13  per  cent,  of  saline 
matter,  and  from  this  circumstance  is  more  buoyant  than  any  that 
is  known.1 

The  Lake  of  Aral,  which  is  shallow,  is  117  feet  higher  than  the 
Caspian,  and  has  an  area  of  28,300  square  miles ;  it  has  its  name 
from  the  number  of  small  islands  at  its  southern  end,  Aral  signify- 
ing "  island  "  in  the  Tartar  language.  Neither  the  Caspian  nor  the 
Lake  of  Aral  have  any  outlets,  though  they  receive  large  rivers ; 
they  are  salt,  and,  in  common  with  all  the  lakes  in  Persia,  they  are 
decreasing  in  extent,  and  becoming  more  salt,  the  quantity  of  water 
supplied  by  tributaries  being  less  than  that  lost  by  evaporation. 
Most  of  the  rivers  that  are  tributary  to  the  Lake  of  Aral  are  dimin- 
ished by  canals,  that  carry  off  water  for  irrigation ;  for  that  reason 
a  very  small  portion  of  the  waters  of  the  Oxus  reaches  the  lake. 
Besides,  the  Russian  rivers  yield  less  water  than  formerly  from  the 
progress  of  cultivation.  The  small  mountain-lake,  Sir-i-Kol,  in  the 
high  table-land  of  Pamer,  from  whence  the  Oxus  flows,  is  15,630 
feet  above  the  sea;  consequently  there  is  a  difference  of  level  between 
it  and  the  Dead  Sea  of  nearly  17,000  feet. 

The  small  number  of  lakes  in  the  Himalaya  is  one  of  the  pecu- 
liarities of  these  mountains.  The  Lake  of  Wuler,  in  the  valley  of 
Cashmere,  is  the  only  one  of  any  magnitude ;  it  is  but  10  miles  in 

1  The  water  of  the  Dead  Sea  contains  26-41  per  cent,  of  saline  ingre- 
dients, one  of  which  is  chloride  of  magnesium.  The  water  of  Lake  Eltonsk 
contains  a  small  quantity  of  chloride  of  calcium. 

[An  analysis  of  the  -water  of  the  Dead  Sea,  by  James  C.  Booth  and  Alex- 
ander Muckle  of  Philadelphia,  is  given  in  Lieut.  Lynch's  official  report  of 
the  United  States'  Expedition  to  the  Dead  Sea  and  River  Jordan.  It  is  as 
follows : 

Specific  gravity  at  60°  F 1-22742 

Chloride  of  magnesium .'. 145-8971 

"  calcium 31-0746 

"  sodium 78-5537 

"  potassium 6-5860 

Bromide  of  potassium 1.3741 

Sulphate  of  lime 0-7012 

264-1867 
Water 735-8133 


1000 
Total  amount  of  solid  matter  found  by  experiment 267-000 

The  great  specific  gravity  of  this  water  does  not  indicate  saturation, 
because  it  is  still  capable  of  holding  much  chloride  of  sodium,  and  of  course 
still  more  chloride  of  magnesium  in  solution.  Crystals  of  chloride  of 
sodium  were  found  at  a  depth  of  116  fathoms,  which  shows  "  that  the  water 
of  the  Dead  Sea  is  very  unequally  charged  with  its  constituents,  and  that 
no  safe  inference  can  be  drawn  from  an  analysis  of  surface  water,  and  still 
less  of  any  specimen"  from  an  unknown  depth. —  Official  Report.] 


262  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XX. 

length  and  4^  in  breadth,  but  seems  to  be  the  residue  of  one  that 
had  filled  the  whole  valley  at  some  early  period.  There  are  many 
great  lakes,  both  fresh  and  salt,  on  the  table-land ;  the  annular  form 
of  Lake  Palte,  at  the  northern  base  of  the  Himalaya,  as  represented 
on  maps,  is  unexampled ;  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasarowar  and  of 
Rakas  Tal,  in  Great  Tibet,  occupy  a  space  of  about  400  square 
miles,  in  the  centre  of  the  Himalaya,  between  the  gigantic  peaks  of 
Gurla  on  the  south  and  of  Kailas  on  the  north ;  it  is  from  the  west- 
ernmost of  these  lakes  (which  communicate  with  each  other),  the 
Cho  Lagan  of  the  Tibetians,  that  the  Sutlej  rises,  at  an  elevation  of 
15,250  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  These  remarkable  lakes 
mark  the  point  from  around  which  all  the  great  rivers  rising  in  the 
Himalaya  have  their  origin.  Tibet  is  full  of  lakes,  many  of  whit-h 
contain  borax  in  solution.  As  most  of  the  great  lakes  on  the  table-- 
land are  in  the  Chinese  territories,  strangers  have  not  had  access  to 
them ;  the  Koko-nor  and  Lake  Lop  seem  to  be  very  large ;  the  lat- 
ter is  said  to  have  a  surface  of  2187  square  miles,  and  there  are 
others  not  inferior  to  it  in  the  north.  The  lakes  in  the  Altai  are 
beautiful,  larger  and  more  numerous  than  in  any  other  mountain- 
chain.  They  are  at  different  elevations  on  the  terraces  by  which 
the  table-land  descends  to  the  flats  of  Siberia,  and  are,  owing  to  geo- 
logical phenomena,  essentially  different  from  those  which  have  pro- 
duced the  Caspian  and  other  steppe  lakes.  They  seem  to  have  been 
hollows  formed  where  the  axes  of  the  different  branches  of  the  chain 
c.ross,  and  are  most  numerous  and  deepest  in  the  eastern  Altai.  Bai- 
kal, the  largest  mountain-lake,  supposed  to  owe  its  origin  to  the 
sinking  of  the  ground  during  an  earthquake,  has  an  area  of  14,800 
square  miles,  nearly  equal  to  the  half  of  Scotland.  It  lies  buried 
in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  amid  lofty  granite  mountains,  which  con- 
stitute the  edge  of  the  table-land  to  the  south,  ending  in  the  desert 
of  the  Great  Gobi,  and  in  the  north-west  they  gird  the  shore  so 
closely  that  they  dip  into  the  water  in  many  places ;  160  rivers  and 
streams  fall  into  this  salt  lake,  which  drains  a  country  probably  twice 
the  size  of  Britain.  The  river  Angara,  which  runs  deep  and  strong 
through  a  crevice  at  its  eastern  end,  is  its  principal  outlet,  and  is 
supposed  to  carry  off  but  a  small  proportion  of  its  water.  Its  sur- 
face is  1793  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  its  climate  is  as  severe  as 
it  is  in  Europe  10°  farther  north  ;  yet  the  lake  does  not  freeze  till 
the  middle  of  December,  possibly  from  its  depth,  being  unfathom- 
able in  some  places  with  a  line  of  600  feet. 

Two  hundred  and  eighty  years  before  the  Christian  era,  the  large 
fresh-water  lake  of  Oitz,  in  Japan,  was  formed  in  one  night,  by  a 
prodigious  sinking  of  the  ground,  at  the  same  time  that  one  of  the 
highest  and  most  active  volcanoes  in 'that  country  rose  from  the 
depths  of  the  earth. 

Very  extensive  lakes  occur  in  Africa ;  there  appears  to  be  a  great 


CHAP.  XX.  AFRICAN    LAKES.  263 

number  on  the  low  lands  on  the  east  coast,  in  which  many  of  the 
rivers  from  the  edge  of  the  table-land  terminate.  Among  others 
there  is  the  Bahr  Assal  (salt  lake),  25  miles  west  of  Tadjurra,  in 
the  country  through  which  the  Hawash  flows,  which  has  a  depression 
of  570  feet  below  the  level  of  the  ocean,  according  to  the  measure- 
ment of  Lieutenant  Cristopher.  Notwithstanding  the  arid  soil  of 
the  southern  table-land,  it  contains  the  fresh-water  lake  of  N'yassi 
or  Zambeze,  one  of  the  largest,  being  some  hundred  miles  long ; 
and,  though  narrow  in  proportion,  it  cannot  be  crossed  in  a  boat  of 
the  country  in  less  than  three  days,  resting  at  night  on  an  island,  of 
which  there  are  many.  It  lies  between  300  and  400  miles  west 
from  the  Mozambique  Channel,  and  begins  200  miles  north  of  the 
town  of  Tete,  which  is  situate  on  the  river  Zambeze,  from  whence 
it  extends  from  south-west  to  north-west,  possibly  to  within  a  degree 
or  two  of  the  equator.  It  receives  the  drainage  of  the  country  to 
the  south-east.  In  latitude  20°  20'  and  east  longitude  22°  nearly, 
is  situated  the  recently  discovered  Lake  of  Ngami,  which  has  hith- 
erto been  but  imperfectly  explored.  It  is  supposed  to  be  more  than 
70  miles  long.  A  large  river,  the  Zouga,  leaves  it  at  its  eastern 
extremity,  where  it  is  200  yards  wide ;  it  is  supposed  to  join  the 
Limpopo.  The  elevation  of  the  lake,  as  determined  by  its  discover- 
ers, Messrs.  Livingstone,  Oswell,  and  Murray,  is  2825  feet  above 
the  sea.1  No  one  knows  what  there  may  be  in  the  unexplored  re- 
gions of  the  Ethiopian  desert;  but  Abyssinia  has  the  large  and 
beautiful  lake  of  Dembia,  situate  in  a  spacious  plain  — the  granary 
of  the  country  —  so  high  above  the  sea  that  spring  is  perpetual, 
though  within  the  tropics.  There  are  many  other  lakes  in  this  great 
projecting  promontory  so  full  of  rivers,  mountains,  and  forests;  but 
the  lowlands  of  Soudan  and  the  country  lying  along  the  base  of  the 
northern  declivity  of  the  table-land  is  the  region  of  African  lakes, 
of  which  the  Tchad,  almost  the  size  of  an  inland  sea,  is  in  the  very 
centre  of  the  continent.  Its  extent,  and  the  size  of  its  basin,  are 
unknown ;  it  receives  many  affluents  from  the  high  lands  called  the 
Mountains  of  the  Moon,  certainly  all  those  that  flow  from  them  east 
of  Bornou,  and  it  is  supposed  but  not  proved  to  be  drained  by  the 
Tchadda,  a  principal  tributary  of  the  Niger.  Other  lakes  of  less 
magnitude  are  known  to  exist  in  these  regions,  and  there  are  proba- 
bly many  more  that  are  unknown.  Salt-water  lakes  are  numerous 
on  the  northern  boundaries  of  the  great  lowland  deserts,  and  many 
fine  sheets  of  fresh  water  are  found  in  the  valleys  and  flat  terraces 
of  the  Great  and  Little  Atlas. 

Fresh-water  lakes  are  characteristic  of  the  higher  latitudes  of  both 
continents,  but  those  in  the  old  continent  sink  into  insignificance  in 
comparison  with  the  number  and  extent  of  those  in  the  new.  In- 

1  Journal  of  Geographical  Society  of  London,  Vol.  xx.  p.  143. 


264  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XX. 

deed  a  very  large  portion  of  North  America  is  covered  with  fresh 
water ;  the  five  principal  lakes  —  Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie, 
and  Ontario — with  some  of  their  dependants,  probably  cover  an  area 
of  94,000  square  miles  ;  that  of  Lake  Superior  alone,  32,000,  which 
is  only  1800  square  miles  less  than  the  whole  of  England.  The 
American  lakes  contain  more  than  half  the  amount  of  fresh  water 
on  the  globe.  The  altitude  of  these  lakes  shows  the  slope  of  the 
continent ;  the  absolute  elevation  of  Lake  Superior  is  672  feet ;  Lake 
Huron  is  30  feet  lower ;  Lake  Erie  32  feet  lower  than  the  Huron ; 
and  Lake  Ontario  is  331  feet  below  the  level  of  Erie.  The  river 
Niagara,  which  unites  the  two  last  lakes,  is  33^  miles  long,  and  in 
that  distance  it  descends  66  feet ;  it  falls  in  rapids  through  55  feet 
of  that  height  in  the  last  half-mile,  but  the  upper  part  of  its  course 
is  navigable.  The  height  of  the  cascade  of  Niagara  is  162  feet  on 
the  American  side  of  the  central  island,  and  1125  feet  wide.  On 
the  Canadian  side  the  fall  is  149  feet  high,  and  2100  feet  wide — the 
most  magnificent  sheet  of  falling  water  known,  though  many  are 
higher.  The  river  St.  Lawrence,  which  drains  the  whole,  slopes 
234  feet  between  the  bottom  of  the  cascade  and  the  sea.  The  bed 
of  Lake  Superior  is  300  feet,  and  that  of  Ontario  268  feet,  below 
the  surface  of  the  Atlantic,  affording  another  instance  of  deep  inden- 
tation in  the  solid  matter  of  the  globe.  Some  lakes  are  decreasing 
in  magnitude,  though  the  contrary  seems  to  be  the  case  in  America; 
between  the  years  1825  and  1838,  Ontario  rose  nearly  seven  feet: 
and,  according  to  the  American  engineers,  Lake  Erie  had  gained 
several  feet  in  the  same  time.  Lake  Huron  is  said  to  be  the  focus 
of  peculiar  electrical  phenomena,  as  thunder  is  constantly  heard  in 
one  of  its  bays.  The  lakes  north  of  this  group  are  innumerable ; 
the  whole  country,  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  covered  with  sheets  of 
water  which  emit  rivers  and  streams.  Lake  Winnipeg,  Reindeer 
Lake,  Slave  Lake,  and  some  others,  may  be  regarded  as  the  chief 
members  of  separate  groups  or  basins,  each  embracing  a  wide  extent 
of  country  almost  unknown.  There  are  also  many  lakes  on  each 
side  of  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  and  in  Mexico  there  are  six  or  seven 
lakes  of  considerable  size,  though  not  to  be  compared  with  those  in 
North  America. 

There  are  many  sheets  of  water  in  Central  America,  though  only 
one  is  of  any  magnitude,  the  Lake  of  Nicaragua,  in  the  province  of 
that  name,  about  100  miles  from  the  sea,  which  communicates  with 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by  the  River  San  Juan. 

In  Central  America  the  Andes  are  interrupted  by  plains  and  mere 
hills  on  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  and  of  Nicaragua,  on  each  side 
of  which  there  is  a  series  of  lakes  and  rivets,  which,  aided  by  canals, 
might  form  a  water  communication  between  the  Atlantic  and  Paci- 
fic oceans.  In  the  former,  the  line  proposed  would  connect  the  river 
Guasacualco,  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  with  the  Bay  of  Tehuantepec" 


tfHAP.  XX.  IMPORTANCE    OP    LAKES.  265 

in  the  Pacific.  lu  the  Isthmus  of  Nicaragua,  the  Gulf  of  San 
Juan  would  be  connected  by  the  river  of  that  name,  and  the  chain 
of  Lakes  of  Nicaragua  and  Leon,  with  the  Bay  of  Realejo  or  the 
Gulf  of  Fonseca,  with  the  Gulf  of  Costa  Rica.  Here  the  water- 
shed is  only  615  feet  above  the  sea,  and  of  easy  excavation,  and  the 
lake,  situate  in  an  extensive  plain,  is  deep  enough  for  vessels  of 
considerable  size.1 

A  range  of  lakes  goes  along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes,  but 
the  greater  part  of  them  are  mere  lagoons  or  marshes,  some  very 
large,  which  inundate  the  country  to  a  great  extent  in  the  time  of 
the  tropical  rains.  There  appears  to  be  a  deep  hollow  in  the  surface 
of  the  earth  at  the  part  where  Bolivia,  Brazil,  and  Paraguay  meet, 
in  which  lies  the  Lake  Xarayos,  extending  on  each  side  of  the  river 
Paraguay,  but,  like  many  South  American  lakes,  it  is  not  permanent, 
being  alternately  inundated  and  dry,  or  a  marsh.  Its  inundations 
cover  36,000  square  miles.  Salt  and  fresh  water  lakes  are  nume- 
rous on  the  plains  of  La  Plata,  and  near  the  Andes  in  Patagonia, 
resembling  in  this  respect  those  in  northern  latitudes,  though  on  a 
smaller  scale. 

In  the  elevated  mountain-valleys  and  table-lands  of  the  Andes 
there  are  many  small  lakes  of  the  purest  blue  and  green  colours,  in- 
tensely cold,  some  being  near  the  line  of  perpetual  congelation. 
They  are  generally  of  considerable  depth.  The  great  fresh-water 
lake  of  Titicaca,  however,  in  the  Bolivian  Andes,  has  an  area  of 
2225  square  miles,  of  60  to  a  degree,  and  is  more  than  120  fathoms 
deep  in  many  places,  surrounded  by  splendid  scenery.  Though 
12,846  feet  above  the  level  of  the  Pacific,  and  consequently  higher 
than  the  Peak  of  Tenerifie,  it  contains  several  species  of  fish ;  its 
shores  are  cultivated,  producing  corn,  barley,  and  potatoes;  and 
peopled  by  a  large  aboriginal  population,  inhabiting  towns  and  vil- 
lages. Numerous  vestiges  of  Peruvian  civilization  are  everywhere 
to  be  met  with ;  and  in  the  island  from  which  it  derives  its  name, 
and  where  tradition  places  the  origin  of  the  last  Inca  dynasty,  nume- 
rous specimens  of  Peruvian  architecture  still  exist.  It  receives 
several  rivers  from  either  branch  of  the  Andes,  but  has  only  one 
exit,  the  river  Desaguadero,  the  waters  of  which  are  lost  by  evapo- 
ration and  infiltration  in  the  sandy  soil  through  which  it  flows,  and 
in  its  terminal  lake  or  marsh  of  Aullagas.2 

The  limpid  transparency  of  the  water  in  lakes,  especially  in  moun- 

1  The  reader  is  referred  to  a  paper  recently  published  by  Capt.  R.  Fitz- 
roy,  in  the  Journal  of  the  Geographical  Society,  for  a  lucid  description  and 
review  of  the  different  projected  canals  and  routes  across  the  American 
isthmus,  viz.,  by  the  Lake  Nicaragua,  River  Guasacualco,  Panama,  and  by 
Darien. 

1  See  Pentland's  map  of  the  Lake  of  Titicaca,  1847,  published  at  the  Hyd. 
Office. 

23 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

tainous  countries,  is  remarkable ;  minute  objects  are  visible  at  the 
bottom  through  many  fathoms  of  water.  The  vivid  green  tints  so 
often  observed  in  Alpine  lakes  may  be  produced  by  vegetable  dyes 
dissolved  in  the  water^  though  chemical  analysis  has  not  detected 
them. 

Lakes,  being  the  sources  of  some  of  the  largest  rivers,  are  of  great 
importance  for  inland  navigation  as  well  as  for  irrigation  ;  while,  by 
their  constant  evaporation,  they  maintain  the  supply  of  humidity  in 
the  atmosphere  so  essential  to  vegetation,  besides  the  embellishment 
a  country  derives  from  them. 


CHAPTER   XXI. 

Temperature  of  the  Earth — Temperature  of  the  Air — Radiation — Foci  of 
Maximum  Cold  —  Thermal  Equator  —  Its  Temperature,  mean  and  abso- 
lute—  Isothermal  Lines  —  Continental  and  Insular  Climates  —  Extreme 
Climates — Stability  of  Climate — Decrease  of  Heat  in  Altitude — Line  of 
Perpetual  Snow — Density  of  the  Atmosphere — The  Barometer — Measure- 
ment of  Heights — Variations  in  Density  and  their  Causes  —  Horary  Va- 
riations—  Independent  Effect  of  the  dry  and  aqueous  Atmospheres  — 
Mean  Height  of  Barometer  in  different  Latitudes — Depression  in  the  An- 
tarctic Ocean  and  in  Eastern  Siberia  —  Barometric  Storms  —  Polar  and 
Equatorial  Currents  of  Air  —  Trade  Winds — Monsoons'  —  Land  and  Sea 
Breezes — Gyration  of  the  Winds  in  the  Extra-Tropical  Zones — Winds  in 
Middle  European  Latitudes — Hurricanes — The  Laws  of  their  Motion — 
Their  Effect  on  the  Barometer — How  to  steer  clear  of  them — The  Storm- 
Wave  —  Storm-Currents  —  Arched  Squalls  —  Tornadoes — Whirlwinds  — 
Water  Spouts. 

THE  atmosphere  completely  envelops  the  earth  to  the  height  of 
about  50  miles;  it  bulges  at  the  equator,  and  is  flattened  at  the  poles, 
in  consequence  of  the  diurnal  rotation.  It  is  a  mixture  of  water  in 
an  invisible  state  and  of  air ;  but  the  air  is  not  homogeneous ;  in  100 
parts  79  are  nitrogen  or  azote  gas,  and  21  of  oxygen,  the  source  of 
combustion1  and  animal  heat.  Besides  these,  there  is  a  small  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid  gas,  varying  from  3  to  5  ten-thousandths,  which 
is  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  vegetation  on  the  earth  with  wood  and 

»  [Oxygen  is  a  supporter  of  combustion,  but  not  the  only  one.  The  rapid 
chemical  union  of  oxygen  and  a  combustible  body,  accompanied  by  an  ex- 
trication of  light  and  heat,  is  termed  combustion.] 


CHAP.  XXI.     TEMPERATURE    OP    THE    EARTH.  267 

leaves,  and  a  very  minute  proportion  of  ammoniacal  gas.1  No  doubt 
exhalations  of  various  kinds  ascend  into  the  air,  such  as  those  which 
produce  miasmata,  but  they  are  in  quantities  too  minute  to  be  detected 
by  chemical  analysis,  so  that  the  atmosphere  is  found  to  be  of  the 
same  composition  at  all  heights  above  the  sea  hitherto  attained.2 

The  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface,  and  the  phenomena  of 
the  atmosphere,  depend  upon  the  revolution  and  rotation  of  the 
earth,  which  successively  expose  all  the  parts  of  it,  and  the  air  which 
surrounds  it,  to  a  perpetual  variation  of  the  gravitating  forces  of  the 
two  great  luminaries,  and  to  annual  and  diurnal  vicissitudes  of  solar 
heat.  Atmospheric  phenomena  are  consequently  periodical  and  con- 
nected with  one  another,  and  their  harmony,  and  the  regularity  of 
the  laws  which  govern  them,  become  the  more  evident  in.  proportion 
as  the  mean  values  of  their  vicissitudes  are  determined  from  simul- 
taneous observations  made  over  widely  extended  tracts  of  the  globe. 
The  fickleness  of  the  wind  and  weather  is  proverbial,  but,  as  the 
same  quantity  of  heat  is  annually  received  from  the  sun,  and  an- 
nually radiated  into  space,  it  follows  that  all  climates  on  the  earth 
are  stable,  and  that  their  changes,  like  the  perturbations  of  the 
planets,  are  limited  and  accomplished  in  fixed  cycles,  whose  periods 
are  still  in  many  instances  unknown.  It  is  possible,  however,  that 
the  earth  and  air  may  be  affected  by  secular  variations  of  tempera- 
ture during  the  progress  of  the  solar  system  through  space,  or  from 
periodical  changes  in  the  sun's  light  and  heat,  similar  to  those  which 
take  place  in  many  of  the  fixed  stars.  The  secular  variation  in  the 
moon's  mean  distance  will  no  doubt  alter  the  amount  ef  her  attractive 
force,  though  probably  by  a  quantity  inappreciable  in  the  aerial 
tides;  at  all  events  variations  arising  from  such  circumstances  could 
only  become  perceptible  after  many  ages. 

From  experiments  made  by  M.  Peltier  it  appears  that,  if  the  ab- 
solute quantity  of  heat  annually  received  by  the  earth  were  equally 
dispersed  over  its  surface,  it  would,  in  the  course  of  a  year,  melt  a 
stratum  of  ice  46  feet  deep  covering  the  whole  globe.  It  is  evident 

1  The  recent  researches  of  Mr.  Ville  show  that  the  quantity  of  ammo- 
niacal vapour  in  the  air  is  so  very  minute  as  to  exercise  no  influence,  as 
•was  supposed  by  Liebig,  on  vegetation.     M.  Lewy  has  lately  found  that  in, 
some  situations,  as  at  Santa  FC"  de  Bogota,  the  proportion  of  carbonic  acid 
gas  varies  with  the  seasons :  thus  in  eleven  months  out  of  the  twelve,  the 
air  contains  the  ordinary  dose,  from  y^l^  to  TTr|7?r  of  its  volume,  whereas 
in  September  this  proportion  increases  to  y/j^j  a  circumstance  quite  in- 
explicable in  the  present  state  of  meteorology. 

2  Professor  Schoenbein  of  Basle  attributes  the  peculiar  smell,  when  bodies 
are  struck  by  lightning,  to  a  principle  existing  in  the  atmosphere,  which 
he  calls  ozone,  liberated  by  the  decomposing  action  of  electricity,  and  pos- 
sessing the  same  electrical  characters  as  bromine,  chlorine,  and  iodine.    He 
ascribes  the  luminous  appearance  of  the  ocean  to  the  action  of  that  prin- 
ciple on  the  animal  matter  it  contains. 


268  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

S 

that,  if  so  great  a  quantity  of  heat  had  been  continually  accumu- 
lated in  the  earth,  instead  of  being  radiated  into  space,  it  would 
have  been  transmitted  through  the  surface  to  the  poles,  where  it 
would  have  melted  the  ice,  and  the  torrid  zone,  if  not  the  whole 
globe,  would  by  this  time  have  been  uninhabitable.  In  fact,  every 
surface  absorbs  and  radiates  heat  at  the  same  time,  and  the  power 
of  radiation  is  always  equal  to  the  power  of  absorption,  for,  under 
the  same  circumstances,  bodies  which  become  soon  warm  also  cool 
rapidly,  and  the  earth,  as  a  whole,  is  under  the  same  law  as  the 
bodies  at  its  surface. 

Although  part  of  the  heat  received  from  the  sun  in  summer  is 
radiated  back  again,  by  far  the  greater  part  sinks  into  the  earth's 
surface,  and  tempers  the  severity  of  the  winter's  cold  while  passing 
through  the  atmosphere  into  the  etherial  regions. 

The  power  of  the  solar  rays  depends  on  the  manner  in  which  they 
fall,  as  may  be  seen  from  the  difference  of  climates.  The  earth  is 
about  3,000,000  of  miles  nearer  to  the  sun  in  winter  than  in  sum- 
mer, but  the  rays  strike  the  northern  hemisphere  more  obliquely  in 
winter  than  in  the  other  half  of  the  year. 

Sir  John  Herschel  has  shown  that  the  elliptical  form\>f  the  earth's 
orbit  has  but  a  trifling  share  in  producing  the  variation  of  tempera- 
ture corresponding  to  the  difference  of  seasons.  For  although  in 
one  half  of  its  orbit  the  earth  is  nearer  the  sun  than  in  the  other 
half,  its  motion  is  so  much  more  rapid  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter,  that  it  is  exposed  for  a  shorter  time  to  the  sun's  influence ; 
thus  a  compensation  takes  place,  and  an  equal  distribution  of  light 
and  heat  is  accorded  to  both  hemispheres. 

But  on  account  of  the  present  position  of  the  earth's  orbit,  the 
direct  heating  power  of  the  sun  in  summer  is  greater  by  one-fifteenth 
of  its  whole  intensity  in  the  southern  than  in  the  northern  hemis- 
phere in  equal  latitudes  and  under  equal  circumstances  of  exposure ; 
for  that  reason  the  sufferings  of  travellers  in  the  southern  deserts 
are  much  more  intolerable  than  in  the  northern.  In  the  account 
of  the  exploring  expedition  into  the  interior  of  Australia,  Captain 
Sturt  mentions  that  "  the  ground  was  almost  a  molten  surface,  and 
if  a  match  accidentally  fell  on  it,  it  immediately  ignited."  Sir 
John  Herschel  has  observed  the  temperature  of  the  surface  soil  in 
South  Africa  as  high  as  159°  Fahrenheit.1 

Diurnal  variations  of  heat  are  perceptible  only  to  a  small  distance 
below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  because  the  earth  is  a  bad  con- 
ductor :  the  annual  influence  of  the  sun  penetrates  much  farther. 
At  the  equator,  where  the  heat  is  greatest,  it  descends  deeper  than 
elsewhere,  with  a  diminishing  intensity,  but  there,  and  everywhere 
throughout  the  globe,  there  is  a  stratum,  at  a  depth  varying  from 

'  Sir  John  Herschel's  Outlines  of  Astronomy,  p.  218,  1849. 


CHAP.  XXI.      TEMPERATURE   OF   THE   EARTH.  269 

40  to  100  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  ground,  where  the  tempera- 
ture never  varies,  and  is  nearly  the  same  with  the  mean  temperature 
of  the  country  over  it.  This  zone,  unaffected  by  the  sun's  heat 
from  above,  or  by  the  internal  heat  from  below,  serves  as  an  origin 
whence  the  effects  of  solar  heat  are  estimated  on  one  hand,  and  the 
internal  temperature  of  the  globe  on  the  other.  Below  it  the  heat 
of  the  earth  increases,  as  already  mentioned,  at  the  rate  of  one  de- 
gree of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer  for  every  50  or  60  feet  of  per- 
pendicular depth  j  were  it  to  continue  increasing  at  that  rate,  every 
substance  would  be  in  a  state  of  fusion  at  the  depth  of  21  miles; 
hitherto,  however,  the  experiments  in  mines  and  Artesian  wells, 
whence  the  earth's  temperature  below  the  constant  stratum  is  ascer- 
tained, have  not  been  extended  below  1700  feet.1 

M.  de  Beaumont  has  estimated  by  the  theory  of  Fourier,  from 
the  observations  of  M.  Arago,  that  the  quantity  of  central  heat 
which  reaches  the  surface  of  the  earth  is  capable,  in  the  course  of  a 
year,  of  melting  a  shell  of  ice  covering  the  globe  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  thick.2 

1  The  protuberant  matter  at  the  earth's  equator  occasions  a  nutation  in 
the  lunar  orbit,  and  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  on  that  protuberant 
matter  produces  those  inequalities  in  the  earth's  rotation  known  as  the 
Luni-Solar  Nutation  and  Precession:  (See  Connection  of  Physical  Sciences, 
sections  5  and  11.)  These  inequalities  have  been  computed  on  the  hypo- 
thesis of  the  earth  being  a  solid  mass.  Mr.  Hopkins  has  found  that  the 
result  would  be  the  same  if  the  earth  consisted  of  a  solid  shell,  enclosing 
a  nucleus  of  liquid  fire,  provided  the  shell  were  from  800  to  1000  miles  in 
thickness.  According  to  the  actual  increase  of  internal  heat,  the  earth 
must  be  in  fusion  at  the  depth  of  twenty-one  miles,  a  circumstance  equally 
inconsistent  with  the  preceding  result,  and  with  the  amount  of  precession. 
However,  the  temperature  at  which  fusion  takes  place  is  probably  different 
at  different  depths  on  account  of  the  enormous  pressure  (see  Connection 
of  Phys.  Sciences,  p.  83).  Now  Mr.  Hopkins  has  recently  shown,  that  if 
the  pressure  has  no  effect  in  increasing  the  temperature  of  fusion,  the  ex- 
isting temperature  cannot  be  due  to  original  central  heat ;  but  if  it  does 
affect  it,  then,  along  with  the  increasing  tendency  of  heat  to  prevent  solid- 
ification as  the  depth  increases,  there  would  be  an  increasing  tendency  to 
promote  it,  by  rendering  the  mass  fusible  at  a  higher  temperature-  Ac- 
cording as  one  or  other  of  these  tendencies  predominates,  different  cases 
occur,  consequently  the  internal  state  of  the  globe  may  be  determined  by 
experiments  on  the  effect  of  high  pressure  on  the  temperature  of  fusion. 
Were  the  earth  composed  of  a  solid  shell  filled  with  fluid  matter,  the  lava 
would  stand  at  the  same  height  in  all  volcanoes,  which  it  does  not;  and  the 
same  would  happen  if  the  globe  had  a  solid  nucleus  from  high  pressure, 
and  a  solid  crust  from  refrigeration,  with  matter  between,  which  is  one  of 
the  possible  cases  arising  from  Mr.  Hopkins's  investigation.  He  shows, 
however,  that  from  various  circumstances  the  solid  nucleus  and  the  solid 
crust  may  be  so  united  at  intervals  as  to  divide  the  molten  matter  into  ba 
sins  or  seas  of  lava,  which  may  be  at  different  levels  below  the  surface, 
a  state  that  agrees  better  than  any  other  with  the  phenomena  of  volca^ 
noes. 

*  Annales  des  Sciences  Ge'ologiques,  par  M.  Riviere,  1842. 
23* 


270  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

The  superficial  temperature  of  the  earth  is  great  at  the  equator,  it 
decreases  gradually  towards  the  poles,  and  is  an  exact  mean  between 
the  two  at  the  45th  parallel  of  latitude ;  but  a  multitude  of  causes 
disturb  this  law  even  between  the  tropics.  It  is  affected  chiefly  by 
the  unequal  distribution  of  land  and  water,  by  the  height  above  the 
sea,  by  the  nature  of  the  soil,  arid  by  vegetation,  so  that  a  line  drawn 
on  a  map  through  all  the  places  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
earth  is  the  same  would  be  very  far  from  coinciding  with  the  parallels 
of  latitude,  but  would  approximate  more  to  them  near  the  equator. 
Between  the  tropics  the  temperature  of  the  earth's  surface  is  greater 
in  the  interior  of  continents  than  on  the  sea-coasts  and  islands,  and  in 
the  interior  of  Africa  it  is  greater  than  in  any  other  part  of  the  globe. 

Temperature  depends  upon  the  property  all  bodies  possess,  more 
or  less,  of  perpetually  absorbing  and  emitting  or  radiating  heat. 
"When  the  interchange  is  equal,  the  temperature  of  a  substance  re- 
mains the  same ;  but  when  the  radiation  exceeds  the  absorption,  it 
becomes  colder,  and  vice  versa.  The  temperature  of  the  air  is  cer- 
tainly raised  by  the  passage  of  the  solar  heat  through  it,  because  it 
absorbs  one-third  of  it  before  reaching  the  earth,  but  it  is  chiefly 
warmed  by  heat  transmitted  and  radiated  from  the  earth.  The  ra- 
diation is  abundant  when  the  sky  is  still,  clear,  and  blue,  but  clouds 
intercept  it ;  so  that  a  thermometer  rises  in  cloudy  weather,  and  sinks 
when  the  air  becomes  clear  and  calm  ;  even  a  slight  mist  diminishes 
radiation  from  the  earth,  because  it  returns  as  much  heat  as  it  re- 
ceives. The  temperature  of  the  air  is  subject  to  such  irregularities 
from  these  circumstances,  and  from  the  difference  in  the  radiating 
powers  of  the  bodies  at  the  surface  of  the  globe,  that  it  is  necessary 
to  find,  by  experiment,  the  mean  or  average  warmth  of  the  day, 
month,  and  year,  at  a  great  variety  of  places,  in  order  to  have  a 
standard  by  which  the  temperature  in  different  parallels  of  latitude 
may  be  compared. 

The  mean  diurnal  temperature  of  the  air,  at  any  place,  is  equal 
to  half  the  sum  of  the  greatest  and  least  heights  of  the  thermometer 
during  24  hours,  and,  as  the  height  of  the  thermometer  is  twice  in  the 
course  of  that  time  equal  to  the  mean  temperature  of  the  place  of 
observation,  it  might  seem  easy  to  obtain  its  value ;  yet  that  is  not 
the  case,  for  a  small  error  in  observation  produces  a  very  great  error 
in  such  minute  quantities,  so  that  accuracy  can  only  be  attained  from 
the  average  of  a  great  number  of  observations,  by  which  the  errors, 
sometimes  in  excess  and  sometimes  in  defect,  neutralize  or  balance 
each  other.  The  mean  value  of  quantities  is  a  powerful  aid  to  the 
imperfections  of  our  nature  in  arriving  at  truth  in  physical  inquiries, 
and  in  none  more  than  in  atmospheric  phenomena ;  almost  all  the 
certain  knowledge  man  has  acquired  with  regard  to  the  density  and 
temperature  of  the  air,  winds,  rain,  &c.,  has  been  acquired  by  that 
method 


CHAP.  XXI.       TEMPERATURE    OP    THE    AIR. 


271 


The  mean  temperature  of  any  one  month  at  the  same  place  differs 
from  one  year  to  another,  but  the  mean  temperature  of  the  whole 
year  remains  nearly  the  same,  especially  when  the  average  of  10  or 
15  years  is  taken :  for  although  the  temperature  in  any  one  place 
may  be  subject  to  very  great  variations,  yet  it  never  deviates  more 
than  a  few  degrees  from  its  mean  state.1 

[An  illustration  of  the  above  statement  is  annexed:  —  The  dif- 
ferences of  mean  temperature  for  the  months  and  for  the  year  are 
given  in  the  following  table,  deduced  from  observations  made  at 
Philadelphia  during  sixty  years,  from  1790  to  1849  inclusive.2 


Mean  of 
Sixty  Years. 

Range  of  Mean 
for  Sixty  Years. 

Differ- 
ence. 

January  

30-46 
29-18 
38-24 
51-42 
62-94 
73-12 
7558 
72-10 
65-67 
53-99 
42-67 
31-56 

Max. 

44   ' 
40 

47 
56 
71 
77 
81 
77 
70 
64 
51 
39 

Min. 
24 

24 
34 
44 
56 
64 
68 
66 
60 
49 
28 
26 

20 
16 
13 
12 
15 
13 
13 

11 

10 
15 
23 
13 

February  

April  

May  

June  

July... 

August  

September  

October  

November  

December  

Annual  mean  for  60  years 

52-04 

54 

49 

5] 

The  motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic  occasions  perpetual  varia- 
tions in  the  length  of  the  day,  and  in  the  direction  of  his  rays  with 
regard  to  the  earth;  yef,  as  the  cause  is  periodic,  the  mean  annual 
temperature  from  the  sun's  motion  alone  must  be  constant  in  each 
parallel  of  latitude.  For  it  is  evident  that  the  accumulation  of  heat 
in  the  long  days  in  summer,  which  is  but  little  diminished  by  radia- 
tion during  the  short  nights,  is  balanced  by  the  small  quantity  of 
heat  received  during  the  short  days  of  winter  and  its  radiation  in  the 
long  frosty  and  clear  nights.3  Were  the  globe  everywhere  on  a  level 

1  The  mean  of  any  number  of  unequal  quantities  is  equal  to  their  sum 
divided  by  their  number :  thus  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  at  any 
place  during  a  year  is  equal  to  the  sum  of  the  mean  temperature  of  each 
month  divided  by  12.  This  method,  however,  will  only  give  an  approxi- 
mate value ;  therefore,  to  ascertain  the  mean  annual  temperature  at  any 
place  accurately,  the  mean  of  a  number  of  years  must  be  taken. 

a  [Dr.  Ruschenberger's  Report  on  Meteorology  and  Epidemics  for  the 
year  1851.  Transactions  of  the  College  of  Physicians  of  Philadelphia. — New 
Series,  vol.  i.  p.  281.]  i 

3  The  warmest  time  of  the  day  is  between  two  and  three  in  the  afternoon ; 
the  coldest,  shortly  before  sunrise ;  but  on  mountain  tops,  where  there  is 
little  radiation  from  the  ground,  the  time  of  greatest  warmth  depends  on 


272  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

with  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and  of  uniform  substance,  so  as  to  absorb 
and  radiate  heat  equally,  the  mean  heat  of  the  sun  would  be  regu- 
larly distributed  over  its  surface  in  zones  of  equal  annual  temperature 
parallel  to  the  equator,  and  would  decrease  regularly  to  each  pole. 
The  distribution  of  heat,  however,  in  the  same  parallel  is  very  irre- 
gular in  all  latitudes,  even  between  the  tropics,  from  the  inequalities 
in  the  level  and  nature  of  the  surface  of  the  earth,  so  that  lines 
drawn  on  a  map  through  all  places  having  the  same  mean  annual 
temperature  are  nearly  parallel  to  the  equator  only  between  the  tro- 
pics :  in  all  other  latitudes  they  deviate  greatly  from  it,  and  from 
one  another.'  Radiation  is  the  principal  modifying  cause  of  tempe- 
rature ;  hence  the  heat  of  the  air  is  most  powerfully  modified  by  the 
ocean,  which  occupies  three  times  as  much  of  the  surface  of  the  globe 
as  the  land,  and  is  more  uniform  in  its  surface,  and  also  in  its  ra- 
diating power.  On  the  land  the  difference  in  the  radiating  force  of 
the  mountains  and  table-lands  from  that  of  the  plains  —  of  deserts 
from  grounds  covered  with  rich  vegetation  —  of  wet  land  from  dry, 
are  the  most  general  causes  of  variation  :  the  local  causes  of  irregu- 
larity are  beyond  enumeration. 

There  are  two  points  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  both  in  the  80th 
parallel  of  latitude,  where  the  cold  is  more  intense  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  globe  with  which  we  are  acquainted.  One  north  of 
Canada  in  100°  W.  long,  has  a  mean  temperature  of  — 3° -5  of 
Fahrenheit, ;  while  at  the  Siberian  point,  in  95°  E.  long.,  the  mean 
temperature  of  the  air  is  + 1° ;  consequently  it  is  four  and  a  half 
degrees  warmer  than  that  north  of  Canada — a  difference  that  has  an 
influence  even  to  the  equator,  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the 
air  is  different  in  the  different  longitudes.  Sir  David  Brewster  has 
computed  that  the  mean  temperature  of  the  North  Pole  of  the  earth's 
rotation  is  not  under  5°  of  Fahrenheit,  and  may  be  even  17°,  sup- 
posing the  ocean  to  extend  so  far;  but'M.  Arago's  estimate  on  the 
hypothesis  of  there  being  land  at  the  North  Pole  makes  the  cold 
much  greater,  for  land  increases  the  cold  by  abstracting  heat  from 
the  air  in  high  latitudes,  and  augments  the  heat  by  radiation  in  low 
latitudes. 

The  line  of  the  maximum  temperature  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the 
atmospheric  thermal  equator,  which  cuts  the  terrestrial  equator  in 
the  meridians  of  Otaheite  and  Singapore,  passes  through  the  Pacific 

direct  rays  of  the  sun,  and  is  therefore  a  little  before  noon.  The  maximum 
annual  temperature  occurs  about  the  middle  of  July  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere, the  least  is  in  January,  so  that  the  former  takes  place  some  time 
after  the  summer  solstice,  because  the  earth  absorbs  more  heat  than  it  ra- 
diates during  that  interval,  and  for  the  contrary  reason  the  greatest  cold  is 
Borne  time  after  the  winter  solstice;  the  mean  takes  place  in  April  and' 
October. 

1  Lines  drawn  on  a  map  or  globe  through  all  places  where  the  mean  an- 
nual temperature  is  the  same  are  isothermal  lines. 


CHAP.  XXI.  ISOTHERMAL    LINES.  273 

in  its  southern  course,  and  through  the  Atlantic  in  its  northern,  has 
a  mean  temperature  of  83°-84  of  Fahrenheit.  But  by  the  compa- 
rison of  many  observations  the  mean  equatorial  temperature  of  the 
air  is  82°-94  in  Asia,  85°-10  in  Africa,  and  80°-96  in  America: 
thus  it  appears  that  tropical  Africa  is  the  hottest  region  on  earth. 
Moreover,  the  atmosphere  in  the  tropical  zone  of  the  Pacific,  when 
free  from  currents,  is  two  degrees  and  a  quarter  warmer  than  the 
corresponding  zone  in  the  Atlantic,  which  is  82° -40.  Local  circum- 
stances increase  both  heat  and  cold  immensely;  in  the  Nubian  De- 
sert, for  example,  the  heat  has  been  150°  of  Fahrenheit  in  the  sun, 
and  180°  in  the  shade.  Perhaps  the  greatest  degree  of  heat  on 
record  was  that  experienced  by  Captain  Griffiths  near  the  Euphrates, 
where  the  thermometer  stood  at  156°  in  the  sun,  and  132°  in  the 
shade.  In  December,  1738,  at  Kiringa,  in  Siberia,  Gmelin  the  elder 
experienced  cold  of  120° ;  the  gentlest  breeze  would  have  rendered 
that  cold  fatal  by  the  rapid  abstraction  of  heat  from  the  body.  — • 
(Dr.  Thomson's  Introduction  to  Meteorology.) 

On  account  of  the  great  extent  of  ocean,  the  isothermal  lines  in. 
the  southern  hemisphere  coincide  more  nearly  with  the  parallels  of 
latitude  than  in'  the  northern.  In  the  Antarctic  Ocean  the  only 
flexure  is  occasioned  by  the  cold  of  the  south  polar  current,  which 
flows  along  the  western  coast  of  the  American  continent.  In  the 
northern  hemisphere  the  predominance  of  land  and  its  frequent  alter- 
nations with  water,  the  prevalence  of  particular  winds,  irregularities 
of  the  surface,  and  the  difference  in  the  temperature  of  the  points 
of  maximum  cold,  cause  the  isothermal  lines  to  deviate  more  from 
the  parallels  of  latitude.  They  make  two  deep  bends  northward, 
one  in  the  Northern  Atlantic  and  another  in  the  north-east  of  Ame- 
rica, and  at  last  they  separate  into  two  parts,  and  encircle  the  points 
of  maximum  cold. 

Professor  Dove  has  discovered  that,  in  consequence  of  the  excess 
of  land  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  the  difference  in  the  effect 
produced  by  the  sun's  heat  according  as  it  falls  on  a  solid  or  liquid 
surface,  there  is  an  annual  variation  in  the  aggregate  mean  tempera- 
ture at  the  surface  of  the  earth,  whose  maximum  takes  place  during 
the  sun's  northern  declination,  and  its  minimum  during  its  southern. ' 

Places  having  the  same  mean  annual  temperature,  often  differ  ma- 
terially in  climate :  in  some  the  winters  are  mild  and  the  summers 

1  For  example,  Professor  Dove  has  found  that  the  mean  temperature  of 
December,  January,  and  February,  at  Toronto  in  Canada,  added  to  the 
mean  temperature  of  the  same  months  at  Hobart  Town  in  Van  Diemen'a 
Land,  exceeds  the  sum  of  the  mean  temperature  of  June,  July,  and  Au- 
gust, at  the  same  places,  added  together,  by  122° -7  of  Fahrenheit.  Simi- 
lar results,  though  varying  in  amount,  were  obtained  for  many  correspond- 
ing places  in  the  two  hemispheres,  which  establishes  the  law  given  iu  the 
text. 


274  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

cool,  whereas  in  others  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  prevail :  Eng- 
land is  an  example  of  the  first ;  Quebec,  St.  Petersburg,  and  the 
Arctic  regions  are  instances  of  the  second.  The  solar  heat  pene- 
trates more  abundantly  and  deeper  into  the  sea  than  into  the  land ; 
in  winter  it  preserves  a  considerable  portion  of  that  which  it  receives 
in  summer,  and  from  its  saltness  does  not  freeze  so  soon  as  fresh 
water;  hence  the  ocean  is  not  liable  to  the  same  changes  of  tempera- 
ture as  the  land,  aud  by  imparting  its  heat  to  the  winds  it  diminishes 
the  severity  of  the  climate  on  the  coasts  and  in  islands,  which  are 
never  subject  to  such  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  as  are  experienced 
in  the  interior  of  continents.  The  difference  between  the  influence 
of  sea  and  land  is  strikingly  exemplified  in  the  high  latitudes  of  the 
two  hemispheres.  In  consequence  of  the  unbounded  extent  of  the 
ocean  in  the  south,  the  air  is  so  mild  and  moist  that  a  rich  vegeta- 
tion covers  the  ground,  while  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  in  the 
north  the  country  is  barren  from  the  excess  of  land  towards  the 
Polar  Ocean,  which  renders  the  air  dry  and  cold.  A  superabund- 
ance of  land  in  the  equatorial  regions,  on  the  contrary,  raises  the 
temperature,  while  the  sea  tempers  it. 

Professor  Dove  has  shown  from  a  comparison  of  observations  that 
northern  and  central  Asia  have  what  may  be  termed  a  true  conti- 
nental climate  both  in  summer  and  in  winter  —  that  is  to  say,  a  hot 
summer  and  cold  winter ;  that  Europe  has  a  true  insular  or  sea  cli- 
mate in  both  seasons,  the  summers  being  cool  and  the  winters  mild; 
and  that  in  North  America  the  climate  is  inclined  to  be  continental 
in  winter,  and  insular  in  summer.  The  extremes  of  temperature  in 
the  year  are  greater  in  central  Asia  than  in  North  America,  and 
greater  in  North  America  than  in  Europe,  and  that  difference  in- 
creases everywhere  with  the  latitude.  In  Guiana  within  the  tropics 
the  difference  between  the  hottest  and  coldest  months  in  the  year  is 
2° -2  of  Fahrenheit,  in  the  temperate  zone  it  is  about  60°,  and  at 
Yakutsk  in  Siberia  114° -4.  Even  in  places  which  have  the  same 
latitude  as  in  northern  Asia,  compared  with  others  in  Europe  or 
North  America,  the  diversity  is  very  great.  At  Quebec  the  sum- 
mers are  as  warm  as  those  in  Paris,  and  grapes  sometimes  ripen  in 
the  open  air,  yet  the  winters  are  as  severe  as  those  in  St.  Peters- 
burg. In  short,  lines  drawn  on  a  map  through  places  having  the 
same  mean  summer  or  winter  temperature  are  neither  parallel  to 
one  another,  to  the  isothermal  or  geothermal  lines,  and  they  differ 
still  more  from  the  parallels  of  latitude.1 

1  In  the  same  manner  as  isothermal  lines  are  supposed  to  pass  through 
all  parts  of  the  globe  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air  is  the  same, 
so  the  isogeothermal  lines  are  supposed  to  pass  through  all  places  where 
the  mean  heat  of  the  ground  is  the  same :  the  isothermal  lines  are  supposed 
to  be  drawn  through  all  places  having  the  same  mean  summer  temperature ; 
and  the  isochimenal  lines  pass  through  all  places  where  the  mean  winter 


CHAP.  XXI.         DECREASE  OF   HEAT   IN   ALTITUDE.  276 

Observations  tend  to  prove  that  all  the  climates  on  the  earth  are, 
and  have  remained  so  from  the  remotest  historical  periods,  stable ; 
and  that  their  vicissitudes  are  only  oscillations  of  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent, which  vanish  in  .the  mean  annual  temperature  of  a  sufficient 
number  of  years.  There  may  be  a  succession  of  cold  summers  and 
mild  winters,  but  in  some  other  country  the  contrary  takes  place  ;  the 
distribution  of  heat  may  vary  from  a  variety  of  circumstances,  but 
the  absolute  quantity  gained  and  lost  by  the  whole  earth  in  the 
course  of  a  year  is  invariably  the  same.1 

Since  the  air  receives  its  warmth  chiefly  from  the  earth,  its  tem- 
perature diminishes  with  the  height  so  rapidly,  that  at  a  very  small 
elevation  the  cold  becomes  excessive,  as  the  perpetual  snow  on  the 
mountain-tops*  clearly  shows.  Besides,  as  the  warm  air  ascends  it 
expands,  and  its  capacity  for  heat  being  increased  more  becomes 
latent,  which  gradually  diminishes  the  sensible  heat  shown  by  the 
thermometer  :  the  decrease  is  at  the  rate  of  a  degree  of  Fahrenheit's 
thermometer  for  every  334  feet.  By  computations  founded  on  the 
capacity  of  the  air  for  heat,  and  absorption  of  the  solar  light  in  the 
atmosphere,  M.  Fourier  has  estimated  the  temperature  of  the  ethe- 
real regions  to  be  —  50°  of  Fahrenheit,  while  M.  Pouillet  estimates 
it  at  —  220°  from  direct  experiments  on  the  radiation  of  terrestrial 
heat  into  a  clear  blue  sky  during  the  night. 

The  atmosphere,  being  a' heavy  and  elastic  fluid,  decreases  in 
density  upwards,  according  to  a  determinate  law,  so  rapidly,  that 
three-fourths  of  the  whole  air  it  contains  are  within  four  miles  of 
the  earth,  and  all  the  phenomena  perceptible  to  us — as  clouds,  rain, 
snow,  and  thunder — occur  within  that  limit.  The  air  even  on  the 
tops  of  mountains  is  so  rare  as  to  diminish  the  intensity  of  sound, 
to  aifect  respiration,  and  to  occasion  a  loss  of  muscular  strength  in 
man  and  animals.2 

temperature  is  the  same.  The  practice  of  representing  to  the  eye  these 
lines  on  a  map  or  terrestrial  globe  is  of  the  greatest  use  in  following  and 
understanding  the  complicated  phenomena  of  temperature  and  magnetism. 

1  According  to  the  researches  of  M.  Arago,  the  climate  of  France  has 
not  altered  since  a  century  before  the  Christian  era,  that  is,  in  a  period  of 
two  thousand  years;  and  M.  Bureau  de  la  Malle  has  arrived  at  the  con- 
clusion that  the  climate  of  Italy  has  not  varied  from  the  time  of  Cato  the 
Censor,  who  died  147  years  before  Christ,  and  the  present  time,  or  in  20 
centuries,  by  comparing  the  times  of  ripening  of  different  vegetables  and 
plauts,  the  periods  of  the  vintage,  and  of  the  harvest,  as  given  in  the 
writings  of  Varro,  Columella,  &o.,  with  the  ripenings  and  harvests  as  they 
take  place  at  present,  and  in  the  same  localities. — Dureau  de  la  Malle  sur 
la  Climatologie,  &c.,  1'Italie,  &c.,  Paris,  1850,  8vo.  IT;  has  been  established 
by  actual  observation  of  the  thermometer,  that  the  climate  of  central  Italy 
has  not  varied  since  the  time  of  Galileo,  220  years  ago. 

a  If  the  heights  above  the  earth  increase  by  equal  quantities,  as  a  foot 
or  a  mile,  the  densities  of  the  strata  of  air,  or  the  heights  of  the  barometer 
which  are  proportional  to  them,  will  decrease  in  geometrical  progression : 


276  -PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

Since  the  space  in  the  top  of  the  tube  of  a  barometer  is  a  vacuum, 
the  column  of  mercury  is  suspended  in  the  tube  by  the  pressure  of 
the  atmosphere  on  the  surface  of  the  mercury  in  the  cistern  :  hence 
every  variation  in  the  density  or  height  of  the  atmosphere  occasions 
a  corresponding  rise  or  fall  in  the  barometric  column.1  The  actual 
mean  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  at  the  level  of  the  sea  is  15  pounds 
on  the  square  inch ;  hence  the  pressure  on  the  whole  earth  is  enor- 
mous. 

The  decrease  in  the  density  of  the  air  affords  an  accurate  method 
of  finding  the  height  of  mountains  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  which 
would  be  very  simple,  were  it  not  for  changes  of  temperature  which 
alter  the  density  and  interfere  with  the  regularity  of  the  law  of  its 
decrease.  But  as  the  heat  of  the  air,  as  before  stated,  diminishes 
with  the  height  above  the  earth  at  the  rate  of  one  degree  of  Fah- 
renheit's thermometer  for  every  334  feet,  tables  are  constructed  by 
the  aid  of  which  heights  may  be  determined  with  great  accuracy. 
In  consequence  also  of  diminished  pressure,  water  boils  at  a  lower 
temperature  on  mountain-tops  than  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  which 
affords  another  method  of  ascertaining  heights.2  [Lieut.  Herndon, 
TJ.  S.  Navy,  while  descending  the  Amazon,  observed  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  water  boiled,  in  order  to  ascertain  the  height  at  which 
he  was  daily  above  the  level  of  the  sea.] 

for  example,  if  the  height  of  the  barometer  at  the  level  of  the  sea  be 
29-922  inches,  it  will  be  14-961  inches  at  the  height  of  18,000  feet,  or  one- 
half  as  great ;  it  will  be  one-fourth  as  great  at  the  height  of  36,000  feet, 
one-eighth  at  the  height  of  54,000  feet,  and  so  on. 

[*  For  a  lucid  description  of  the  structure  and  uses  of  the  barometer, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Dr.  Lardner's  Hand-Books  of  Natural  Philo- 
sophy.] 

a  A  very  ingenious  little  instrument,  called  the  Aneroid  Barometer,  has 
been  lately  invented  in  France ;  which,  at  the  same  time  that  it  forms  an 
exact  and  very  portable  weaker-glass  in  the  common  acceptation  of  that 
term,  may  be  employed  with  considerable  accuracy  in  ascertaining  differ- 
ences of  level.  Although  not  to  be  compared,  as  an  instrument  of  pre- 
cision, with  the  ordinary  mercurial  barometer,  it  is  infinitely  more  portable, 
and  gives  with  promptitude  and  accuracy  small  differences  of  pressure ;  it 
will  be  found,  under  proper  precautions,  and  comparison  from  time  to  time 
with  the  mercurial  barometer,  a  most  useful  companion  to  the  traveller  in 
mountain  districts. 

A  friend  of  the  author's  has  recently  tested  it  in  the  latter  respect  on 
some  of  our  railways,  and  found  that  observations  made  with  it  carefully, 
will  give,  on  a  line  of  200  miles  in  extent  (on  the  Great  Western  Railway, 
for  instance,  between  London  and  Plymouth),  the  relative  levels  of  the 
different  stations  within  a  very  few  feet.  The  observations  can  be  made 
in  a  couple  of  minutes.  The  gentleman  in  question  writes  to  us,  that  he 
considers  the  Aneroid  Barometer  will  prove  a  very  useful  instrument  to 
the  geological  and  the  botanical  traveller. 

See,  for  a  description  of  this  instrument,  a  pamphlet  recently  published 
at  84,  Strand,  by  Mr.  E.  J.  Dent,  on  the  construction  and  Uses  of  the 
Aneroid  Barometer.  London,  1849. 


CHAP.  XXI.        THE    ANEROID    BAROMETER.  277 

By  the  annual  and  diurnal  revolutions  of  the  earth,  each  column 
of  air  is  alternately  exposed  to  the  heat  and  cold  of  summer  and 
winter,  of  day  and  night,  and  also  to  variations  in  the  attraction  of 
the  sun  and  moon,  which  disturb  its  equilibrium,  and  produce  tides 
similar  to  those  in  the  ocean.  Those  produced  by  the  moon  ebb 
and  flow  twice  during  a  lunation,  and  diurnal  variations  in  the  baro- 
meter, to  a  very  small  amount,  are  also  due  to  the  moon's  attraction.1 
The  annual  undulations  occasioned  by  the  sun  have  their  greatest 
altitudes  at  the  equinoxes,  and  their  least  at  the  solstices,  and  the 
diurnal  variations  in  the  height  of  the  barometer,  which  accomplish 
their  rise  and  fall  twice  in  24  hours,  are  chiefly  due  to  the  effects  of 
temperature  on  the  dry  air  and  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  which, 
according  to  Mr.  Dove's  discoveries,  produce  independent  pressures 
upon  the  mercurial  column. 

[Whenever  a  liquid  passes  into  an  aeriform  condition,  or,  in  other 
words,  is  converted  into  vapour,  it  does  so  at  the  expense  of  the 
temperature  of  surrounding  objects.  Water  cannot  become  vapour 
without  an  addition  of  heat,  which  becomes  latent;  that  is,  not  ap- 
preciable by  any  instrument  or  by  the  senses.  When  vapour  passes 
to  the  liquid  state,  its  latent  heat  becomes  sensible.  Hence,  vapor- 
ization and  condensation  are  always  accompanied  by  an  absorption 
and  an  extrication  of  heat.  Dr.  Lardner,  in  his  excellent  "  Hand- 
Books  of  Natural  Philosophy,"  states  that  "  as  much  heat  is  absorbed 
in  converting  a  given  quantity  of  water  at  212°  into  steam,  as  would 
be  sufficient  to  raise  the  same  quantity  of  water  to  the  temperature 
of  1200°  when  not  vaporized."  The  heat  absorbed  in  vaporization 
is  less  as  the  temperature  of  the  vaporizing  liquid  is  higher.  "  Thus 
a  given  weight  of  water  vaporized  at  212°  absorbs  less  heat  than 
would  the  same  quantity  vaporized  at  180°."  Water  at  a  tempera- 
ture of  50°  in  passing  'to  a  state  of  vapour,  also  at  50°,  absorbs 
1080°;  but  water  at  212°  in  becoming  vapour,  also  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  212°,  absorbs  966°,  or  114°  less.] 

A  quantity  of  vapour  is  continually  raised  by  the  heat  of  the  sun 
from  the  surface  of  the  globe,  which  mixes  in  an  invisible  state  with 
the  dry  air  or  gaseous  part  of  the  atmosphere.  It  is  most  abundant 
in  the  torrid  zone,  and,  like  the  heat  on  which  it  depends,  varies 
with  the  latitude,  the  season  of  the  year,  the  time  of  the  day,  the 

1  The  moon's  orbit  is  very  much  elongated,  so  that  her  distance  from  the 
earth  varies  considerably,  and  consequently  her  attractive  force.  More- 
over her  attraction  varies  with  the  rotation  of  the  earth,  which  brings  her 
twice  in  24  hours  in  the  meridian  of  any  place,  once  in  the  superior  and 
once  in  the  inferior  meridian ;  but  her  action  on  the  atmosphere  is  much 
inferior  to  that  of  the  heat  of  the  sun.  The  amplitude  of  the  diurnal  vari- 
ation due  to  the  action  of  the  sun  and  moon  is  about  0-1043  of  an  inch  at 
the  equator,  and  diminishes  to  0.015  towards  the  poles,  the  change  taking 
place,  according  to  Professor  J.  Forbes,  in  64°  8'  of  latitude. 

24 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

elevation  above  the  sea,  and  also  with  the  nature  of  the  soil,  the 
land,  and  the  water.  There  is  no  chemical  combination  between  the 
aerial  and  aqueous  atmospheres,  they  are  merely  mixed ;  and  the 
diurnal  variations  arise  from  the  superposition  of  two  distinct  diurnal 
oscillations,  each  going  through  its  complete  period  in  24  hours ; 
one  taking  place  in  the  aerial  atmosphere  from  the  alternate  heating 
and  cooling  of  the  air,  which  produce  a  flux  and  reflux  over  the 
point  of  observation ;  the  other  arising  from  the  aqueous  atmosphere, 
owing  to  the  alternate  production  and  destruction  of  vapour  by  the 
heat  of  the  day  and  the  cold  of  the  night.  The  diurnal  variations 
of  the  vapour  have  their  maximum  at  or  near  the  hottest  hour  of 
the  day,  and  the  minimum  at  or  near  the  coldest,  which  is  exactly 
the  converse  of  the  diurnal  variations  of  the  dry  air.  On  the  whole 
there  are  two  maxima  and  two  minima  heights  of  the  barometer  in 
the  course  of  the  24  hours  from  the  combinations  of  these,  but  in 
the  interior  of  continents  far  from  water,  where  the  air  is  very  dry, 
there  ought  to  be  one  maximum  and  one  minimum  during  that  period 
according  to  this  theory.  That  appears  to  be  actually  the  case  in 
some  parts  of  Asiatic  Siberia,  at  Prague  in  Europe,  at  Toronto  in 
Upper  Canada,  and  in  some  places  between  the  tropics. 

Between  the  tropics,  the  barometer  attains  its  greatest  height 
at  nine  or  half-past  nine  in  the  morning ;  it  then  sinks  till  four  in 
the  afternoon,  after  which  it  again  rises  and  attains  a  second  maxi- 
mum at  half-past  ten  or  eleven  in  the  evening ;  it  then  begins  to  fall 
till  it  reaches  a  second  time  its  lowest  point  at  four  in  the  morning. 
The  difference  in  the  height  is  0-117  of  an  inch,  which  gradually 
decreases  north  and  south.  Baron  Humboldt  mentions  that  the 
diurnal  variations  of  the  barometric  pressure  are  so  regular  between 
the  tropics,  that  the  hour  of  the  day  may  be  inferred  from  the  height 
of  the  mercury  to  within  fifteen  or  sixteen  minutes,  and  that  it  is 
undisturbed  by  storm,  tempest,  rain,  or  earthquake,  both  on  the 
coasts  and  at  altitudes  13,000  feet  above  them.  The  mean  height 
of  the  barometer  between  the  tropics  at  the  level  of  the  sea  is  30 
inches  with  very  little  fluctuation,  but,  owing  to  the  ascending  cur- 
rents of  air  from  the  heat  of  the  earth,  it  is  less  under  the  equator 
than  in  the  temperate  zones.  It  attains  a  maximum  in  western 
Europe  between  the  parallels  of  40  and  45° ;  in  the  North  Atlantic 
the  maximum  is  about  the  30th  parallel,  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  that  ocean  it  is  near  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn ;  the  amplitude  of 
the  oscillations  decreases  from  the  tropics  to  about  the  70th  parallel, 
where  the  diurnal  variations  cease.  They  are  affected  by  the  sea- 
sons, being  greatest  in  summer  and  least  in  winter.  It  appears  also 
that  the  fluctuations  are  the  reverse  on  mountain-tops  from  what 
they  are  on  the  plains,  and  probably  at  a  certain  height  they  would 
sease  altogether.1  It  is  a  singular  fact,  discovered  during  Sir  James 

1  Mr.  Pentland  has,  however,  found  within  the  tropics,  in  the  Peru-Bo- 


CHAP.  XXI.  BAROMETRIC    WAVES.  279 

C.  Ross's  last  voyage,  that  the  mean  height  of  the  barometer  is  an 
inch  lower  throughout  the  Antarctic  Ocean  and  at  Cape  Horn  than 
it  is  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  or  Valparaiso  :  that  difference  in 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  probably  connected  with  the  per- 
petual gales  off  the  extremity  of  South  America.  M.  Erraan  observed 
a  similar  depression  not  far  from  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  in  eastern  Si- 
beria. 

Besides  the  small  horary  undulations,  there  are  vast  waves  moving 
over  the  occeans  and  continents  in  separate  and  independent  systems, 
being  confined  to  local  yet  very  extensive  districts,  probably  occa- 
sioned by  long-continued  rains  or  dry  weather  over  wide  tracts  of 
country.  By  numerous  barometrical  observations  made  simultane- 
ously in  both  hemispheres,  the  courses  of  several  have  been  traced, 
some  of  which  take  24,  others  36  hours,  to  accomplish  their  rise 
and  fall.  One  especially  of  these  vast  barometric  waves,  many 
hundreds  of  miles  in  breadth,  has  been  traced  over  the  greater  part 
of  Europe,  and  not  its  breadth  only,  but  also  the  direction  of  its 
front  and  its  velocity,  have  been  clearly  ascertained.  The  course 
of  another  wave  has  been  made  out  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
through  many  intermediate  stations,  to  the  observatory  at  Toronto 
in  Canada.  Since  every  undulation  has  its  perfect  effect  indepen- 
dently of  the  others,  each  one  is  marked  by  a  change  in  the  baro- 
meter, and  this  is  beautifully  illustrated  by  curved  lines  on  paper, 
constructed  from  a  series  of  observations.  The  general  form  of  the 
curve  shows  the  course  of  the  principal  wave,  while  small  undula- 
tions in  its  outline  mark  the  maxima  and  minima  of  the  minor  os- 
cillations. Although,  like  all  other  waves,  these  in  the  atmosphere 
are  but  waving  forms,  in  which  there  is  no  transfer  of  air,  yet  winds 
arise  from  them  like  tide-streams  in  the  ocean,  and  Sir  John  Hers- 
chel  is  of  opinion  that  the  crossing  of  two  of  these  vast  aerial  waves, 
coming  in  different  directions,  may  generate  at  the  point  of  intersec- 
tion those  tremendous  revolving  storms,  or/ hurricanes,  which  spread 
desolation  far  and  wide. 

The  air  expands  and  becomes  lighter  with  heat,  contracts  and  be- 
comes heavier  with  cold,  and,  as  there  are  82  degrees  difference  be- 
tween the  equatorial  and  polar  temperature,  the  light  warm  air  at 
the  equator  is  constantly  ascending  to  the  upper  regions  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, and  flowing  north  and  south  to  the  poles,  from  whence  the 
cold,  heavy  air  rushes  along  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  «upply  its 
place  between  the  tropics,  for  the  same  tendency  to  restore  equili- 

livian  Andes,  at  elevations  between  11,000  and  14,000  feet,  the  horary 
oscillations  of  the  barometer  as  regular,  and  nearly  as  extensive,  as  on  the 
level  of  the  sea  in  the  same  latitude ;  they  have  also  been  found  to  observe 
the  same  regularity  at  still  more  elevated  stations  in  the  Himalaya,  although 
the  extent  of  the  oscillation  was  less,  owing  possibly  to  the  extra-tropical 
position  of  that  region. 


280  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

brium  exists  in  air  as  in  other  fluids.1  These  two  superficial  cur- 
rents, which  have  no  rotatory  motion  when  they  reach  and  leave  the 
poles,  are  deflected  from  their  meridional  paths  by  friction  from  the 
continually  increasing  velocity  of  the  earth's  rotation,  as  they  ap- 
proach the  tropics  j  and,  as  they  revolve  slower  than  the  correspond- 
ing parts  of  the  earth  at  which  they  arrive,  the  bodies  on  its  surface 
strike  against  them  with  the  excess  of  their  velocity,  so  that  the 
wind  appears  to  a  person  who  thinks  himself  at  rest,  to  blow  in  a 
direction  contrary  to  that  of  the  earth's  rotation.  For  that  reason 
the  current  from  the  north  pole  becomes  a  north-east  wind  before 
arriving  at  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  that  from  the  south  pole  be- 
comes a  south-east  wind  before  it  comes  to  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn, 
their  limit  being  about  the  28th  parallel  of  latitude  on  each  side  of 
the  equator.  In  fact  the  difference  of  temperature  puts  the  air  in 
motion,  and  the  direction  of  the  resulting  wind,  at  every  place,  de- 
pends upon  the  difference  between  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  wind 
and  the  rotatory  motion  of  the  earth — the  whole  theory  of  the  winds 
depends  upon  these  circumstances. 

Near  the  equator  the  trade-winds,  north  and  south  of  it,  so  com- 
pletely neutralize  each  other,  that  far  at  sea  a  candle  burns  without 
flickering  —  [that  is,  when  perfectly  calm ;  but  there  is  no  spot  on 
the  surface  of  the  earth  where  the  air  is  forever  at  rest.]  This  zone 
of  calms  and  light  breezes,  known  as  the  Variables,  which  has  a 
breadth  of  abont  five  degrees  and  a  half,  is  subject  to  heavy  rains 
and  violent  thunder-storms.  On  account  of  the  unequal  distribution 
of  land  and  water  in  the  northern  and  southern  hemispheres,  the  ter- 
restrial equator  is  not  the  line  of  greatest  heat,  therefore  the  centre 
of  the  zone  in  question  does  not  coincide  with  it,  but  runs  along  the 
sixth  parallel  of  north  latitude ;  however,  it  changes  in  position  and 
extent  with  the  declination  of  the  sun,  but  never  extends  south  of  the 
equinoctial  line. 

Though  the  trade-winds  extend  to  the  28th  degree  on  each  side 
of  the  equator,  their  limits  vary  considerably  in  different  parts  of  the 
ocean,  moving  two  or  three  degrees  to  the  north  or  south,  according 
to  the  position  of  the  sun ;  and  in  the  Atlantic  the  north-east  trade- 

1  Clouds  carried  by  the  upper  currents  are  frequently  seen  flying  in  a 
contrary  direction  to  those  nearer  to  the  earth,  and  volcanic  ashes  have 
been  carried  to  a  distance  of  several  hundred  miles,  when  the  trade  winds 
below  were  blowing  in  an  opposite  direction.  In  January,  1839,  Mr.  Pent- 
land  collected  volcanic  ashes  at  nearly  midway  between  the  African  and 
American  continents,  between  lat.  10°  and  14°  N.  lat.,  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  and  which  were  evidently  brought  by  the  upper  currents  in  a  direc- 
tion opposite  to  that  of  the  then  prevailing  E.N.E  trade-wind,  and  proba- 
bly from  some  of  the  active  volcanoes  of  central  America.  It  is  a  well- 
known  fact,  that  the  constant  trade-winds  have  only  a  limited  vertical 
extent,  and  that  at  a  certain  elevation,  on  the  top  of  the  Peak  of  Tenerifle, 
for  instance,  the  wind  blows  in  an  entirely  contrary  direction  from  that 
prevailing  at  the  same  time  at  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the  same  island.  f 


CHAP.  XXI.       TRADE -WINDS  —  MONSOONS.  281 

wind  is  less  steady  than  the  south-east.1  These  perennial  winds  are 
known  by  recent  observation  to  be  less  uniform  in  the  Pacific  than 
in  the  Atlantic ;  they  only  blow  permanently  over  that  portion  be- 
tween the  Galapagos  Archipelago,  off  the  coast  of  America  and 
the  Marquesas.  In  the  Indian  Ocean  the  south-east  trade-wind 
blows  from  a  few  degrees  east  of  Madagascar  to  the  coast  of  Aus- 
tralia, between  10°  and  28°  S.  lat.  The  trade-winds  are  only  con- 
stant far  from  land,  because  continents  and  islands  intercept  them, 
and  change  their  course.  On  that  account  the  numerous  groups  of 
islands  westward  from  the  Marquesas  change  the  trade-winds  into 
the  periodical  monsoons,2  which  are  steady  currents  of  air  in  the 
Arabian  Grulf,  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  China  Sea,  arising  from  dimin- 
ished atmospheric  pressure  at  each  tropic  alternately,  from  the  heat 
of  the  sun,  thereby  producing  a  regular  alternation  of  north  and 
south  winds,  which,  combining  with  the  rotation  of  the  earth  on  its 
axis,  become  a  north-east  wind  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  a 
south-east  in  the  southern.  The  former  blows  from  April  to  Octo- 
ber, the  latter  from  October  to  April ;  the  change  is  accompanied  by 
heavy  rain  and  violent  storms  of  thunder  and  lightning.  The  ascent 
of  the  warm  air  between  the  tropics  occasions  a  depression  of  the 
barometer  amounting  to  the  tenth  of  an  inch,  which  is  a  measure 
of  the  force  producing  the  trade-winds.3  In  both  hemispheres  there 
is  a  regular  variation  in  the  mean  height  of  the  barometer  within 
the  zone  in  which  these  great  aerial  currents  flow;  it  is  higher  at 
their  polar  limits,  and  decreases  with  extreme  uniformity  towards 
their  equatorial  boundaries,  the  difference  in  both  hemispheres  being 
0'25  of  an  inch. 

The  unequal  temperature  of  the  land  and  sea  causes  sea-breezes 
which  blow  towards  the  land  during  the  day,  and  land-breezes  which 
blow  sea-ward  in  the  night :  the  former  are  by  much  the  strongest, 
for  the  difference  of  the  temperature  of  the  air  over  the  land  and 
over  the  sea  is  greater  during  the  day  than  in  the  night;  they  are 
not  perceptible  in  the  mornings  and  evenings,  because  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  land  and  water  is  then  nearly  the  same. 

1  Lieutenant  Maury,  of  the  United  States'  navy,  is  led  to  believe  that 
there  is  a  region  within  the  limit  of  the  N.E.  trade- winds,  in  the  Atlantic, 
in  which  the  prevailing  winds  are  from  the  south  and  west:  this  region  is 
somewhat  in  the  shape  of  a  wedge,  with  its  base  towards  the  coast  of  Af- 
rica, between  the  equator  and  10°  N.  lat.,  and  between  the  meridians  of 
10°  and  25°  W.  long.  In  this  space,  in  which  the  law  of  the  trade-winds 
is  reversed,  there  are  great  atmospheric  disturbances,  violent  squalls,  sud- 
den gusts  of  wind,  thunder-storms,  heavy  rains,  baffling  airs,  and  calms. 

3  Monsoon  is  derived  from  the  Arabic  and  Malay  word  Moussin,  a  season 
(Marsden,  in  Asiatic  Researches. 

3  Sir  John  Herschel  has  observed,  that  on  account  of  the  upper  flow  of 
heated  air  not  being  immediately  compensated  by  polar  currents  the  baro» 
meter  is  two-tenths  of  an  inch  higher  at  the  tropics  than  at  the  equator. 
24  * 


282  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXT. 

The  Harmattan  or  N.E.  wind  of  Africa  is  a  periodical  land  breeze, 
which  conies  from  the  deserts  of  Northern  Africa,  occasionally  car- 
rying the  sand  300  miles  into  the  Atlantic ;  when  violent  it  is  said 
to  have  carried  dust  700  miles ;  it  fell  on  the  deck  of  the  Clyde 
Indiaman  at  that  distance,  on  the  19th  of  January,  1826. ' 

The  trade-winds  and  monsoons  are  permanent,  depending  on  the 
apparent  motion  of  the  sun  ;  but  it  is  evident  from  theory  that  there 
must  be  partial  winds  in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  occasioned  by  the 
local  circumstances  that  affect  the  temperature  of  the  air.  Conse- 
quently the  atmosphere  is  divided  into  districts,  both  over  the  sea 
and  land,  in  which  the  winds  have  nearly  the  same  vicissitudes  from 
year  to  year.  The  regularity  is  greatest  towards  the  tropics,  where 
the  causes  of  disturbance  are  fewer.  In  the  higher  latitudes  it  is 
more  difficult  to  discover  any  regularity,  on  account  of  the  greater 
proportion  of  land,  the  difference  in  ;ts  radiating  power,  and  the 
greater  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  But  even  there  a  degree  of  uni- 
formity prevails  in  the  succession  of  the  winds ;  for  example,  in  all 
places  where  north  and  south  winds  blow  alternately,  a  vane  veers 
through  every  point  of  the  compass  in  the  transition,  and  in  some 
places  the  wind  makes  several  of  these  gyrations  in  the  course  of 
the  year.2  The  south-westerly  winds  so  prevalent  in  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  between  the  30th  and  60th  degrees  of  north  latitude  are  pro- 
duced by  the  upper  current  being  drawn  down  to  supply  the  super- 
ficial current  which  goes  towards  the  equator,  and,  as  it  has  a  greater 
rotatory  motion  than  the  earth  in  these  latitudes,  it  produces  a  south- 
westerly wind.  On  this  account  the  average  voyage  from  Liverpool 
to  New  York  in  a  sailing  vessel  is  40  days,  while  it  is  only  23  days 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool.  For  the  same  reason  the  average 
direction  of  the  wind  in  England,  France,  Germany,  Denmark, 

1  It  is  not  improbable  that  many  of  the  recorded  falls  of  sand  on  vessels 
in  the  Atlantic,  at  great  distances  from  land,  and  supposed  to  be  derived 
from  the  coast  of  Africa,  have  been  volcanic  ashes,  carried  in  the  upper  or 
counter  current  of  the  trade-winds,  from  the  volcanoes  of  tropical  America, 
in  the  instance  cited  by  Mr.  Pentland,  at  p.  40. 

a  In  the  northern  hemisphere  a  north  wind  sets  out  with  a  less  rotatory 
motion  than  the  places  have  at  which  it  successively  arrives,  consequently 
it  veers  through  all  the  points  of  the  compass  from  N.  to  N.E.  and  E.  If 
a  south  wind  should  now  spring  up,  it  would  gradually  veer  from  S.  to  S.W. 
and  W.,  because  its  rotatory  velocity  would  be  greater  than  that  of  the 
places  it  successively  comes  to.  The  combination  of  the  two  would  cause  a 
vane  to  veer  from  E.  to  S.E.  and  S. ;  but  the  rotation  of  the  earth  would 
now  cause  the  south  wind  to  veer  round  from  S.  to  S.W.  and  W. ;  and 
should  a  north  wind  now  arise,  its  combination  with  the  west  wind  would 
bring  the  vane  round  from  W.  to  N.W.  and  N.  again.  At  the  Greenwich 
Observatory  the  wind  makes  five  gyrations  in  that  direction  in  the  course 
of  a  year.  In  Europe  it  is  the  contention  of  the  N.E.  and  S.W.  winds 
which  causes  the  rotation  of  the  wind,  and  the  principal  changes  of  weather, 
the  S.W.  being  warm  and  moist,  the  N.E.  cold  and  dry,  except  where  it 
comes  over  the  G  erman  Ocean. 


CHAP.  XXI.  HURRICANES.  283 

Sweden,  and  North  America,  is  some  point  between  south  and  west. 
.North-westerly  winds  prevail  in  the  corresponding  latitudes  of  the 
southern  hemisphere  from  the  same  cause.  In  fact,  whenever  the 
air  has  a  greater  velocity  of  rotation  than  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
a  wind  more  or  less  westerly  is  produced ;  and  when  it  has  less  ve- 
locity of  rotation  than  the  earth,  a  wind  having  an  easterly  tendency 
results.  Thus  there  is  a  perpetual  change  between  the  different 
masses  of  the  atmosphere,  the  warm  air  tempering  the  cold  of  the 
higher  latitudes,  and  the  cold  air  mitigating  the  heat  of  the  lower; 
it  will  be  shown  afterwards  that  the  aerial  currents  are  the  bearers 
of  principles  on  which  the  life  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  world 
depends. 

Hurricanes  are  those  storms  of  wind  in  which  the  portion  of  the 
atmosphere  that  forms  them  revolves  in  a  horizontal  circuit  round  a 
vertical  or  somewhat  inclined  axis  of  rotation,  while  the  axis  itself, 
and  consequently  the  whole  storm,  is  carried  forwards  along  the  sur- 
face of  the  globe,  so  that  the  direction  in  which  the  storm  is  advan- 
cing is  quite  different  from  the  direction  in  which  the  rotatory  cur- 
rent may  be  blowing  at  any  point;  the  progressive  motion  may 
continue  for  days,  while  the  wind  accomplishes  many  gyrations 
through  all  the  points  of  the  compass  in  the  same  time.  In  the 
Atlantic  the  principal  region  of  hurricanes  is  to  the  east  of  the  West 
India  islands,  and  in  the  Pacific  it  lies  east  of  the  island  of  Mada- 
gascar; consequently  the  former  is  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  the 
latter  in  the  southern  ;  but  in  every  case  the  storm  moves  in  an  ellip- 
tical or  parabolic  curve.  The  West  Indian  hurricanes  generally 
have  their  origin  eastward  of  tbe  Lesser  Antilles  or  Caribbean 
islands,  and  the  vertex  of  their  path  near  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  or 
about  the  exterior  limit  of  the  north-east  trade  wind.  As  the  motion 
of  the  storm  before  it  reaches  the  tropic  is  in  a  straight  line  from 
S.E.  to  N.W.,  and  after  it  has  passed  the  tropic  from  S.W.  to  N.E., 
the  bend  of  the  curve  is  turned  towards  Florida  and  the  Carolinas. 
In  the  South  Pacific  Ocean  the  body  of  the  storms  moves  in  an 
exactly  opposite  direction.  The  hurricanes  which  originate  south  of 
the  equator,  and  whose  initial  path  is  from  N.E.  to  S.W.,  turn  at 
the  tropic  of  Capricorn  and  then  tend  from  N.W.  to  S.E.,  so  that 
the  bend  of  the  curve  is  turned  towards  Madagascar. 

The  extent  and  velocity  of  the  Atlantic  hurricanes  are  great;  the 
most  rapid  move  at  the  rate  of  90  miles  an  hour.  The  hurricane 
which  took  place  on  the  12th  of  August,  1830,  was  traced  from  the 
eastward  of  the  Caribbean  islands  to  the  banks  of  Newfoundland,  a 
distance  of  more  than  3000  miles,  which  it  passed  over  in  six  days. 
Although  that  of  the  1st  of  September,  1821,  was  not  so  extensive, 
its  velocity  was  greater,  as  it  moved  at  the  rate  of  30  miles  an  hour. 
Small  storms  are  generally  more  rapid  than  those  of  great  magni- 
tude. Sometimes  they  appear  to  be  stationary,  sometimes  they  stop 


284  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

and  again  proceed  on  their  course,  like  water-spouts.  Hurricanes 
are  occasionally  contemporaneous,  and  so  near  to  one  another  as  to 
travel  in  almost  parallel  tracks.  This  happened  in  the  China  Seas, 
in  October,  1840,  when  the  two  storms  met  at  an  angle  of  47°,  and 
it  was  supposed  that  the  ship  Golconda  foundered  in  that  spot  with 
300  people  on  board.  A  hurricane  has  been  split  or  divided  by  a 
mountain  into  two  separate  storms,  each  of  which  continued  its  new 
course,  and  the  gyrations  were  made  with  increased  violence.  This 
occurred  in  the  gale  of  the  25th  of  December,  1821,  in  the  Medi- 
terranean, when  the  Spanish  mountains  and  the  maritime  Alps 
became  new  centres  of  motion. 

By  the  friction  of  the  earth  the  axis  of  the  storm  bends  a  little 
forward,  and  the  whirling  motion  begins  in  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere  before  it  is  felt  on  the  earth :  this  causes  a  continual  in- 
termixture of  the  lower  and  warmer  strata  of  air  with  those  that  are 
higher  and  colder,  producing  torrents  of  rain,  and  sometimes  violent 
electric  explosions. 

The  rotation  as  well  as  the  course  of  the  storm  is  in  a  different 
direction  in  the  two  hemispheres,  though  always  alike  in  the  same. 
In  the  northern  the  gyratory  movement  of  the  wind  is  from  east, 
through  the  north,  to  west,  south,  and  east  again ;  while  in  tho 
southern  hemisphere  the  rotation  about  the  axis  of  the  storm  is  in 
the  contrary  direction.  Hurricanes  happen  south  of  the  equator 
between  December  and  April;  in  the  West  Indies,  between  June 
and  October.  Rotatory  storms  frequently  occur  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  the  typhoons  of  the  China  Seas  are  real  hurricanes  of  great  vio- 
lence. Both  conform  to  the  laws  of  such  winds  in  the  northern 
hemisphere.  The  Atlantic  storms  probably  reach  Spain,  Portugal, 
and  the  coast  of  Ireland.  Two  circular  storms  have  passed  over 
Great  Britain,  and  small  ones  often  occur  between  the  Chops  of  the 
Channel  and  Madeira.  A  true  hurricane  passed  over  Ireland  and 
the  west  coast  of  England  in  January,  1839  :  a  strong  gale  had 
blown  from  S.S.E.  on  the  6th,  when  about  ten  in  the  evening  the 
air  became  suddenly  calm  and  warm,  which  was  evidently  during  the 
passage  of  the  axis  of  the  storm,  for  soon  after  the  gale  was  renewed 
with  the  utmost  violence,  but  now  it  was  from  the  S.W.  and  W.S.W., 
and  on  the  evening  of  the  7th  was  accompanied  by  snow,  thunder, 
lightning,  and  intense  cold.  At  Leeds,  70  miles  distant  from  the 
Irish  Sea,  and  separated  from  it  by  a  ridge  of  hills,  there  was  every- 
where a  saline  deposit. 

The  temperature  of  winds  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
face over  which  they  blow :  in  Europe  the  coldest  and  driest  wind 
is  from  the  N.  and  N.N.E. ;  in  America  it  is  from  the  N.  and  N.N.  W., 
because  both  come  from  the  polar  ice,  and  sweep  over  extensive 
tracts  of  land.  The  warm  and  moist  winds  in  Europe  are  from  the 


CHAP.  XXI.  HURRICANES.  285 

S.W.,  because  they  blow  over  a  great  extent  of  ocean,  especially  on 
the  western  side  of  the  continent. 

The  revolving  motion  accounts  for  the  sudden  and  violent  changes 
observed  during  hurricanes.  In  consequence  of  the  rotation  of  the 
air,  the  wind  blows  in  opposite  directions  on  each  side  of  the  axis  of 
the  storm,  and  the  violence  of  the  blast  increases  from  the  circum- 
ference towards  the  centre  of  gyration,  but  in  the  centre  itself  the 
air  is  in  repose :  hence,  when  the  body  of  the  storm  passes  over  a 
place,  the  wind  begins  to  blow  moderately,  and  increases  to  a  hurri- 
cane as  the  centre  of  the  whirlwind  approaches ;  then  in  a  moment 
a  dead  and  awful  calm  succeeds,  suddenly  followed  by  a  renewal  of 
the  storm  in  all  its  violence,  but  now  blowing  in  a  direction  diame- 
trically opposite  to  what  it  had  before ;  this  happened  in  the  island 
of  St.  Thomas  on  the  2nd  of  August,  1837,  where  the  hurricane  in- 
creased in  violence  till  half-past  seven  in  the  morning,  when  perfect 
stillness  took  place  for  40  minutes,  after  which  the  storm  recom- 
menced in  a  contrary  direction.  The  breadth  of  a  hurricane  is  greatly 
augmented  when  its  path  changes  its  direction  in  crossing  the  tropic. 
In  the  Atlantic  the  vortex  of  one  of  these  tempests  has  covered  an 
area  from  600  to  1000  miles  in  diameter.  The  breadth  of  the  lull 
in  the  centre  varies  from  5  to  30  miles :  the  height  is  from  1  to  5 
miles  at  most ;  so  that  a  person  might  see  the  strife  of  the  elements 
from  the  top  of  a  mountain,  such  as  Teneriffe  or  Mowna  Roa,  in  a 
perfect  calm,  for  the  upper  clouds  are  frequently  seen  to  be  at  rast 
during  the  hideous  turmoil  in  the  lower  regions. 

The  sudden  fall  of  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  in  latitudes 
habitually  visited  by  hurricanes  is  a  certain  indication  of  a  corning 
tempest.  In  consequence  of  the  centrifugal  force  of  these  rotatory 
storms,  the  air  becomes  rarefied,  and,  as  the  atmosphere  is  disturbed 
to  some  distance  beyond  the  actual  circle  of  gyration  or  the  limits 
of  the  storm,,  the  barometer  often  sinks  some  hours  before  its  ar- 
rival ;  it  continues  sinking  the  first  half  of  the  hurricane,  and  again 
rises  during  the  passage  of  the  latter  half,  though  it  does  not  attain 
its  greatest  height  till  the  storm  is  over.  The  diminution  of  atmos- 
pheric pressure  is  greater,  and  extends  over  a  wider  area,  in  the 
temperate  zones  than  in  the  torrid,  on  account  of  the  sudden  expan- 
sion of  the  circle  of  rotation  where  the  gale  crosses  the  tropic. 

As  the  fall  of  the  barometer  gives  warning  of  the  approach  of  a 
hurricane,  so  the  laws  of  the  storm's  motion  afford  to  the  seaman 
knowledge  to  avoid  it.  In  the  northern  temperate  zone,  if  the  gale 
begins  from  the  S,E.  and  veers  by  S.  to  W.,  the  ship  should  steer 
to  the  S.E. ;  but  if  the  gale  begins  from  the  N.E.  and  changes 
through  N.  to  N.  W.,  the  vessel  ought  to  go  to  the  N.W.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  torrid  zone,  if  the  storm  begin  frcm  the  N.E 
and  veer  through  E.  to  S.E  ;  the  ship  should  steer  to  the  N.E. ;  but 


286  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.   XXI. 

if  it  begin  from  the  N.W.  and  veer  by  "W.  to  S.W.,  the  ship  should 
steer  to  the  S.W.,  because  she  is  on  the  south-western  side  of  the 
Btorm.  Since  the  laws  of  storms  are  reversed  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, the  rules  for  steering  vessels  are  necessarily  reversed  also.1 

A  heavy  swell  or  storm-wave  is  peculiarly  characteristic  of  these 
tempests.  In  the  centre  of  the  hurricane  the  pressure  of  the  at- 
mosphere is  so  much  diminished  by  rotation,  that  the  mercury  in 
the  barometer  falls  from  one  to  two,  and  even  two  and  a  half  inches. 
On  that  account  the  pressure  of  the  ocean  beyond  the  range  of  the 
wind  raises  the  water  in  the  centre  of  the  vortex  about  two  feet 
above  its  usual  level,  and  proportionally  to  the  degree  of  diminished 
pressure  over  the  whole  area  of  the  storm.  This  mass  of  water,  or 
storm-wave,  is  driven  bodily  along  with,  or  before  the  tempest,  and 
rolls  in  upon  the  land  like  a  huge  wall  of  water.  It  is  similar  to 
the  earthquake-wave,  and  is  by  no  means  the  heaping  up  of  the 
water  after  a  long  gale.  Ships  have  been  swept  by  it  out  of  docks 

1  In  all  hurricanes  hitherto  observed,  the  sinking  of  the  mercury,  and 
the  increase  of  the  wind,  have  been  more  or  less  regularly  progressive  till 
•within  three  or  four  hours'  sail  of  the  centre  of  the  storm ;  and  in  one 
class  they  have  continued  so  even  to  the  centre ;  while  in  another  class, 
and  by  far  the  most  terrible,  the  depression  of  the  mercury  has  been  sudden 
and  excessive  when  within  that  distance  of  the  centre,  and  the  violence  of 
the  tempest  far  beyond  the  average.  When  a  ship  is  within  50  or  60  miles 
of  the  centre,  the  storm  has  the  mastery,  and  seamanship  is  of  little  avail. 
Rules  for  avoiding  this  calamity,  and  for  managing  a  ship  when  involved 
in  a  hurricane,  are  fully  explained  in  the  '  Hurricane  Guide,'  by  Wm.  Bad- 
cliff  Birt,  published  under  the  sanction  of  the  Admiralty,  in  12mo.,  London, 
1850 ;  a  little  book  in  which  the  navigator  will  find  information  conveyed 
in  a  very  intelligible  manner  on  the  subject ;  and  in  the  new  edition,  1851, 
of  the  '  Sailor's  Horn-Book  for  the  Laws  of  Storms,'  by  H.  Piddington, 
Esq.,  President  of  the  Marine  Courts  of  Inquiry  at  Calcutta.  The  follow- 
ing approximate  table  is  given  by  the  latter  author  to  serve  as  a  guide  till 
better  data  shall  be  obtained :  — 

Average  fall  of  the  Distance  of  a  ship  from  the 

barometer  per  hour.  centre  of  the  storm,  in  miles. 

From  0-020  to  0-060 From  250  to  150 

"      0-060  "   0-080 "  150  "  100 

"      0-080  "   0-120 "  100  "  80 

"      0-120  "   0-150 "  80  "  50 

The  rate  of  fall  per  hour  doubles  after  the  storm  has  lasted  six  hours,  and 
within  three  hours  of  the  centre  of  the  hurricane  the  mercury  will  fall 
four  times  as  fast,  if  it  be  of  the  violent  class. 

Colonel  James  Capper  discovered  the  rotatory  motions  of  storms,  and 
W.  C.  Redfield,  Esq.,  of  New  York,  was  the  first  who  determined  their  laws. 
Colonel  Reid,  Governor  of  Barbadoes,  Dr.  Thorn,  of  the  86th  regiment, 
and  Mr.  Piddington,  of  Calcutta,  have  also  written,  and  added  greatly  to 
our  knowledge,  on  the  subject ;  whilst  Mr.  Birt  has  united  in  a  very 
abridged  form  the  practical  information  collected  by  the  authors  who  pre- 
ceded his  little  essay  on  Hurricanes. 


CHAP.  XXI.       WHIRLWINDS  —  WATER-SPOUTS.  287 

and  rivers,  and  it  has  sometimes  carried  vessels  over  reefs  and  banks 
so  as  to  land  them  high  and  dry;  this  happened  to  two  ships  on  the 
coast  of  the  Eastern  Andaman  islands,  in  1844.  Coringa,  on  the 
Coromandel  coast,  is  particularly  subject  to  inundations  from  that 
cause.  In  1789  the  town  and  20,000  inhabitants  were  destroyed 
by  a  succession  of  these  great  waves  during  a  hurricane,  and  as 
many  perished  there  in  1839. 

Besides  storm-waves,  storm-currents  are  raised,  which  revolve  with 
the  rotation  of  the  wind,  and  are  of  the  greatest  force  near  the 
centre  of  the  vortex. 

The  rise  of  the  sea  by  the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  ocean,  and 
the  irresistible  fury  of  the  wind,  make  a  tremendous  commotion  in 
the  centre  of  the  storm,  where  the  sea  rises,  not  in  waves,  but  in 
pyramidal  masses  :  the  noise  during  its  passage  resembles  the  deaf- 
ening roar  of  the  most  tremendous  thunder;  and  in  the  typhoons  in 
the  China  seas  it  is  like  numberless  voices  raised  to  the  utmost  pitch 
of  screaming.  In  general  there  is  very  little  thunder  and  light- 
ning; sometimes  a  vivid  flash  occurs  during  the  passage  of  the 
centre,  or  at  the  beginning  of  the  storm;  yet  in  Barbadoes  the 
whole  atmosphere  has  been  enveloped  in  an  electric  cloud. 

A  thick  lurid  appearance,  with  dense  masses  of  cloud  in  the 
horizon,  ominous  and  terrible,  are  the  harbingers  of  the  coming 
tempest.  The  sun  and  clouds  frequently  assume  a  fiery  redness,  the 
whole  sky  takes  a  wild  and  threatening  aspect,  and  the  wind  rises 
and  falls  with  a  moaning  sound,  like  that  heard  in  old  houses  on  a 
winter's  night :  it  is  akin  to  the  "  calling  of  the  sea,"  a  melancholy 
noise  which,  in  a  dead  calm,  presages  a  storm  on  some  parts  of  the 
English  coast. 

Those  intensely  violent  gales,  of  short  duration,  called  arched 
squalls,  because  they  rise  from  an  arch  of  clouds  on  the  horizon,  are 
not  rotatory ;  they  occur  in  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  attended  by 
fierce  thunder  and  lightning  and  a  lurid  phosphorescent  gleam.  The 
north-western  gales  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  the  tornadoes  on  the 
African  coast,  and  the  pamperos  of  the  liio  de  la  Plata,  are^of  the 
same  nature.  On  an  average  a  strong  gale  moves  at  the  rate  of  40 
miles  an  hour,  a  storm  at  about  56,  and  hurricanes  at  90.  Deserts, 
especially  those  of  Africa  and  Asia,  are  subject  to  intensely  hot 
winds  of  short  duration,  frequently  fatal  to  exhausted  travellers; 
of  these  the  simoon  and  sand  wind  are  the  most  formidable ;  a  red 
lurid  appearance  in  the  atmosphere  caused  by  the  quantity  of  burn- 
ing sand  raised  by  the  wind  gives  warning  of  their  approach ;  every- 
thing is  scorched  in  their  passage,  and  breathing  becomes  painful ; 
it  is  probably  owing  to  the  sand  wafted  by  them  that  these  winds 
are  so  deleterious,  and  not  to  their  temperature,  since  air  heated  to 
a  much  higher  degree  may  be  breathed  with  impunity,  as  has  been 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXI. 

proved  by  Sir  Joseph  Banks  and  by  Sir  Francis  Chantrey,  in  an 
atmosphere  raised  to  more  than  300°.  The  simoon  generally  blows 
only  a  few  hours,  but  sometimes  it  continues  for  two  or  three  days, 
•when  it  comes  in  gusts  driving  clouds  of  sand  —  nothing  can  with- 
stand it.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  unaccountably  sudden  changes 
of  temperature  occasion  these  formidable  winds. 

Whirlwinds  are  frequent  in  tropical  countries,  especially  in  deserts ; 
sometimes  several  are  seen  at  one  time  in  the  Arabian  deserts,  of  all 
sizes,  from  a  few  feet  to  some  hundred  yards  in  diameter.  They 
occur  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  by  night  as  well  as  by  day,  and  come 
without  the  smallest  notice,  rooting  up  trees,  overwhelming  caravans, 
and  throwing  down  houses ;  and  as  they  produce  water-spouts  when 
they  reach  the  sea,  they  dismantle  and  even  sink  ships.  Pillars  of 
sand  are  often  raised  by  them  on  the  African  deserts  two  or  three 
hundred  feet  high.  In  Nubia,  Bruce  saw  eleven  advancing  towards 
him  with  considerable  swiftness  :  it  was  vain  to  think  of  flying  where 
the  speed  of  the  swiftest  horse  could  have  been  of  no  avail,  and  that 
conviction  riveted  him  to  the  spot.  They  retreated,  leaving  him  in 
a  state  of  mind  between  fear  and  astonishment,  to  which  he  could 
give  no  name.  Whirlwinds  advance  with  a  loud  rushing  noise,  and 
are  frequently  attended  by  electrical  explosions.  The  water-spouts 
so  frequently  seen  on  the  ocean  originate  in  adjacent  strata  of  air  of 
different  temperatures,  running  in  opposite  directions  in  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.  They  condense  the  vapour,  and  give  it 
a  whirling  motion,  so  that  it  descends  tapering  to  the  sea  below,  and 
causes  the  surface  of  the  water  to  ascend  in  a  pointed  spiral  till  it 
joins  that  from  above,  and  then  it  looks  like  two  inverted  cones, 
being  thinner  in  the  middle  than  either  above  or  below.  When  a 
water-spout  has  a  progressive  motion,  the  upper  and  under  part  must 
move  in  the  same  direction,  and  with  equal  velocity — otherwise  it 
breaks,  which  frequently  happens. 


CHAP.  XXII.  EVAPORATION.  289 


CHAPTER  XXII. 

Evaporation  —  Distribution  of  Vapour  —  Dew — Hoar  Frost — Fog — Region 
of  Clouds — Forms  of  Clouds — Rain — Distribution  of  Rain — Quantity  — 
Number  of  rainy  Days  in  different  Latitudes — Rainless  Districts — Snow 
Crystals — Line  of  Perpetual  Snow — Limit  of  Winter  Snow  on  the  Plains 
— Sleet — Hail — Minuteness  of  the  Ultimate  Particles  of  Matter — Their 
Densities  and  Forms — Their  Action  on  Light — Colour  of  Bodies — Colour 
of  the  Atmosphere — Its  Absorption  and  Reflection  of  Light — Mirage  — 
Fog  Images — Coronse  and  Halos — The  Rainbow — Iris  in  Dewdrops — The 
Polarization  of  the  Atmosphere  —  Atmospheric  Electricity  —  Its  Varia- 
tions—  Electricity  of  Fogs  and  Rain  —  Inductive  Action  of  the  Earth  — 
Lightning — Thunder — Distribution  of  Thunder-Storms — Back  Stroke  — 
St.  Elmo's  Fire  —  Phosphorescence  —  Aurora  —  Magnetism — Terrestrial 
Magnetism — The  Dip — Magnetic  Poles  and  Equator — Magnetic  Intensity 
— Dynamic  Equator — Declination — Magnetic  Meridian  —  Lines  of  Equal 
Variation — Horary  Variations — Line  of  Alternate  Horary  Phenomena — 
Magnetic  Storms — Coincidence  of  the  Lines  of  equal  Magnetic  Intensity 
with  Mountain  Chains — Diamagnetism. 

MOISTURE  is  evaporated  in  an  invisible  form  from  every  part  of 
the  land  and  water,  and  at  all  temperatures,  even  from  snow.  Mr. 
Darwin  mentions  that  the  snow  once  entirely  disappeared  from  the 
Nevado  of  Aconcagua  in  Chile,  which  is  23,910  feet  high,  from  eva- 
poration under  a  cloudless  sky  and  an  excessively  dry  air.  The 
vapour  rises  and  mixes  with  the  atmosphere ;  and  as  its  pressure  and 
density  diminish  with  the  height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  in 
consequence  of  gravitation,  there  is  absolutely  less  moisture  in  the 
higher  than  in  the  lower  regions  of  the  air.1 

Seven-tenths  of  the  atmosphere  rests  on  the  ocean ;  therefore  the 
sea  has  the  greatest  influence  in  modifying  climates  and  supplying 
the  air  with  moisture.  The  evaporation  is  greatest  between  the  tro- 
pics, from  the  excess  of  heat  and  the  preponderance  of  the  ocean, 

1  The  humidity  of  the  air  is  measured  by  the  Hygrometer,  an  instrument 
which  shows  the  rapidity  of  evaporation  at  all  temperatures  ;  for  the  rate 
of  evaporation  is  in  proportion  to  the  dryness  of  the  atmosphere,  and  is 
nearly  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  density.  When  the  evaporation  is  below 
15°  on  the  scale  of  the  Hygrometer  the  air  is  very  damp,  when  above  70° 
it  is  intensely  dry.  Tfte  best  mode  of  determining  the  quantity  of  moisture 
in  the  air  is  by  the  wet  bulb  thermometer,  which  shows  the  temperature  at 
which  the  atmosphere  is  saturated  with  humidity :  hence  the  amount  of 
the  latter  is  easily  found  JH  the  tables. 
25 


290  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

and  its  average  quantity  decreases  from  thence  to  the-  poles.  Over 
the  open  sea,  in  all  latitudes,  the  air  is  saturated  with  moisture ;  and 
in  that  over  the  coasts  the  quantity  is  very  great,  but  it  diminishes 
from  the  coasts  to  the  interior  of  the  continents.  In  the  interior  of 
the  United  States  of  North  America,  in  the  deserts  of  Asia,  and  in 
the  interior  of  New  Holland,  the  air  is  continually  dry.  There  is 
scarcely  any  evaporation  in  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and  the  extreme 
heat,  increased  by  the  reverberation  of  the  sand,  opposes  aqueous 
precipitation,  so  this  land  is  doomed  to  perpetual  sterility.  The  air 
over  the  steppes  of  Siberia  is  likewise  nearly  deprived  of  moisture. 
The  greatest  degree  of  dryness  on  record  is  that  observed  by  M. 
Erman  between  the  valleys  of  the  Irtish  and  Obi,  after  a  continued 
south-west  wind  and  a  temperature  of  74°  7'  of  Fahrenheit. 

Throughout  all  the  countries  in  the  northern  hemisphere  where 
observations  have  been  made  on  the  variations  of  atmospheric  moist- 
ure, it  appears  that  the  air  contains  less  vapour  in  January  than  in 
any  other  month  of  the  year,  yet  at  that  time  there  is  the  greatest 
dampness  to  our  sensations ;  while  in  July  the  air  is  driest,  and  yet, 
on  account  of  the  heat,  evaporation  is  the  greatest :  the  reason  is, 
that  the  heat  in  July  dissolves  the  moisture  and  increases  its  elasti- 
city or  tension  so  much  that  it  becomes  insensible,  whereas  the  cold 
of-  winter  condenses  it  and  renders  it  apparent.  The  proportion  of 
vapour  in  the  air  varies  with  the  direction  of  the  wind  :  in  Europe 
it  is  greatest  in  a  S.W.  wind,  and  least  in  a  N.E. ;  the  former  being 
part  of  the  equatorial  current  drawn  down  to  the  surface  of  the 
globe,  comes  warm  and  moist  over  the  Atlantic,  while  the  northern 
wind  blows  dry  and  cold  from  the  pole.  When  the  moisture  is 
abundant  and  the  tension  great,  which  is  often  the  case  before  rain, 
the  air  is  very  transparent,  and  distant  objects  appear  nearer,  and 
all  their  details  are  distinctly  seen :  from  that  circumstance  the 
clearer  view  of  distant  mountains  and  headlands  predicts  wet  wea- 
ther. Very  dry  air  is  also  exceedingly  transparent,  as  on  the  tops 
of  very  lofty  mountains,  and  in  sandy  deserts  where  the  stars  are 
seen  to  shine  with  uncommon  lustre,  and  the  brighter  planets  are 
visible  in  the  daytime.  On  account  of  the  heat  the  air  between  the 
tropics  contains  more  moisture  than  elsewhere,  and  were  it  not  for 
the  amount  of  evaporation,  the  warmth  there  would  be  greater  than 
it  is,  for  a  depression  of  temperature  takes  place  during  evaporation 
by  the  absorption  of  the  heat  which  becomes  latent  and  insensible 
to  the  feelings  and  to  the  thermometer.  The  evaporation  and  con- 
sequent absorption  of  heat  may  be  so  rapid  as  to  produce  intense 
cold ;  upon  that  principle  M.  Boutigny  froze  water  and  even  quick- 
silver in  a  red-hot  crucible. 

The  quantity  of  atmospheric  moisture  varies  also  with  the  hours 
of  the  day  and  night.  In  early  morning  the  evaporation  accumu- 
lates near  the  surface  of  the  ground  from  the  resistance  of  the  air 


CHAP.  XXII.         DEW  —  HOAR-FROST  —  FOG.  291 

above  it,  but  as  the  sun  rises  above  the  horizon  the  warm  air  descends 
and  carries  the  vapour  \vith  it ;  so  that  the  quantity  near  the  ground 
is  diminished  till  evening,  when,  on  account  of  the  lowness  of  the 
temperature,  the  ascending  currents  cease,  and  the  air  becomes  loaded 
with  vapour  and  deposits  its  excess  in  the  shape  of  dew  or  hoar-frost. 
For  in  the  night  the  earth  radiates  part  of  the  heat  it  received 
during  the  day  through  the  atmosphere  into  space,  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  bodies  on  its  surface  sinks  below  that  of  the  air;  and 
by  abstracting  part  of  the  heat  which  holds  the  humidity  of  the  air 
in  solution,  a  deposition  takes  place.  The  dew-point  is  the  tempera- 
ture at  which  vapour  is  deposited  on  bodies  colder  than  itself,  but 
before  any  deposition  takes  place  the  air  must  be  saturated  with 
moisture  to  the  temperature  of  the  body  upon  which  the  dew  is  de- 
posited. It  is  very  abundant  on  the  shores  of  continents,  but  it  is 
not  deposited  on  small  islands  in  the  midst  of  large  seas,  because  on 
them  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the  day  and  night 
is  not  sufficiently  great.  Dr.  Dalton  has  estimated  that  the  quantity 
of  dew  that  falls  in  England  annually  would  form  a  bed  of  water 
uniformly  spread  over  the  whole  kingdom  of  five  inches  in  depth. 
If  the  radiation  be  great,  the  dew  is  frozen  and  becomes  hoar-frost, 
which  is  the  ice  of  dew.  Cloudy  and  windy  weather  is  unfavour- 
able for  the  formation  of  dew  by  preventing  the  free  radiation  of 
heat,  and  actual  contact  is  necessary  for  its  formation,  as  it  is  never 
suspended  in  the  air  like  fog.  Dew  falls  in  calm  serene  nights,  but 
not  on  all  substances  indifferently ;  it  wets  them  in  proportion  to 
their  powers  of  radiation,  leaving  those  dry  that  radiate  feebly  or 
not  at  all.  Dew  is  most  abundant  on  coasts ;  in  the  interior  of  con- 
tinents there  is  very  little,  except  near  lakes  or  rivers.  When  dew 
is  congealed  into  hoar-frost  it  forms  beautiful  crystals,  and  the  cold 
which  produces  it  is  very  hurtful  to  vegetation,  but  the  slightest  cover- 
ing preserves  plants  from  its  effects. 

When  the  atmosphere  is  so  saturated  with  the  vapour  of  water 
that  it  is  precipitated  in  the  air  itself,  a  fog  is  the  result,  which  con- 
sists of  small  globular  particles  of  water.  When  dew  is  formed,  the 
earth  is  colder  than  the  air  in  contact  with  it;  but  the  case  is  exactly 
the  contrary  when  fogs  take  place,  the  moist  soil  being  warmer  than 
the  air.  In  countries  where  the  soil  is  moist  and  warm,  and  the  air 
damp  and  cold,  thick  and  frequent  fogs  arise,  as  in  England,  where 
the  coasts  are  washed  by  a  sea  of  elevated  temperature,  and  the 
excess  of  the  heat  of  the  Gulf-stream  above  the  cold  moist  air  is  the 
cause  of  the  perpetual  fogs  in  Newfoundland,  and  on  the  approacn 
of  winter  those  dense  fogs  known  to  the  seamen  as  frost-smoke  steam 
from  the  Polar  Ocean  till  it  is  frozen  over. 

Superior  to  all  these  phenomena,  and  at  a  considerable  height  above 
the  earth,  the  air  is  very  dry,  because  under  ordinary  circumstances 
the  vapour  ascends  in  a  highly  elastic  and  invisible  state  till  it  reaches 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

a  stratum  of  air  of  lower  temperature,  and  then  it  is  condensed  into 
clouds.  The  region  of  clouds  is  a  zone  at  a  height  varying  from 
one  to  four  miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  which  is  saturated 
with  moisture.  From  friction  and  other  causes  the  currents  of  air 
in  the  lower  part  of  that  zone  run  horizontally  on  each  other ;  and 
as  they  generally  differ  in  moisture,  temperature,  and  velocity,  the 
colder  condense  the  invisible  vapour  in  the  warmer,  and  make  it 
apparent  in  the  form  of  a  cloud,  which  differs  in  no  respect  from  a 
fog,  except  that  one  floats  high  in  the  air,  while  the  other  rests  on 
the  ground. 

At  moderate  heights  clouds  consist  of  vapour,  but  at  great  eleva- 
tions where  the  cold  is  severe  they  are  an  assemblage  of  minute 
crystals  of  ice.  They  assume  three  primary  characters,  from  whence 
four  subordinate  forms  are  derived.  The  cirrus,  or  cat's-tail  [mare's 
tail]  of  sailors,  is  the  highest ;  it  sometimes  resembles  a  white  brush, 
at  other  times  it  consists  of  horizontal  bands  of  slender  silvery  fila- 
ments. To  these  all  Kamtz's  measurements  assign  a  height  of 
19,500  feet,  which  is  confirmed  by  their  appearance  being  the  same 
when  seen  from  the  tops  of  mountains  or  from  the  plains ;  conse- 
quently they  must  consist  of  minute  particles  of  ice  or  flakes  of  snow 
floating  in  the  higher  regions  of  the  zone  of  clouds.  The  cirri  for 
the  most  part  arrange  themselves  in  parallel  bands  which  converge  to 
opposite  points  in  the  horizon,  by  the  effects  of  perspective,  and  as 
they  travel  in  their  longitudinal  direction  they  appear  *»  be  station- 
ary. In  the  middle  and  higher  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere 
they  tend  from  south-west  to  north-east,  and  at  the  equator  from 
south  to  north.  It  is  supposed  that  their  parallel  form  arises  from 
their  being  conductors  between  two  foci  of  electricity,  but,  whatever 
the  cause  of  this  arrangement  may  be,  it  is  very  extensive ;  they 
are  supposed  by  Baron  Humboldt  and  M.  Arago  to  be  connected 
with  the  aurora.  Among  these  clouds,  which  occasionally  appear 
like  fleecy  cotton  or  wool,  halos  and  parhelia  are  formed,  which  often 
precede  a  change  of  weather,  announcing  rain  in  summer,  in  winter 
frost  and  snow. 

Cumuli  or  summer-clouds  are  rounded  forms  resting  on  a  straight 
band  in  the  horizon,  and  resemble  mountains  covered1  with  snow. 
They  are  formed  by  ascending  currents  drawing  the  vapours  into  the 
higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere ;  sometimes  they  rise  and  cover 
the  whole  sky,  and  in  the  evening  they  frequently  become  more  nu- 
merous and  of  deeper  tint,  presaging  storm  or  rain. 

The  stratus  is  the  third  of  the  primary  characters  of  clouds :  it 
is  a  horizontal  band,  which  forms  at  sunset  and  vanishes  at  sunrise. 
The  subordinate  varieties  of  clouds  are  combinations  of  these  three 
principal  classes.1  The  winds,  the  great  agents  in  all  atmospheric 

1  The  four  subordinate  forms  of  clouds  are  the  cirro-stratus,  composed 
of  little  bands  of  filaments,  more  compact  than  the  cirrus,  forming  hori- 


CHAP.  XXH.  RAIN.  293 

changes,  carry  the  vapour  to  a  distance,  v.hcie  it  is  often  condensed 
on  the  tops  of  mountains  into  clouds  which  seem  to  be  stationary, 
but  which  in  reality  are  only  maintained  by  a  constant  condensation 
of  fresh  vapour,  which  is  carried  off,  as  soon  as  formed,  by  the 
wind,  and  becomes  invisible  on  entering  warmer  air. 

When  two  masses  of  air  of  different  temperature  meet,  the  colder, 
by  abstracting  the  beat  which  holds  the  moisture  in  solution,  causes 
the  particles  to  coalesce  and  form  drops  of  water,  which  fall  in  the 
shape  of  rain  by  their  gravitation.  And  when  two  strata  of  different 
temperature  moving  rapidly  in  contrary  directions  come  into  contact, 
a  heavy  fall  of  rain  takes  place ;  and  as  the  quantity  of  aqueous 
vapour  is  most  abundant  in  tropical  regions,  the  drops  are  larger 
and  the  rain  heavier  than  elsewhere. 

Since  heat  is  the  cause  of  evaporation,  rain  is  very  unequally  dis- 
tributed, and  with  it  decreases  from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  From 
the  island  of  Haiti  in  the  Antilles,  to  Uleaborg  in  Finland,  the 
annual  quantity  of  rain  that  falls  decreases  from  150  inches  to  13. 
It  is,  however,  more  abundant  in  the  New  World  than  in  the  Old ; 
115  inches  fall  annually  in  tropical  America,  while  in  the  Old  World 
the  annual  fall  is  only  76  inches ;  so  also  in  the  temperate  zone  of 
the  United  States  the  annual  quantity  is  37  inches,  while  in  the  Old 
Continent  it  is  but  31|  inches.1 

Between  the  tropics  the  rains  follow  the  course  of  the  sun :  when 
he  is  north  «f  the  equator  the  rains  prevail  in  the  northern  tropic ; 
and  when  he  is  south  of  that  line,  in  the  southern  :  hence  one  period 
of  the  year  is  extremely  wet  and  the  other  extremely  dry;  the 
change  taking  place  near  the  equinoxes.  Nevertheless,  in  countries 
situate  between  the  5th  and  10th  parallels  of  latitude,  north  and 
south,  there  are  two  rainy  seasons,  and  two  dry  j  one  occurs  when 

zontal  strata,  which  seem  to  be  numerous  thin  clouds  when  in  the  zenith,  and 
at  the  horizon  a  long  narrow  band.  The  cumulo-stratus  consists  of  the 
summer-cloud,  like  snowy  mountains  heaped  on  one  another,  which  at  sun- 
rise have  a  black  or  bluish  tint  at  the  horizon,  and  pass  into  the  nimbus, 
or  rain-cloud,  which  has  a  uniform  grey  tint,  fringed  at  the  edges,  —'it 
often  becomes  a  thunder-cloud ;  and  the  fourth  is  the  cirro-cumulus,  a 
combination  of  filaments  and  heaped-up  cumuli  or  summer-clouds.  In 
1848  the  sky  was  nearly  cloudless  and  free  of  fog  night  and  day,  at  London, 
for  the  first  eight  days  of  May,  and  was  almost  free  from  clouds  till  the 
15th,  a  circumstance  without  parallel  on  record.  —General  Quarterly  Re- 
port of  Weather  at  the  Royal  Observatory,  Greenwich. 

1  Local  circumstances  have  great  influence,  especially  the  vicinity  of 
mountains :  probably  the  greatest  average  annual  quantity  on  record  is 
302  inches,  which  falls  on  the  western  Ghauts,  in  18°  N.  lat.  At  Guada- 
loupe  it  is  286  inches.  In  the  Silvas  of  the  river  Amazon  and  at  Honduras 
it  is  said  to  be  excessive.  In  England  the  average  annual  quantity  is  32 
inches ;  nearly  half  that  quantity  fell  in  the  first  six  weeks  of  1848,  which 
is  more  than  had  occurred  for  33  years,  and  probably  within  a  century. — 
Greenwich  Meteor.  Register. 
25* 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

the  sun  passes  the  zenith  in  his  progress  to  the  nearest  tropic,  and 
the  other  at  his  return,  but  in  the  latter  the  rains  are  less  violent 
and  of  shorter  duration.  Although  the  quantity  of  water  which 
falls  between  the  tropics  in  a  month  is  greater  than  that  of  a  whole 
year  in  Europe,  yet  the  number  of  rainy  days  increases  with  the 
latitude,  so  that  there  are  fewest  where  the  quantity  is  greatest. 
Neither  does  it  fall  continually  during  the  rainy  season  between  the 
tropics,  for  the  sky  is  generally  clear  at  sunrise,  it  becomes  cloudy 
at  ten  in  the  morning,  at  noon  the  rain  begins  to  fall,  and,  after 
pouring  for  four  or  five  hours,  the  clouds  vanish  at  sunset,  and  not  a 
drop  falls  in  the  night,  so  that  a  day  of  uninterrupted  rain  is  very 
rare.1 

At  sea  within  the  region  of  the  trade-winds  it  seldom  rains,2  but 
in  the  narrow  zone  between  them  known  as  the  Variables,  in  both 
the  great  oceans,  it  rains  almost  continually,  attended  by  violent 
thunder  and  lightning. 

Throughout  the  whole  region  where  the  monsoons  prevail,  it  is 
not  the  sun,  directly,  but  the  winds,  that  regulate  the  periodical 
rains.  That  region  extends  from  the  eastern  coasts  of  Africa  and 
Madagascar  across  the  Indian  Ocean  to  the  northern  districts  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  from  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the  face  of  the  Himalaya, 
the  interior  of  China,  and  even  to  Corea,  inclusive.  In  these  coun- 
tries the  western  coasts  are  watered  during  the  south-west  monsoon, 
which  prevails  from  April  to  October;  and  the  eastern  coasts  are 
watered  during  the  north-east  monsoon,  which  blows  from  October 
to  April.  For  example,  the  south-west  wind  condenses  the  vapour 
on  the  summit  of  the  Ghauts,  and  violent  rains  fall  daily  on  the 
coast  of  Malabar,  while  on  the  Coromandel  coast  the  sky  is  serene. 
Exactly  the  contrary  takes  place  during  the  north-east  monsoon ;  it 
rains  on  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  while  there  is  fair  weather  on  the 
Malabar  coast,  and  the  table-land  of  the  Deecan  partakes  of  both. 
In  the  southern  hemisphere  the  rainy  season  corresponds  with  the 
south-west  monsoon,  and  the  dry  with  the  south-eastern. 

Between  the  tropics  it  rains  rarely  during  the  night,  and  for  months 
together  not  a  drop  falls;3  while  in  the  temperate  zone  it  often  rains 
in  the  night,  and  rain  falls  at  all  seasons,  though  more  abundantly 
in  some  than  in  others.  It  seldom  rains  in  summer  throughout  the 
north  of  Africa,  Madeira,  the  southern  parts  of  Spain  and  Portugal, 

1  At  Demerara  six  inches  have  been  known  to  fall  in  12  hours.  The 
quantity  that  falls  in  Italy  is  sometimes  very  great;  at  Rome  half  the 
yearly  average  quantity  fell  in  15  hours. 

[a  Showers  and  squalls  of  rain  occur  frequently  in  the  regions  of  both 
the  N.E.  and  S.E.  trade- winds.] 

*  [According  to  the  experience  of  the  writer,  derived  from  cruising  seve- 
ral years  within  the  tropics,  rain  is  most  frequent  at  night.  It  is  certainly 
the  case  in  the  Chinese  Seas,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Sumatra  and  Java.] 


CHAP.  XXII.  RAIN.  295 

Sicily,  southern  Italy,  all  Greece,  and  the  north-western  part  of 
Asia;  but  it  falls  copiously  during  the  other  seasons,  especially  in 
winter;  consequently  that  extensive  region  is  called  the  province  of 
winter  rains. 

The  province  of  .autumnal  i*ains  includes  all  Europe  south  of  the 
Carpathians,  western  France,  the  delta  of  tho  Rhine,  northern  and 
western  Scandinavia,  and  the  British  isles ;  throughout  these  coun- 
tries more  rain  falls  in  autumn  than-  in  the  other  three  seasons. 

The  province  of  summer  rains  comprises  the  eastern  parts  of 
France,  the  Netherlands  (with  the  exception  of  the  delta  of  the 
Rhine),  the  north  of  Switzerland,  all  Germany  north  of  the  Alps, 
the  Carpathian  mountains,  Denmark,  southern  Scandinavia,  all  cen- 
tral Europe,  and  the  countries  beyond  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the 
interior  of  Siberia,  where  showers  are  very  rare  in  winter.  In  some 
places  it  rains  almost  perpetually,  as  in  the  island  of  Sitka,  on  the 
north-eastern  coast  of  North  America,  where  the  year  has  sometimes 
passed  with  only  40  days  of  fair  weather. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  in  Chile  and  the  south-western  part 
of  America,  winter  is  the  rainy  season,  while  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Cordilleras,  in  the  interior  of  that  chain,  the  rains  occur  in  sum- 
mer. In  Tierra  del  Fuego  and  the  extreme  point  of  the  continent 
the  two  provinces  meet,  the  periodical  precipitation  disappears,  and 
it  snows  and  rains  throughout  the  year  in  torrents.  At  Cape  Horn 
the  quantity  of  rain  which  fell  in  41  days  measured  nearly  154 
inches.  This  excessive  fall  of  rain  occurs  along  the  whole  western 
shores  of  Patagonia,  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  Cape  Tres 
Monies  —  a  circumstance  favoured  by  the  high  and  rugged  coasts, 
and  the  incessant  westerly  winds,  which  carry  the  vapour  exhaled 
from  the  ocean  to  be  precipitated  here  in  the  form  of  rain. 

South  Africa  and  Australia  resemble  each  other  in  their  rainy 
seasons,  which  in  both  countries  take  place  in  the  winter  months. 

The  annual  amount  of  rain  at  the  equator  is  95  inches,  which  falls 
in  78  or  80  days,  giving  an  average  of  1-14  inch  daily;  while  at 
St.  Petersburg  the  annual  amount  is  17  inches,  which  falls  in  169 
days,  the  average  being  little  more  than  the  tenth  of  an  inch  daily. 

The  quantity  of  rain  decreases  in  ascending  from  the  plains  to 
table-lands,  especially  if  these  be  edged  by  mountains,  because  they 
precipitate  the  vapour  before  it  arrives  at  the  high  plains.  On  the 
contrary,  the  quantity  increases  in  ascending  from  plains  to  the  tops 
or  slopes  of  rugged  mountains,  on  account  of  partial  currents  of  air 
which  condense  the  moisture  into  clouds. 

The  quantity  of  rain  decreases  on  receding  from  the  coasts  into 
the  interior  of  continents,  because  more  vapour  rises  from  the  sea 
than  from  the  land.  The  vapour  from  the  Gulf-stream  produces  a 
greater  quantity  of  rain  and  fog  in  the  southern  counties  of  England 
and  Ireland  than  that  which  falls  in  the  other  parts  of  the  islands. 


296  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIT. 

The  number  of  rainy  days  depends  upon  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
In  Europe,  if  the  wind  always  blew  from  the  north-east,  it  would 
seldom  rain,  because  it  blows  over  a  great  extent  of  continent;  whereas 
it  would  never  cease  raining  were  the  wind  always  to  blow  from  the 
south-west,  because  it  would  come  loaded  with  vapour  from  the  At- 
lantic. Hence  the  greatest  quantity  of  rain  falls  on  the  west  coasts 
of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  the  coast  of  Scandinavia,  the  Eastern 
Alps,  and  the  centre  of  Portugal ;  in  the  two  last  it  depends  partly 
on  the  height  and  serrated  form  of  the  mountains.  In  western 
Europe  it  rains  on  twice  as  many  days  as  in  the  eastern  part:  in 
Ireland  there  are  three  times  as  many  rainy  days  as  in  Italy  or  Spain. 
In  fact,  on  the  western  side  of  Ireland,  it  rains  on  208  days  out  of 
the  365.  In  England,  France,  and  the  north  of  Germany,  there 
are  from  152  to  155  rainy  days  in  the  year;  the  number  decreases 
towards  the  interior  of  the  continent,  so  that  in  Siberia  it  only  rains 
on  60  days  in  the  year.  Occasionally  it  rains  over  a  wide  extent  of 
country  at  the  same  time ;  on  the  2nd  of  February,  1842,  it  rained 
in  North  America  over  1400  miles  in  length,  but  the  breadth  to 
which  it  extended  was  not  ascertained.  Rain  sometimes  falls  with- 
out clouds,  from  a  partial  condensation  of  vapour;  Sir  James  C. 
Ross  mentions  a  smart  shower  without  clouds  which  he  saw  in  the 
South  Atlantic  on  the  20th  December,  1839 :  it  continued  an  hour. 

There  are  enormous  tracts  of  land  on  which  rain  never  falls,  and 
others  where  it  rains  at  long  intervals  and  in  small  quantities.  The 
most  extensive  rainless  district  stretches  from  the  borders  of  Morocco 
eastward  through  the  desert  of  Africa,  the  low  coasts  of  Arabia, 
Persia,  and  the  desert  province  of  Mekran,  in  Beloochistan,  occupy- 
ing a  space  of  80  degrees  of  longitude  and  17  of  latitude.  The 
desert  of  Gobi,  on  the  table-land  of  Tibet,  and  part  of  Mongolia, 
form  another  rainless  province  in  the  great  continent;  while,  in  the 
New  World,  the  rainless  districts  are  —  the  table-land  of  Mexico, 
part  of  Guatemala  and  California,  and  the  western  declivity  of  the 
Andes  of  Peru,  towards  the  Pacific ;  in  all  occupying  a  surface  equal 
to  5,500,000  square  miles.  The  whole  of  the  moisture  is  intercepted 
by  the  Andes  of  Peru;  so  that  rain  only  occurs  on  the  coast  once  or 
twice  in  a  century  —  to  the  great  terror  of  the  inhabitants  when  it 
does  fall.  South  Africa  and  Australia  beyond  the  tropics,  suffer 
from  droughts,  which  are  periodical  in  Australia ;  they  recur  in  the 
countries  of  the  eastern  coasts  in  a  period  of  12  years,  and  continue 
3  years.  The  Pampas  of  South  America  are  also  subject  to  droughts, 
though  they  do  not  appear  to  be  periodical,  nor  do  they  continue 
more  than  a  season.1 

When  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  near  the  freezing  point  or 

1  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  chart  of  the  distribution  of  rain  in  the 
Physical  Atlas  of  Alexander  Keith  Johnston,  Esq.,  where  the  value  of  the 
practice  referred  to  in  note  p.  274  is  shown. 


CHAP.  XXII.  SNOW.  297 

below  it,  snow  falls  instead  of  rain  ;  but  the  colder  the  air  the  less 
moisture  does  it  contain,  consequently  the  less  snow  falls,  which  is 
the  reason  of  the  comparatively  small  quantity  on  the  high  plains 
of  the  Himalaya  and  Andes.  Snow  sometimes  assumes  the  form  of 
grains;  but  is  generally  in  regular  crystals  of  great  beauty,  varying 
in  form  according  to  the  degree  of  cold.  Dr.  Scoresby,  whose 
voyages  in  the  Polar  Seas  afforded  him  constant  opportunities  of 
studying  them,  of  which  he  so  diligently  availed  himself,  mentions 
five  principal  kinds  of  snow-crystals,  each  of  which  had  many  varie- 
ties, in  all  amounting  to  96.  M.  Kamtz,  however,  is  of  opinion  that 
there  are  several  hundred.  The  whiteness  of  the  snow  is  owing,  to 
the  reflection  of  light  from  the  minute  faces  of  its  crystals,  which 
are  like  small  mirrors. 

Snow  never  falls  between  the  tropics  except  on  the  tops  of  very 
high  mountains.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  line  of  perpetual  snow 
above  the  level  of  the  sea  in  these  hot  regions  is  about  15,207  feet, 
from  whence  it  decreases  on  both  sides,  and  at  last  grazes  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth  at  the  arctic  and  antarctic  circles,  subject,  however, 
to  various  flexures.  In  the  Andes,  near  Quito,  the  lowest  level  has 
an  elevation  of  15,795  feet,  which  is  higher  than  the  top  of  Mont 
Blanc ;  from  thence  it  varies  very  irregularly,  both  to  the  north  and 
south.  In  18°  of  N.  lat.  it  descends  to  14,772  feet  on  the  moun- 
tains of  Mexico,  while  on  the  south  it  rises  to  18,000  feet  in  some 
parts  of  the  western  Cordillera  of  the  Bolivian  Andes,  owing  to  the 
extensive  radiation  from  the  subjacent  plains  and  valleys.  The  line 
is  at  an  altitude  of  17,000  feet  on  the  western  Cordillera,  whence  it 
sinks  to  13,800  feet  at  Copiapo,  to  12,780  near  Valparaiso ;  it  is 
only  7960  in  the  southern  prolongation  of  the  Chilian  Andes,  on  the 
volcano  of  Antuco,  lat.  37°  40',  and  3390  in  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 
In  lat.  31°  N.  the  snow-line  is  at  an  elevation  of  12,981  feet  on  the 
southern  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  at  16,620  feet  on  the  northern 
side,  while  Captain  Gerard  gives  from  18,000  to  19,000  as  its  alti- 
tude on  the  mountains  in  the  middle  of  the  plain  of  Tartary.  On 
Mont  Blanc  the  line  is  at  the  height  of  8500  feet,  so  that  mountain 
is  snow-clad  for  7000  feet  below  its  summit.  In  the  Pyrenees  it  is 
8184  feet,  and  at  the  island  of  Mageroe  it  is  at  2160  feet,  above  the 
Polar  Ocean. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere  snow  never  falls  on  the  low  lands  at 
the  level  of  the  sea  north  of  the  48th  parallel  of  latitude,  on  account 
of  the  predominance  of  water,  whereas  in  the  northern  hemisphere 
it  falls  on  the  plains  much  nearer  the  equator,  on  account  of  the 
excess  of  land,  but  its  limit  is  a  curved  line,  on  account  of  the  alter- 
nations of  land  and  water.  In  the  western  part  of  the  great  conti- 
nent the  southern  limit  of  the  fall  of  snow  on  the  low  lands  nearly 
coincides  with  the  30th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  so  that  it  includes 
all  Europe.  In  the  American  continent  it  follows  nearly  the  sauiw 


298  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

line,  extending  through  the  southern  parts  of  the  United  States.  In 
China  snow  falls  at  the  level  of  the  sea  as  far  south  as  Canton  j1  on 
the  north-western  coast  of  America,  on  the  contrary,  it  does  not  fall 
at  that  level  till  about  the  48th  degree  of  N.  lat. — these  are  the  two 
extremes.  Although  Europe  lies  within  the  region  of  snow,  the. 
quantity  that  falls  is  very  different  in  different  places,  increasing 
greatly  from  south  to  north.  On  an  average  it  snows  only  one  day 
and  a  half  at  Rome  in  the  year,  while  at  Petersburg  there  are  171 
snowy  days,  but  in  that  city  the  quantity  of  rain  is  to  that  of  snow 
as  1000  to  384.  Snow,  by  protecting  the  ground  from  cold  winds, 
as  well  as  by  its  slow  conducting  power,  and  by  preventing  radiation, 
maintains  the  earth  at  a  higher  temperature  than  it  otherwise  would 
have.  In  Siberia  the  difference  between  the  temperature  of  the 
ground  beneath  the  snow  and  that  of  the  air  above  it  has  amounted 
to  38°  Fahrenheit. 

Sleet,  which  is  formed  of  small  particles  of  rounded  hail  mixed 
with  rain,  falls  in  squally  weather  in  spring  and  autumn.  True 
hail,  when  large,  is  pear-shaped,  and  consists  of  a  nucleus  of  frozen 
snow  coated  with  ice,  and  sometimes  with  alternate  layers  of  snow 
and  ice.  Hailstones  have  often  fallen  as  large  as  pigeons'  and  even 
hens'  eggs.  The  masses  and  blocks  of  ice  of  great  size,  which  have 
not  unfrequently  fallen,  appear  to  have  been  formed  of  hailstones  of 
large  size  frozen  together.  It  appears  to  be  formed  in  the  high  cold 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  by  the  sudden  condensation -of  vapour 
during  the  contention  of  opposing  winds,  and  is  intimately  connected 
with  electricity,  since  its  fall  is  generally  accompanied  with  thunder 
and  lightning.  Hail-showers  are  of  short  dflration,  exceedingly 
partial,  and  extend  over  a  country  in  long  narrow  bands :  one  which 
took  place  on  the  13th  of  July,  1788,  began  in  the  morning  in  the 
south  of  France,  and  reached  Holland  in  a  few  hours,  destroying  a 
narrow  line  of  country  in  its  passage. 

Local  circumstances,  no  doubt,  have  a  great  influence  on  its  form- 
ation ;  it  occurs  more  frequently  in  countries  at  a  little  distance  from 
mountains  than  in  those  close  to  them  or  farther  off,  and  at  all  hours, 
but  most  frequently  at  the  hottest  time  of  the  day,  and  rarely  in  the 
night.  In  the  interior  of  Europe  one-half  of  the  hail-storms  take 
place  in  summer.  Hail  is  very  rare  on  the  tropical  plains,  and 
often  altogether  unknown,  though  it  frequently  falls  at  heights  of 
1700  or  1800  feet  above  them,  and  at  still  greater  elevations,  in  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  for  example,  above  12,000 ;  and  on  the  table-land 
of  Ethiopia  at  heights  between  6000  and  10,000  feet.  If  the  air 

['  Snow  falls  at  Canton  only  at  very  long  intervals  of  time.  The  night 
of  the  7th  of  February,  1836,  snow  fell  "and  covered  the  ground  and 
roofs  of  the  houses  with  a  coat  nearly  two  inches  thick.  Such  occurrences 
in  Canton  are  very  unfrequent,  probably  not  once  in  a  century." — Chinese 
Repository,  Vol.  iv.,  p.  487.] 


CHAP.  XXII.  LIGHT.  299 

is  very  cold  throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  stratum  through 
which  hail  falls,  it  is  probably  increased  in  size  during  its  descent ; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  large  drops  of  rain  which  precede  a  thunder- 
storm are  supposed  to  be  hail  melted  in  its  passage  through  low 
warm  air. 

LIGHT. 

We  know  nothing  of  the  size  of  the  ultimate  particles  of  matter, 
except  that  they  must  be  inconceivably  small,  since  organized  beings 
possessing  life  and  exercising  all  its  functions  have  been  discovered 
so  minute  that  a  million  of  them  would  occupy  less  space  than  a 
grain  of  sand. 

The  air  is  only  visible  when  in  mass ;  the  smallest  globule  of 
steam  tells  no  more  of  its  atoms  than  the  ocean ;  the  minutest  grain 
of  sand  magnified  appears  like  the  fragment  of  a  rock  —  no  me- 
chanical division  can  arrive  at  the  indivisible.  Although  the  ulti- 
mate atoms  are  beyond  the  power  of  vision,  chemical  compounds 
show  that  the  divisibility  of  matter  has  a  limit,  and  that  the  parti- 
cles have  different  densities;  moreover  the  cleavage  of  crystalline 
substances  gives  reason  to  believe  that  they  have  different  forms.1 
Thus  the  reasoning  power  of  man  has  come  to  the  aid  of  his  imper- 
fect sense  of  vision,  so  that  what  were  before  imaginary  things  are 
now  real  beings  with  definite  weights,  and  uniting  by  fixed  laws. 
Though  nothing  had  been  known  of  their  size,  their  effects  were 
evident  in  the  perceptions  of  sweet  and  sour,  salt  and  bitter,  and  in 
the  endless  varieties  of  aroma  in  the  food  we  eat  and  the  liquors  we 
drink.  Moreover,  their  different  densities  are  evident,  as  they  arise 
by  their  buoyancy  in  the  perfume  of  the  rose,  or  sink  by  their 
weight  in  the  heavy  odour  of  mignonette.  Every  substance  on 
earth  is  merely  a  temporary  compound  of  the  ultimate  atoms,  sooner 
or  later  to  be  resolved  into  its  pristine  elements,  which  are  again  to 
be  combined  in  other  forms,  and  according  to  other  laws ;  so  that 
literally  there  is  nothing  new  under  the  sun,  for  there  is  no  evidence 
of  new  matter  being  added  to  the  earth,  nor  of  that  which  exists 
being  annihilated.  Fire,  which  seems  utterly  to  destroy,  only  re- 
solves bodies  into  their  elementary  parts,  to  become  what  they  were 
before,  the  support  of  animal  or  vegetable  life,  or  to  form  new 
mineral  compounds.  It  is  to  the  action  of  these  particles  on  the 
light  of  the  sun  that  nature  owes  all  its  colours. 

When  a  sunbeam  passes  through  a  glass  prism2  an  oblong  image 

1  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  'Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences'  for 
an  account  of  Dr.  Dalton's  theory  of  definite  proportions,  and  the  relative 
•weight  of  atoms ;  and  to  Dr.  Daubeny's  recently  published  work  on  the 
Atomic  Theory.  [See  also,  Graham's  Chemistry.] 

*  The  reader  is  referred  to  the  18th  section  of  the  '  Physical  Sciences' 
for  reflection,  refraction,  and  absorption  of  light,  and  to  the  19th  section 
for  the  constitution  of  the  solar  light  and  colours.  [Also,  to  Lardner'j 
Haud-Books  of  Natural  Philosophy.] 


300  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

of  the  sun  is  formed  consisting  of  colours  in  the  following  order — 
red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue,  indigo,  and  violet.  Sir  John  Her- 
schel  discovered  lavender  rays  beyond  the  violet,  and  dark  red  rays 
exterior  to  the  red,  which  are  not  so  easily  brought  into  evidence  as 
the  rest. 

Even  the  most  transparent  substances  absorb  light;  air,  water, 
the  purest  crystal,  stop  some  of  the  rays  as  they  pass  through  them. 
A  portion  of  the  light  is  also  reflected  from  the  surface  of  all  bodies ; 
were  it  otherwise,  they  would  be  invisible.  We  should  be  uncon- 
scious of  the  presence  and  form  of  material  substances  beyond  our 
reach  except  by  the  reflected  rays, — 

"  The  mist  of  light  from  -whence  they  take  their  form 
Hides  what  they  are." 

As  the  same  light  does  not  come  to  all  eyes,  each  person  sees  his 
own  rainbow,  the  same  flower  by  different  rays.  White  substances 
reflect  all  the  light,  black  substances  absorb  all  but  that  which  ren- 
ders them  visible,  while  coloured  bodies  decompose  the  light,  absorb 
some  of  the  colours,  and  reflect  or  transmit  the  rest.  Thus  a  violet 
absorbs  all  but  the  violet  rays,  which  it  reflects ;  a  red  flower  only 
reflects  the  red  and  absorbs  the  rest ;  a  yellow  substance  absorbs  all 
but  the  yellow.  In  the  same  manner  transparent  substances, 
whether  so*lid  or  fluid,  absorb  some  colours  and  transmit  others: 
thus  an  emerald  absorbs  all  but  the  green,  a  ruby  all  but  the  red ; 
whereas  a  diamond  does  not  decompose  the  light,  but  transmits 
every  ray  alike.  Very  few,  however,  of  the  colours,  whether  trans- 
mitted or  reflected,  are  pure,  but  the  substance  takes  its  hue  from 
the  colour  that  predominates. 

The  atmosphere,  where  rare,  absorbs  all  the  colours  of  the  sun's 
light  except  the  blue,  which  is  its  true  colour.  In  countries  where 
the  air  is  pure,  the  azure  of  the  sky  is  deep ;  it  is  still  more  so  at 
great  elevations,  where  the  density  of  the  air  is  less;  and  its  colour 
is  most  beautiful  as  it  gradually  softens  the  outlines  of  the  moun- 
tains into  extreme  distance,  or  blends  the  sea  with  the  sky.  When 
the  sun  is  near  the  horizon,  the  atmosphere,  on  account  of  its  supe- 
rior density,  absorbs  the  violet  and  blue,  and  leaves  the  yellow  and 
red  rays  in  excess ;  that  property,  together  with  the  refractive  power 
of  the  aqueous  vapour,  which  is  most  abundant  near  the  earth's 
surface,  gives  the  roseate  hue  to  the  early  morning,  and  the  gold  and 
scarlet  tints  to  the  closing  day.  The  blending  of  these  colours  with 
the  blue  above  produces  that  beautiful  vivid  green  so  frequently  seen 
in  Italy  and  other  warm  countries.  The  last  reflected  rays  of  the 
setting  sun  are  red,  which  gives  a  rose-coloured  tint  to  the  Alpine 
snow,  and  below  the  red  the  shadow  of  the  earth  is  sometimes  cast 
upon  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  a  deep  blue  segment,  known  as 
the  ante-twilight.  The  air  reflects  and  scatters  part  of  the  white 


CHAP.  XXII.    ABSORPTION  AND  REFLECTION.  301 

solar  beams,  whence  the  brightness  and  cheerfulness  of  day ;  were 
it  not  for  that  reflective  power,  the  sun  and  moon  would  be  like 
sharply  defined  balls  of  fire  in  the  profoundly  black  vault  of  the 
heavens,  and  dark  night  would  instantly  follow  sunset.  "When  tho 
sun  is  18  degrees  below  the  horizon,  the  air,  at  the  height  of  30 
miles,  is  still  dense  enough  to  reflect  his  rays,  and  divide  the  day 
from  the  night  by  the  sober  shades  of  twilight.1 

A  considerable  portion  of  the  sun's  light  is  absorbed  by  the  atmo- 
sphere :  the  loss  increases  with  the  obliquity  of  incidence  and  the 
density  of  the  air.  It  is  diminished  1300  times  by  the  thickness  of 
the  air  at  the  horizon,  which  enables  us  to  look  at  the  sun  when  set- 
ting without  being  dazzled.2 

The  bending  or  refraction  of  the  sun's  light  passing  through  the 
atmosphere  causes  distant  objects,  as  mountains,  to  appear  higher 
than  they  are.  It  increases  with  the  density  of  the  air  and  the 
obliquity  of  incidence,  and  on  that  account  the  sun  is  seen  above 
the  horizon  after  he  is  really  below  it,  or  has  set.  During  the 
winter  of  1820,  which  the  expedition  under  Sir  Edward  Parry 
passed  at  Melville  Island,  in  74°  47'  N.  lat.,  the  sun  did  not  rise 
for  92  days ;  but  in  consequence  of  extraordinary  refraction  he  ap- 
peared above  the  horizon  on  the  3d  of  February,  which  was  three 
days  sooner  than  he  ought  to  have  done.  Berentz  is  said  to  have 
seen  the  snn  at  Nova  Zembla  on  the  20th  of  January,  1597,  fifteen 
days  before  he  was  expected. 

The  sun  and  moon  often  appear  distorted  at  their  rising  and  set- 
ting, because  the  looming,  or  extraordinary  refraction,  is  greatest  in 
the  morning  or  evening,  from  the  increased  density  of  the  air  at  the 
surface  of  the  earth  by  reason  of  the  cold;  the  distortion  of  objects 
is  occasioned  by  the  rays  of  light  passing  through  the  strata  of  air 
of  different  densities;  from  this  cause  objects  are  sometimes  seen 
inverted,  and  three  images  of  the  same  object  occasionally  appear, 
two  direct  and  one  inverted. 

[".  In  climates  subject  to  sudden  and  extreme  vicissitudes  of  tem- 

1  Between  the  tropics  twilight  continues  from  the  setting  of  the  sun  till 
he  is  16°  below  the  horizon,  in  middle  latitudes  until  he  is  18°,  and  in  the 
polar  regions  until  he  is  20°  ;  then  and  then  only  does  real  night  begin :  at 
Edinburgh  there  is  no  real  night  from  the  6th  of  May  until  the  7th  of  Au- 
gust, in  London  there  is  none  from  the  21st  of  May  till  the  22ud  of  July, 
and  in  Paris  there  is  no  true  night  in  the  month  of  June. 

a  The  photometer  is  an  instrument  invented  by  Sir  John  Leslie  for  mea- 
suring the  relative  intensity  of  light  and  its  variations,  upon  the  principle 
that  the  heat  contained  in  solar  light  is  a  measure  of  the  intensity  of  light; 
Sir  John  computed  that  one-fourth  of  the  light  of  the  sun  is  absorbed  by 
the  atmosphere,  and,  with  regard  to  obliquity  of  incidence,  that,  out  of 
1000  rays  which  fall  obliquely  on  the  earth,  only  378  reach  it  at  the  equa- 
tor, 288  in  the  latitude  of  45°,  and  110  at  the  poles  ;  in  England  the  light 
measured  by  the  photometer  is  65°  greater  in  intensity  in  summer  than  in 
winter. 

26 


302  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

perature,  the  strata  of  air  are  often  affected  in  an  irregular  manner 
as  to  their  density,  and  consequently  as  to  their  refracting  power. 
If  it  happen  that  rays  proceeding  from  a  distant  object  directed 
upwards  after  passing  through  a  denser  be  incident  upon  the  surface 
of  a  rarer  stratum  of  air,  and  that  the  angle  of  incidence  in  this 
case  exceeds  the  limit  of  transmission,  the  ray  will  be  reflected  down- 
wards ;  and  if  it  be  received  by  the  eye  of  an  observer,  an  inverted 
image  of  the  object  will  be  seen  at  an  elevation  much  greater  than 
the  object  itself." '] 

Mirage/  [fata  morgana^]  or  the  delusive  appearance  of  water,  so 
frequent  in  deserts,  is  owing  to  the  reflection  of  light  between  two 
strata  of  air  of  different  densities,  occasioned  by  the  radiation  of 
heat  from  the  arid  soil.  It  is  very  common  on  the  extensive  plains 
in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  especially  in  Upper  Egypt ;  villages  on  small 
eminences  above  the  plain  appear  as  if  they  were  built  on  islands  in 
the  middle  of  a  lake  when  the  dry  sandy  ground  is  heated  by  the 
mid-day  sun.  Sometimes  objects  appear  double,  and  occasionally 
several  images  appear  above  one  another,  some  direct  and  some  in- 
verted ;  this  is  particularly  the  case  in  high  latitudes,  where  the  Icy 
Sea  cools  the  stratum  of  air  resting  on  it.2 

In  the  polar  regions,  or  on  the  tops  of  mountains,  when  the  sun 
is  in  the  horizon  the  shadow  of  a  person  is  sometimes  thrown  on  an 
opposite  cloud  or  mist,  the  head  being  surrounded  by  concentric 
coloured  rings  or  circles,  the  number  varying  from  one  to  five.  Dr. 
Scoresby  saw  four  of  these  rings,  on  one  occasion,  round  the  shadow 
of  his  head,  as  he  stood  between  the  sun  and  a  thick  low  fog :  the 
first  ring  consisted  of  concentric  bands  of  white,  yellow,  red,  and 
purple;  the  second  consisted  of  concentric  bands  of  blue,  green, 
yellow,  red,  and  purple ;  the  third  of  green,  white,  yellowish  white, 
red,  and  purple ;  and  in  the  fourth  the  bands  "were  greenish  white, 
deeper  on  the  edges.  Mr.  Green,  at  the  height  of  two  miles,  saw 
the  shadow  of  his  balloon,  surrounded  by  three  coloured  rings,  on  a 
cloud  below.  These  appearances,  called  glories,  or  fog-images,  and 
the  coronas  or  small  concentric  coloured  circles  which  surround  the 
sun  or  moon  when  partly  obscured  by  thin  white  clouds,  are  owing 
to  the  refraction  of  the  light  in  the  aqueous  particles  of  the  cloud 
or  fog.  The  colours  "in  the  concentric  bands  of  the  coronas,  how- 
ever, differ  from  the  foregoing ;  that  nearest  the  sun  is  of  deep  blue, 
white,  and  red ;  the  circle  exterior  to  that  consists  of  purple,  blue, 
green,  pale  yellow,  and  red ;  but  the  series  is  very  rarely  complete. 

Halos,  which  surround  the  sun  in  large  circles,  or  a  complicated 
combination  of  circles,  are,  on  the  contrary,  supposed  to  be  produced 
by  the  light  falling  on  minute  crystals  of  ice  suspended  in  the  at- 

f  *  Dr.  Lardner's  Hand-Books  of  Natural  Philosophy.  ] 

*  For  the  cause  of  mirage,  see  the  '  Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences.' 


OHAP.  XXII.  RAINBOWS.  303 

mosphere ;  they  are  particularly  brilliant  and  frequent  in  high  lati- 
tudes. It  is  scarcely  possible  to  give  an  idea  of  these  beautiful  and 
singular  objects.  Sometimes  a  large  coloured  circle  surrounds  the 
sun  or  passes  through  his  (Centre,  which  is  occasionally  touched  or 
cut  by  segments  of  others.  One  seen  at  St.  Petersburg  on  the  29th 
of  June,  1790,  consisted  of  four  coloured  circles  of  different  sizes 
intersecting  each  other,  which  were  either  cut  or  touched  by  seg- 
ments of  eight  others,  and  at  the  points  of  intersection  mock  suns  or 
parhelia  appeared.  The  sky  is  very  hazy  on  these  occasions.  Mock 
suns,  without  circles  and  halos,  are  by  no  means  uncommon,  and 
halos  are  often  seen  round  both  sun  and  moon,  but  seldom  of  that 
complicated  kind.  They  are  situate  between  the  observer  and  the 
sun,  whereas  the  rainbow  is  always  in  that  part  of  the  sky  opposite 
the  sun,  because  it  is  produced  by  refraction  and  reflection  of  the 
sun's  rays  in  the  drops  of  rain ;  and  when  the  light  is  intense  and 
the  rain  abundant,  there  are  two  concentric  bows,  the  prismatic 
colours  of  the  innermost  of  which  are  the  most  vivid,  the  violet 
being  within  and  the  red  outside  :  sometimes  the  inner  edge  exhibits 
a  repetition  of  colours  in  fine  fringes,  in  which  red  and  green  pre- 
dominate. The  colours  are  reversed  in  the  exterior  bow,  the  violet 
being  outside  and  the  red  on  the  inner  edge.  Besides  these  two' 
principal  and  most  common  bows,  supernumerary  rainbows  occasion- 
ally appear  within  the  interior  bow,  generally  green  and  violet, 
though  there  are  sometimes  more  or  less  perfect  repetitions  of  all 
the  colours.1  The  visible  extent  of  the  bow  depends  upon  the  alti- 
tude of  the  sun  and  the  position  of  the  spectator.  As  a  line  joining 
the  centres  of  the  sun  and  bow  must  pass  through  the  eye  of  the 
spectator,  the  altitude  of  the  sun  must  be  less  than  45°,  and  only  a 
portion  of  the  bow  can  be  seen  from  a  plain ;  but  the  complete  cir- 
cle may  be  visible  to  a  person  on  the  top  of  a  high  mountain  when 
the  sun  is  low,  except  the  small  portion  intercepted  by  his  shadow. 
In  squally  weather  a  rainbow  is  sometimes  seen  on  a  blue  sky  when 
rain  is  falling,  but  it  is  generally  on  clouds ;  it.  is  constantly  seen 
when  the  sun  shines  on  the  fine  drops  of  fountains  and  cascades, 
and  on  the  grass  in  a  dewy  morning.  As  the  light  of  the  moon  is 
feeble,  lunar  rainbows  are  rare,  and,  for  the  most  part,  colourless. 
In  the  early  morning  when  the  sun  throws  his  slanting  beams  across 
the  fields,  a  miniature  bow,  with  all  its  vivid  colours,  may  be  seen 
in  each  dewdrop  as  it  hangs  on  the  points  of  the  bending  grass. 

Light  is  said  to  be  polarized  when,  after  having  been  once  refracted 
or  reflected,  it  is  rendered  incapable  of  being  again  refracted  or  re- 

1  In  the  primary  bow  the  light  is  twice  refracted  and  once  reflected  m 
the  rain-drops,  while  in  the  external  bow  it  is  twice  refracted  and  twice 
reflected,  and  as  light  is  lost  at  each  refraction  and  reflection  the  interior 
bow  is  the  brightest.  Sir  David  Brewster  has  found  that  the  light  of  the 
rainbow  is  polarized. 


304  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXII. 

fleeted  at  certain  angles.  For  example,  if  a  crystal  of  brown  tour- 
maline be  cut  longitudinally  into  thin  slices,  and  polished,  the  light 
of  a  candle  may  be  seen  through  a  slice  as  if  it  were  glass.  But  if 
one  of  these  slices  be  held  perpendicularly  between  the  eye  and  the 
candle,  and  a  second  slice  be  turned  round  between  the  eye  and  the 
other  plate  of  tourmaline,  the  image  of  the  candle  will  vanish  and 
come  into  view  at  every  quarter-revolution  of  the  plate,  varying 
through  all  degrees  of  brightness  down  to  total  or  almost  total  evanes- 
cence, and  then  increasing  again  by  the  same  degrees  as  it  had  de- 
creased. Thus  the  light,  in  passing  through  the  first  plate  of  tour- 
maline, is  said  to  be  polarized  because  it  has  been  rendered  incapable 
of  passing  through  the  second  piece  of  tourmaline  in  certain  posi- 
tions. 

A  ray  of  light  acquires  the  same  property  if  it  be  reflected  from 
a  pane  of  plate  glass  at  an  angle  of  57  degrees ;  it  is  by  that  ren- 
dered incapable  of  being  reflected  by  another  pane  of  plate  glass  in 
certain  definite  positions,  for  the  image  of  the  light  vanishes  and  re- 
appears alternately  at  every  quarter-revolution  of  the  second  pane. 

If  a  thin  plate  of  mica  be  interposed  when  the  image  of  the  candle 
has  vanished,  the  darkness  will  instantly  disappear,  and  a  succession 
of  the  most  gorgeous  colours  will  come  into  view,  varying  with  every 
inclination  of  the  mica  from  the  richest  reds  to  the  most  vivid  greens, 
blues  and  purples.  The  most  splendid  colours  arranged  in  symme- 
trical forms  are  exhibited  by  thin  plates  of  an  infinite  variety  of 
substances  besides  mica.  They  display  some  of  the  most  beautiful 
objects  in  nature,  and  show  differences  otherwise  inappreciable  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  molecules  of  crystalline  bodies.1 

M.  Arago  discovered  that  the  light  of  the  sun  is  polarized  by  the 
reflection  of  the  atmosphere,  but  not  equally  so  on  every  part  of  the 
sky ;  the  polarization  is  least  in  the  vicinity  of  the  sun,  and  greatest 
at  90°  from  him,  for  there  his  light  is  reflected  at  an  angle  of  45°, 
which  is  the  polarizing  angle  for  air.2  There  are  three  points  in 
the  sky  where  the  light  is  not  polarized  :  one  of  these  neutral  points, 
discovered  by  M.  Arago,  is  18°  03'  above  the  point  diametrically 
opposite  to  the  sun  when  he  is  in  the  horizon ;  the  second  neutral 
point,  discovered  by  M.  Babinet,  is  18°  30'  above  the  sun  when  he 
is  rising  or  setting ;  and  the  third,  discovered  by  Sir  David  Brew- 
ster,  is  15°  or  16°  below  the  sun.  These  points  vary  with  the 
height  of  the  sun,  and  the  two  latter  rise  and  coincide  in  his  centre 
when  he  is  in  the  zenith.3 

1  For  phenomena  and  theory  of  polarized  light,  see  section  21,  '  Connex- 
ion of  the  Physical  Sciences.' — [Also,  Dr.  Lardner'B  Hand-Books  of  Natu- 
ral Philosophy.] 

a  Every  substance,  whether  solid  or  fluid,  has  its  own  polarizing  angle. 

3  The  reader  is  referred  to  a  plate  in  Johnston's  Physical  Atlas,  showing 
the  phenomena  of  the  polarization  of  the  atmosphere. 


CHAP.  XXIT.  ELECTRICITY.  305 

Now  the  portion  of  polarized  light  sent  to  the  eye  from  any  part 
of  a  clear  sky  is  in  a  plane  passing  through  that  point,  the  eye  of 
the  observer,  and  the  centre  of  the  sun.  If  that  point  be  the  north 
pole  of  the  heavens,  it  is  clear  that,  as  the  sun  moves  in  his  diurnal 
course,  the  plane  will  move  with  him,  as  an  hour  circle,  and  may  be 
used  as  a  dial  to  determine  the  hour  of  the  day.  Professor  Wheat- 
stone,  by  whom  that  beautiful  application  of  the  polarization  of  the 
atmosphere  has  been  made,  has  constructed  a  clock,  of  very  simple 
form,  which  shows  the  time  of  day  with  great  accuracy,  and  which 
has  many  advantages  over  a  sundial. 

ELECTRICITY. 

Electricity  pervades  the  earth,  the  air,  and  all  substances,  without 
giving  any  visible  sign  of  its  existence  when  in  a  latent  state,  but, 
when  elicited,  it  exhibits  forces  capable  of  producing  the  most  sud- 
den, violent,  and  irresistible  effects.  It  is  roused  from  its  dormant 
state  by  every  disturbance  in  the  chemical,  mechanical,  or  calorific 
condition  of  matter,  and  then  experience  shows  that  bodies  in  one 
electric  state  repel,  and  in  another  they  attract  each  other. .  Probably 
their  mutual  attraction  and  repulsion  arise  from  the  redundancy  and 
defect  of  electricity ;  in  the  first  case  they  are  said  to  be  positively, 
in  the  latter  negatively  electric.1  When  they  have  different  kinds 
of  electricity  they  attract  each  other,  and,  when  not  opposed,  the 
electricity  coalesces  with  great  rapidity,  producing  the  flash,  explo- 
sion, and  shock,  and  that  with  the  more  violence  the  greater  the  ten- 
sion or  pressure  of  the  electricity  on  the  surrounding  air  which  resists 
its  escape.  Equilibrium  is  then  restored,  and  the  electricity  remains 
latent  till  called  forth  by  a  new  exciting  cause.  The  electrical  state 
of  substances  is  easily  disturbed,  for,  without  contact,  positive  elec- 
tricity tends  to  produce  negative  electricity  in  a  body  near  it;  and 
vice  versa :  the  latter  is  then  said  to  be  electric  by  induction. 

The  electricity  of  the  atmosphere  arises  from  evaporation,  and  the 
chemical  changes  that  are  in  perpetual  progress  on  the  globe  j  no 
electricity,  however,  is  developed  by  the  evaporation  of  pure  water, 
but  it  arises  abundantly  from  water  containing  matter  susceptible  of 
chemical  action  during  the  evaporation ;  consequently  the  ocean  is 
one  of  the  greatest  sources  of  atmospheric  electricity ;  combustion  is 
another;  and  a  large  portion  arises  from  vegetation.  The  air,  when 
pure,  is  almost  always  positively  electric ;  but  as  the  chemical  changes 
on  the  earth  sometimes  produce  positive  and  sometimes  negative 
electricity,  it  is  subject  to  great  local  variations;  a  passing  cloud  or 
a  puff  of  wind  produces  a  change,  and  a  distant  storm  renders  it 
negative  for  the  time,  but  the  earth  is  always  in  a  negative  state. 

1  See  sections  28  and  29  of  the  'Connexion  of  the  Physical  Sciences:'  on 
Electricity.     [Also,  Dr.  Lardner's  Hand-Books  of  Natural  Philosophy.] 
26* 


306  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

The  quantity  of  electricity  varies  with  the  hours  of  the  day  and  the 
seasons ;  it  is  more  powerful  in  the  day  than  in  the  night,  in  winter 
than  in  summer,  and  it  diminishes  from  the  equator  to  the  poles. 
It  thunders  daily  in  many  places,  in  others  never,  as  on  the  east 
coast  of  Peru  and  in  the  Arctic  regions,  except  where  there  are  vio- 
lent volcanic  explosions,  which  always  generate  electricity,  as  in  Ice- 
land. Wherever  there  arc  no  trees  or  high  objects  to  conduct  it  to 
the  ground,  the  quantity  of  positive  electricity  increases  with  the 
height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Violent  thunder-storms  take 
place  on  the  highest  summits  of  the  Andes  and  Himalaya  moun- 
tains. On  the  high  table-land  of  Ethiopia  they  are  violent  and  so 
frequent,  that  M.  d'Abbadie  calculates  it  thunders  fifty-six  days  out 
of  every  hundred.  In  general  thunder-clouds  in  our  latitudes  float 
at  the  height  of  from  3000  to  5000  feet  above  the  earth. 

Electricity  becomes  very  strong  when  dew  is  deposited,  and  in 
some  cases  it  is  strongly  developed  in  fogs.  Mr.  Cross  found  it  so 
powerful  on  one  occasion,  that  it  was  dangerous  to  approach  the 
apparatus  for  measuring  its  intensity.  A  continued  succession  of 
explosions  lasted  nearly  five  hours,  and  the  stream  of  fire  between 
the  receiving  ball  and  the  atmospheric  conductor  was  too  vivid  to 
look  at.  M.  Peltier  has  found  that  the  common  fogs  arising  from 
the  mere  condensation  of  the  moisture  in  the  air  are  neutral,  but 
that  others  which  are  produced  by  exhalations  from  the  earth  are 
sometimes  positive,  sometimes  negative;  the  subject,  however,  re- 
quires further  investigation. 

Though  in  long-continued  mild  rains  there  are  no  traces  of  elec- 
tricity, yet  when  rain  or  snow  falls  from  the  higher  regions  of  the 
atmosphere,  it  is  more  or  less  developed,  sometimes  positive,  some- 
times negative,  depending  a  good  deal  on  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
During  a  drifting  fall  of  snow,  Mr.  Cross  collected  electricity  enough 
to  decompose  water.  The  atmosphere  being  positively  electric, 
negative  rain  is  supposed  to  arise  from  the  evaporation  of  the  drops 
in  passing  through  dry  air ;  the  vapour  carries  off  the  positive  elec- 
tricity and  leaves  the  drop  in  a  negative  state — a  circumstance  which 
seems  to  be  confirmed  by  the  electricity  of  cascades,  near  which 
there  always  is  more  or  less  negative  electricity ;  the  positive  flows 
into  the  earth,  while  the  other  remains  united  to  the  drops  of  the 
cascade. 

The  inductive  action  of  the  earth  upon  the  clouds  and  of  the 
different  strata  of  clouds  on  each  other,  produces  great  variations  in 
their  electrical  state.  If  rain  falls  from  the  lowermost  of  two  strata 
of  positively  electrical  clouds,  the  inductive  action  of  the  earth  ren- 
ders the  under  surface  positive  and  the  upper  negative,  and  the  rain 
is  positive.  By-and-bye  the  under  surface  of  the  cloud  and  the 
earth  become  neutral;  and  after  a  time  the  lower  cloud  becomes 
charged  with  negative  electricity  by  the  induction  of  the  upper 


CHAP.  XXIT.  LIGHTNING.  307 

strata,  and  the  rain  is  then  negatively  electric.  Clouds  are  very 
differently  charged ;  grey  clouds  have  negative  —  red,  white,  and 
orange  clouds  positive  electricity;  and  when  clouds  differently 
charged  meet,  an  explosion  takes  place.  When  the  sky  is  clear  and 
the  air  calm  and  warm,  a  succession  of  small  white  fleecy  clouds 
rising  rapidly  above  the  horizon  and  flying  swiftly  in  the  very  high 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  is  a  certain  presage  of  a  thunder-storin. 

Electricity  of  each  kind  is  probably  elicited  by  the  friction  of 
currents  of  air,  or  masses  of  clouds  moving  rapidly  in  different  di- 
rections, as  in  thunder-storms,  when  small  white  clouds  are  seen 
flying  rapidly  over  the  black  mass ;  yet  the  quick  and  irregular  mo- 
tion of  clouds  in  storms  is  probably  owing  to  the  strong  electrical 
attraction  and  repulsion  among  themselves,  though  both  may  be 
concerned  in  these  hostile  encounters.  When  two  clouds  differently 
charged  by  the  sudden  condensation  of  vapour,  and  driven  by  con- 
tending winds,  approach  within  a  certain  distance,  the  thickness  of 
the  coating  of  electricity  increases  on  the  two  adjacent  sides,  and 
when  the  accumulation  becomes  so  great  as  to  overcome  the  coercive 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  between  them,  a  discharge  takes  place 
which  occasions  a  flash  of  lightning.  The  actual  quantity  of  elec- 
tricity in  any  part  of  a  cloud  is  very  small.  The  intensity  of  the 
flash  depends  upon  the  extent  of  surface  occupied  by  the  electricity, 
which  acquires  its  intensity  by  its  instantaneous  condensation. 

The  air,  being  a  non-conductor,  does  not  convey  the  electricity 
from  the  clouds  to  the  earth,  but  it  acquires  from  them  an  opposite 
electricity,  and  when  the  tension  is  very  great  the  force  of  the  elec- 
tricity becomes  irresistible,  and  an  interchange  takes  place  between 
the  clouds  and  the  earth,  but  the  motion  of  the  lightning  is  so  rapid, 
that  it  is  difficult  to  ascertain  when  it  goes  from  the  clouds  to  the 
earth,  or  from  the  earth  to  the  clouds,  though  there  is  no  doubt  it 
does  both :  explosions  have  burst  from  the  ground,  and  people  have 
been  killed  by  them. 

When  the  air  is  highly  rarefied  by  heat  its  coercive  power  is  di 
minished,  so  that  the  electricity  escapes  from  the  clouds  in  the  form 
of  diffuse  lambent  sheets  of  lightning  without  thunder  or  rain,  fre- 
quently seen  in  warm  summer  evenings,  sometimes  even  near  the 
zenith,  and  quite  different  from  that  sheet  lightning  at  the  horizon 
which  is  in  general  only  the  reflection  of  the  forked  lightning  of  a 
"distant  storm.1  When  the  quantity  of  electricity  developed  by  the 
sudden  condensation  of  vapour  is  very  great,  the  lightning  is  always 
forked ;  its  zigzag  form  is  occasioned  by  the  unequal  conducting 

1  The  author  saw  a  very  remarkable  instance  of  lightning  -without  thun- 
der. There  were  no  clouds  an  the  sky  except  one  in  the  zenith,  over  which 
diffused  sheets  of  lambent  lightning  played  for  more  than  an  hour  without 
thunder :  the  cloud  did  not  appear  to  be  so  high  but  that  thunder  might 
have  been  heard  had  there  been  any. 


308  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

power  of  the  air,  by  which  it  is  sometimes  divided  into  several 
branches.  The  author  once  saw  a  flash  divided  into  four  parallel 
streams — a  very  uncommon  occurrence.  Occasionally  in  very  great 
storms  the  lightning  sends  off  lateral  branches.  It  often  appears 
as  a  globe  of  fire  moving  so  slowly  that  it  is  visible  for  several 
seconds,  while  the  flashes  of  forked  lightning  do  not  last  the  mil- 
lionth part  of  a  second.  Professor  Wheatstone,  who  has  measured 
the  veolocity  of  lightning  by  experiments  of  great  ingenuity,  found 
that  it  far  surpasses  the  velocity  of  light,  and  would  encircle  the 
globe  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye.  This  inconceivable  velocity  is 
beautifully  exemplified  in  the  electric  telegraph,  [the  invention  of 
an  American,  Professor  Morse,]  by  which  the  most  violent  and  ter- 
rific agent  in  nature  is  rendered  obedient  to  man,  and  conveys  his 
thoughts  as  rapidly  as  they  are  formed.  The  colour  of  lightning  is 
generally  a  dazzling  white  or  blue,  though  in  highly  rarefied  air  it 
is  rose-colour  or  violet. 

The  sudden  compression  of  the  air  during  the  passage  of  light- 
ning must  convert  a  great  quantity  of  latent  into  sensible  heat,  for 
heat  in  a  latent  or  insensible  state  exists  in  all  bodies  independent 
of  their  temperature.  Heat  is  absorbed  and  becomes  insensible  to 
the  thermometer  when  solids  become  liquids,  and  when  liquids  are 
changed  to  vapour ;  and  it  again  becomes  sensible  when  vapour  is 
condensed,  and  when  liquids  become  solid.  When  water  freezes,  all 
the  heat  that  kept  it  liquid  is  given  out;  and  when  ice  melts,  it  ab- 
sorbs heat  from  everything  near  it.  The  air  is  full  of  heat  in  a 
latent  state,  whatever  its  temperature  may  be,  but  it  can  be  squeezed 
out  by  sudden  compression  so  as  to  kindle  tinder.  Every  aerial 
wave,  every  sound,  every  word  spoken  must  set  free  an  infinitesimal 
quantity  of  heat;  so  everything  that  tends  to  rarefy  the  air  mast 
cause  it  to  absorb  a  proportional  quantity. 

The  rolling  noise  of  thunder  is  probably  owing  to  the  difference 
between  the  velocity  of  lightning  and  that  of  sound.  Thunder  may 
be  regarded  as  originating  in  every  point  of  a  flash  of  lightning  at 
the  same  instant ;  and  as  sound  takes  a  considerable  time  to  travel, 
it  will  arrive  first  from  the  nearest  point ;  and  if  the  flash  run  in  a 
direct  line  from  a  person,  the  noise  will  come  later  and  later  from 
the  remote  points  of  its  path,  in  a  continued  roar.  Should  the  direc- 
tion of  the  flash  be  inclined,  the  succession  of  sounds  will  be  more 
rapid  and  intense ;  and  if  the  lightning  describe  a  circular  course 
above  a  person,  the  sound  will  arrive  at  the  same  instant  from  every 
point  with  a  stunning  crash.1 

1  Sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  1120  feet  in  a  second  in  air  at  the  tempe- 
rature of  62°  Fahrenheit;  so  if  that  number  be  multiplied  by  the  number 
of  seconds  elapsed  between  the  flash  of  lightning  and  the  thunder,  the  re- 
sult will  be  the  distance  in  feet  at  which  the  stroke  took  place.  A  relative 
of  the  author's  was  fishing  in  the  Tweed  on  a  very  sultry  day,  and  lay 


CHAP.  XXII.  THUNDER-STORMS.  309 

In  passing  to  the  earth,  lightning  follows  the  best  conductors  — • 
metals  by  preference,  then  damp  substances  —  which  is  the  reason 
why  men  and  animals  are  so  often  struck.  If  it  meets  with  a  bad 
conductor,  it  shivers  it  to  pieces  and  scatters  the  fragments  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  A  powerful  flash  scatters  gunpowder,  while  a 
feeble  one  ignites  it ;  the  hardest  trees  are  split  and  torn  to  shreds ; 
when  a  tree  is  struck,  the  heat  of  the  flash  converts  the  sap  into 
steam,  the  expansive  force  of  which  shivers  the  tree.  The  surface 
of  rocks  is  vitrified  by  it;  and  when  it  falls  on  a  sandy  soil,  its 
course  underground  is  marked  by  vitrified  tubes  many  feet  long. 

Thunder-storms  occur  daily  within  the  region  of  the  Variables, 
[winds,]  which  is  also  the  region  of  storms :  in  countries  under  the 
influence  of  the  monsoons  they  are  tremendous  at  the  changes  of 
these  periodical  winds;  where  the  trade-winds  prevail  they  are 
hardly  known,  though  electrical  discharges  are  frequent  at  their 
limits.  In  Greece  and  Italy  there  are  about  40  thunder-storms  an- 
nually, which  occur  in  spring  and  autumn,  while  north  of  the  Alps 
they  take  place  in  summer.  There  are  about  24  in  the  year  on  the 
coasts  of  the  Atlantic  and  in  Germany,  but  they  are  much  more 
frequent  among  mountains  than  on  plains.  In  the  interior  of  the 
old  continent  they  rarely  occur  in  winter,  and  three-fourths  of  the 
number  happen  in  summer.  They  are  of  such  rare  occurrence  in 
high  latitudes  that  in  a  residence  of  6  years  in  Greenland  Sir 
Charles  Geiseke  only  heard  it  thunder  once. 

Some  storms  arise  from  the  contention  of  opposite  currents  in  the 
air;  others  are  occasioned  by  currents  of  warm  air  ascending  from 
the  earth,  which  are  suddenly  condensed  as  they  enter  the  upper 
regions  of  the  atmosphere,  and,  as  this  sometimes  happens  at  the 
hottest  hour  of  the  day,  these  storms  are  periodical  for  many  suc- 
cessive days,  recurring  always  at  the  same  hour.  Sometimes  they 
extend  over  a  great  expanse  of  country,  and  the  lightning  darts 
from  all  points  of  the  compass.  A  person  may  be  killed  at  the  dis- 
tance of  20  miles  from  the  explosion  by  the  back  stroke.  If  the 
two  extremities  of  a  highly  charged  cloud  dip  towards  the  earth, 
they  will  repel  the  electricity  of  the  earth,  if  it  be  of  the  same  kind 
with  their  own,  and  will  attract  the  other  kind ;  and  if  a  discharge 
should  take  place  at  one  end  of  the  cloud,  the  equilibrium  will  in- 
stantly be  restored  by  a  flash  from  that  part  of  the  earth  which  is 
under  the  other,  sufficiently  strong  to  destroy  life,  and  it  is  the  most 
dangerous,  though  never  so  strong  as  the  direct  stroke. 

When  thunder-clouds  are  very  low,  there  is  frequently  no  light- 
ning ;  the  electricity  produced  by  induction  is  so  powerful  that  it 

down  on  the  grass  to  rest:  he  was  astonished  to  hear  repeated  peals  of 
thunder,  as  there  was  not  a  cloud  to  be  seen  in  the  sky ;  two  hours  after- 
wards clouds  began  to  rise,  and  in  the  afternoon  there  was  a  thunder- 
storm ;  the  sound  had  been  conveyed  down  the  river  by  the  stream. 


310  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIT. 

escapes  from  pointed  objects  in  the  shape  of  flame  without  heat, 
known  as  St.  Elmo's  fire.  These  flames  are  not  unfrequently  seen 
at  the  topmasts  of  ships  and  the  extremities  of  their  yards.  Bodies 
between  the  clouds  and  earth  may  be  electrized  by  induction,  and 
their  electricity  will  be  seen  in  the  form  of  flame,  as  showers  of 
phosphorescent  snow. 

Phosphorescence  is  ascribed  to  electricity;  various  substances 
emit  light  when  decaying,  as  fish  and  wood.  Although  many  ma- 
rine animals  are  phosphorescent,  yet  the  luminous  appearance  which 
the  sea  often  assumes  is  not  always  to  be  attributed  to  them,  but 
probably  to  the  decaying  animal  matter  it  contains. 

The  aurora  is  decidedly  an  electrical  phenomenon.  It  generally 
appears  soon  after  sunset  in  the  form  of  a  luminous  arch  stretching 
more  or  less  from  east  to  west,  the  most  elevated  point  being  always 
in  the  magnetic  meridian  of  the  place  of  the  observer :  across  the 
arch  the  coruscations  are  rapid,  vivid,  and  of  various  colours,  darting 
like  lightning  to  the  zenith,  and  at  the  same  time  flitting  laterally 
with  incessant  velocity.  The  brightness  of  the  rays  varies  in  an 
instant :  they  sometimes  surpass  the  splendour  of  stars  of  the  first 
magnitude,  and  often  exhibit  colours  of  admirable  transparency, 
blood-red  at  the  base,  emerald-green  in  the  middle,  and  clear  yellow 
towards  their  extremity.  Sometimes  one,  and  sometimes  a  quick 
succession  of  luminous  currents  run  from  one  end  of  the  arch  or 
bow  to  the  other,  so  that  the  rays  rapidly  increase  in  brightness : 
but  it  is  impossible  to  say  whether  the  coruscations  themselves  are 
actually  affected  by  a  horizontal  motion  of  translation,  or  whether 
the  more  vivid  light  is  conveyed  from  ray  to  ray.  The  rays  occa- 
sionally dart  far  past  the  zenith,  vanish,  suddenly  reappear,  and,  be- 
ing joined  by  others  from  the  arch,  form  a  magnificent  corona  or 
immense  dome  of  light.  The  segment  of  the  sky  below  the  arch  is 
quite  black,  as  if  formed  by  dense  clouds ;  yet  M.  Struve  is  said  to 
"Save  seen  stars  in  it,  consequently  the  blackness  must  be  from  con- 
trast. The  lower  edge  of  the  arch  is  evenly  defined ;  its  upper 
margin  is  fringed  by  the  streamers  which  converge  by  the  effect  of 
perspective  to  the  magnetic  poles,  that  is,  to  a  point  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  70°  below  the  horizon  and  23°  west  of  north  from 
London,  and  to  a  point  diametrically  opposite  in  the  southern.  The 
apparent  convergence  of  the  arch  is  owing  to  the  same  cause. 

Either  the  aurora  must  be  high  above  the  earth,  or  its  corusca- 
tions must  be  very  extensive,  since  the  same  display  is  visible  at 
places  wide  asunder.  It  has  frequently  been  seen  in  North  America 
and  all  over  the  north  of  Europe  at  the  same  time,  sometimes  even 
as  far  south  as  Italy,  yet  Sir  Edward  Parry  certainly  saw  a  ray  dart 
from  it  to  the  ground  near  him.  M.  Struve,  Admiral  Wrangel,  and 
others  who  have  had  many  opportunities  of  seeing  the  aurora  in 
high  latitudes,  assign  a  very  moderate  elevation  to  it.  The  arch 


CHAP.  XXII.  AURORA.  311 

probably  passes  tnrougb  the  magnetic  pole;  bence  in  the  north  of 
Greenland  it  lies  south  of  the  observer,  and  Sir  Edward  Parry  saw 
it  to  the  south  in  Melville  Island,  which  is  in  70°  N.  lat. ;  conse- 
quently it  must  appear  in  the  zenith  in  some  places.  Dr.  Faraday 
conjectures  that  the  electric  equilibrium  of  the  earth  is  restored  by 
the  aurora  conveying  the  electricity  from  the  poles  to  the  equator, 
for  it  appears  in  the  high  southern  latitudes,  as  well  as  in  the 
northern ;  and  the  Rev.  Gr.  Fisher  has  lately  suggested  that,  as  the 
principal  display  of  the  aurora  takes  place  at  or  near  the  margin  of 
the  polar  ice,  the  electricity  may  be  conveyed  by  the  conducting 
power  of  the  frozen  particles  which  abound  in  the  air  in  these  lati- 
tudes, and  which,  being  rendered  fitfully  luminous  by  the  passage 
of  the  electricity,  produce  the  arch  and  the  ever-varying  flashes  of 
the  aurora. 

The  aurora  has  a  powerful  influence  on  the  magnetic  needle,  even 
in  places  where  the  display  is  not  seen.  Its  vibrations  seem  to  be 
slower  or  quicker  according  as  the  auroral  light  is  quiescent  or  in 
motion,  and  the  disturbances  of  the  compass  during  the  day  show 
that  the  aurora  is  not  peculiar  to  the  night.  Observations  have 
proved  that  the  disturbances  of  the  magnetic  needle  and  the  auroral 
displays  were  simultaneous  at  Toronto,  in  Canada,  on  13  days  out 
of  24,  the  remaining  days  having  been  clouded;  and  contempora- 
neous observations  show  that  on  these  thirteen  days  there  were  also 
magnetic  disturbances  at  Prague  and  at  Van  Diemen's  Land,  so  that 
the  "  occurrence  of  aurora  at  Toronto  on  these  occasions  may  be 
viewed  as  a  local  manifestation  connected  with  magnetic  effects, 
which,  whatever  may  have  been  their  origin,  probably  prevailed  on 
the  same  day  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  globe/'1  It  has  been 
observed  that  the  two  kinds  of  auroral  action  bear  a  strong  analogy 
to  the  two  modes  of  magnetic  action  discovered  by  Dr.  Faraday,  the 
ordinary  auroral  beams  or  streamers  being  parallel  to  the  magnetic 
meridian,  and  the  auroral  arch  at  right  angles  to  it. 

MAGNETISM. 

Magnetism  is  one  of  those  unseen  imponderable  existences  which, 
like  electricity  and  heat,  are  known  only  by  their  effects.  It  is  cer- 
tainly identical  with  electricity,  for,  although  it  never  comes  natu- 
rally into  evidence,  magnets  can  be  made  to  exhibit  all  the  pheno 
mena  of  electrical  machines. 

Terrestrial  magnetism,  which  pervades  the  whole  earth,  is  ex- 
tremely complicated ;  it  varies  both  with  regard  to  space  and  time, 
and  probably  depends  upon  the  heat  of  the  sun,  upon  his  motion  in 
the  ecliptic,  which  produces  changes  of  temperature,  on  galvanic 

1  Colonel  Sabine's  Notes  to  the  English  translation  of  Humboldt's  '  Cos- 
mos,' vol.  ii. 


312  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

currents  circulating  through  the  surface  of  the  globe,  and  possibly 
on  the  earth's  rotatory  motion. 

The  distribution  of  terrestrial  magnetism  is  determined  by  the 
declination-needle,  or  mariner's  compass,  and  the  dipping-needle; 
they  consist  of  magnetised  needles  or  bars  of  steel,  so  suspended 
that  the  declination-needle  revolves  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and 
the  dipping-needle  moves  in  a  plane  perpendicular  to  the  horizon. 
The  north  end  of  the  declination-needle  or  magnet  points  to  the 
north,  and  the  south  end  to  the  south,  and  it  only  remains  at  rest 
when  in  that  position.  The  direction  of  the  needle  is  the  magnetic 
meridian  of  the  place  of  observation. 

The  north  end  of  the  dipping-needle  bends  or  dips  below  the 
horizon  in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  the  south  end  bends  or  dips 
beneath  it  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  and  between  the  two  there 
is  a  line  which  encircles  the  whole  earth,  where  the  dipping-needle 
remains  horizontal.  That  line,  which  is  the  magnetic  equator  or 
line  of  no  dip,  crosses  the  terrestrial  equator  in  several  places,  ex- 
tending alternately  on  each  side,  but  never  deviating  more  than 
twelve  degrees  from  it.  The  deviation  is  greater  in  that  part  of  the 
Pacific  where  there  are  most  islands,  and  it  is  greatest  both  to  the 
south  and  north  in  traversing  the  continents  of  Africa  and  America ; 
thus  it  appears  that  the  configuration  of  the  land  and  water  has  an 
influence  on  terrestrial  magnetism.  North  and  south  of  the  mag- 
netic equator  the  needle  dips  more  and  more,  till  at  last  it  becomes 
perpendicular  to  the  horizon  in  two  points,  or  rather  linear  spaces, 
known  as  the  north  and  south  magnetic  poles,  which  are  quite  dis- 
tinct from  the  poles  of  the  earth's  rotation.  One,  whose  position 
was  determined  by  Captain  Sir  James  Clark  Ross,  is  in  70°  N.  lat. 
and  97°  W.  long.,  while  that  in  the  southern  hemisphere,  placed  by 
the  same  celebrated  navigator,  from  his  observations  in  1841,  in  the 
interior  of  Victoria  Island,  is  in  75°  5'  S.  lat.  and  154°  8'  E.  long. 
Lines  of  equal  dip  are  such  as  may  be  drawn  on  a  globe  through  all 
those  places  where  the  dipping-needle  makes  the  same  angle  with 
the  horizon.  The  angle  of  the  dip  is  not  always  the  same  :  accord- 
ing to  Colonel  Sabine,  who  is  the  highest  authority  on  this  subject, 
it  has  been  decreasing  in  the  northern  hemisphere  for  the  last  fifty 
years,  at  the  rate  of  three  minutes  annually;  it  is  also  subject  to 
variations  of  short  periods,  and  it  seems  to  be  affected  by  shocks  of 
earthquakes,  even  when  very  distant. 

The  intensity  of  the  magnetic  force  is  as  variable  and  even  more 
complicated  than  the  other  magnetic  phenomena  :  it  is  measured  by 
the  number  of  vibrations  made  by  the  declination-needle  in  a  given 
time.  It  is  very  different  in  different  parts  of  the  earth,  but  there 
are  four  points  in  which  the  intensity  is  greater  than  anywhere  else 
Two  of  these  are  in  the  northern  and  two  in  the  southern  hemi- 


CHAP.  XXII.  rOCI   OP   MAGNETIC   INTENSITY.  313 

sphere ;  they  neither  coincide  with  the  poles  of  the  earth's  rotation 
nor  with  the  magnetic  poles,  nor  are  they  all  of  equal  intensity. 

One  of  these  foci  of  maximum  magnetic  intensity  is  situate  in 
North  America,  south-west  from  Hudson's  Bay ;  another  is  in  north- 
ern Siberia,  in  120°  E.  long.  In  the  southern  hemisphere,  one  of 
the  points  of  maximum  magnetic  intensity  is  in  the  South  Atlantic 
in  20°  S.  lat.  and  324°  E.  long.,  and  the  other  is  situate  in  60°  S. 
lat.  and  131°  20'  E.  long.1  In  consequence  of  the  unequal  intensity 
of  the  force  in  these  4  foci,  the  decrease  in  magnetic  power  from 
them  towards  the  equator  is  extremely  irregular,  so  that  the  dynamic 
equator,  which  is  a  line  supposed  to  be  drawn  through  all  the  points 
on  the  earth  where  the  intensity  is  the  least,  encircles  the  globe  in 
a  waving  line,  which  neither  coincides  with  the  geographical  nor 
magnetic  equator ;  it  forms  the  division  between  the  magnetic  intensi- 
ties in  the  two  hemispheres.  Lines  drawn  on  a  globe  through  all 
the  points  where  the  magnetic  intensity  is  the  same  are  so  compli- 
cated that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  convey  an  idea  of  them  in  words. 
They  form  a  series  of  ovals  round  each  of  the  foci  of  maximum 
force,  then  a  figure  of  8  in  each  hemisphere  having  a  focus  and  its 
ovals  in  each  loop,  then  they  open  into  tortuous  lines  which  encom- 
pass the  globe,  but  which  become  less  so  as  they  approach  the  dy- 
namic equator.  The  complication  is  increased  by  the  foci  in  the 
two  hemispheres  being  unsymmetrically  placed  with  regard  to  one 
another,  as  well  as  by  the  difference  in  their  intensities. 

The  declination  or  horizontal  needle  only  remains  at  rest  when  in 
a  magnetic  meridian,  that  is  when  it  points  to  the  north  and  south 
magnetic  poles.  The  magnetic  meridians  coincide  with  the  geo- 
graphical meridians  in  some  places,  and  in  these  the  magnet  points 
to  the  true  north  and  south,  that  is,  to  the  poles  of  the  earth's  rota- 
tion. But  if  it  be  carried  successively  to  different  longitudes,  it  will 
deviate  sometimes  to  the  east,  sometimes  to  the  west  of  the  true 
north.  Imaginary  lines  on  the  globe,  passing  through  all  places 
where  the  magnet  points,  to  the  poles  of  the  earth's  rotation,  are 
lines  of  no  variation ;  and  lines  passing  through  all  places  where  the 
magnet  deviates  by  an  equal  quantity  from  the  geographical  meri- 
dians are  lines  of  equal  variation ; 2  they  are  also  very  irregular  and 
form  two  closed  systems  or  loops — that  is,  they  surround  two  points, 

1  The  foci  are  all  of  different  intensities  ;  that  in  the  South  Atlantic,  dis- 
covered by  M.  Erman,  has  the  least  intensity  of  the  four,  and  the  other  in 
the  southern  hemisphere,  discovered  by  Sir  James  Ross,  has  the  greatest ; 
taking  1  as  the  unit  at  the  magnetic  equator  in  Peru,  their  intensities  are 
as  20-071  and  0-706.     la  the  northern  hemisphere  the  American  focus  is 
more  intense  than  that  in  Siberia,  which  is  moving  from  west  to  east,  while 
the  minor  focus  in  the  southern  hemisphere  is  moving  from  east  to  west. 

2  A  very  interesting  series  of  general  charts,  on  which  these  lines  of 
equal  variation  are  laid  down,  is  on  the  point  of  being  published  by  the 
Hydrographic  Office. — January,  1851.     « 

27 


314  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

one  in  northern  Siberia  and  another  in  the  Pacific,  nearly  in  the 
meridian  of  the  Pitcairn  Islands  and  the  Marquesas.1 

The  whole  magnetic  system  is  perpetually  undergoing  secular  and 
periodical  changes,  which  are  so  irregular  and  complicated  that  half 
a  century  is  sufficient  to  alter  the  form  and  position  of  all  the  lines 
that  have  been  mentioned.  The  foci  of  magnetic  intensity,  and  the 
whole  system  represented  by  the  magnetic  lines,  are  moving  along 
the  two  hemispheres  in  opposite  directions;  those  in  the  northern 
hemisphere  are  going  from  west  to  east,  and  those  in  the  southern 
from  east  to  west  j  and  as  the  foci  of  maximum  intensity  move  with 
different  velocities,  the  forms  as  well  as  the  places  of  the  curves  are 
slowly,  yet  continually,  changing.  The  weaker  magnetic  focus  in 
the  northern  hemisphere  moved  through  50  degrees  of  longitude  in 
250  years. 

The  declination  is  subject  to  periodic  variations,  depending  upon 
the  position  of  the  moon,  and  to  annual  variations  arising  from  the 
motion  of  the  sun  in  the  ecliptic,  as  well  as  to  horary  variations 
corresponding  to  changes  of  temperature  from  the  diurnal  rotation 
of  the  earth. 

Throughout  the  middle  latitudes  of  the  northern  hemisphere  the 
north  end  of  the  magnet  has  a  mean  motion  from  east  to  west  from 
eight  in  the  morning  till  half-past  one,  it  then  moves  to  the  east  till 
evening,  after  which  it  makes  another  excursion  to  the  west,  and 
returns  again  to  its  original  position  at  eight  in  the  morning.  The 
extent  of  its  variation  is  greater  in  the  day  than  in  the  night,  in 
summer  than  in  winter.  It  decreases  from  the  middle  latitudes  in 
Europe,  where  it  is  13  or  14  minutes,  to  the  equator,  where  it  is 
only  3  or  4 ;  but  at  the  equator  the  variations  are  performed  with 
extreme  regularity.  The  horary  motions  of  the  south  end  of  the 
magnet  in  the  southerh  hemisphere  are  accomplished  in  an  exactly 
opposite  direction.  Between  these  two  magnetic  hemispheres  there 
is  a  line  passing  through  an  infinity  of  places,  and  very  nearly  coin- 
ciding with  the  line  of  minimum  magnetic  intensity,  where  the 
horary  phenomena  of  both  hemispheres  are  combined,  each  predo- 
minating alternately  at  opposite  seasons.  At  St.  Helena,  which  is 
one  of  the  places  in  question  and  nearly  on  the  line  of  minimum 
intensity,  the  horary  motion  of  the  north  end  of  the  magnet  corre- 
sponds in  direction  during  one-half  of  the  year  with  the  movement 
in  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  in  the  other  half  of  the  year  thej 
direction  at  the  same  hours  corresponds  with  that  in  the  souther: 


'  The  author  is  indebted  to  the  admirable  and  profound  investigations  of 
Colonel  Sabine  for  almost  all  she  knows  on  the  subject  of  terrestrial  mag- 
netism. In  these,  and  in  his  notes  on  the  English  translation  of  Humboldt's 
'  Cosmos,'  the  reader  will  find  all  that  is  most  interesting  on  the  subject 
In  his  own  works  there  are  plates  of  the  course  of  the  different  magnetic 
lines  mentioned  in  the  text.  * 


CHAP.  XXII.  MAQKETIC    STORMS.  315 

hemisphere,  the  passage  from  the  one  to  the  other  being  at  the  equi- 
noxes, when  the  diurnal  variations  at  the  usual  hours  partake  more 
or  less  of  the  characteristics  of  both  on  different  days.1 

It  thus  appears  that  there  are  six  points  on  the  earth  peculiarly 
remarkable  for  magnetic  phenomena,  all  of  which  are  distinct  from 
one  another,  and  from  the  poles  of  the  earth's  rotation — namely,  two 
magnetic  poles  where  the  dipping  needle  makes  an  angle  of  90 
degrees  with  the  horizon.  The  magnetic  equator  corresponds  with 
these  in  every  point  of  which  the  angle  of  the  dip  is  zero :  it  en- 
circles the  earth,  and  intersects  the  terrestrial  equator,  but  does  not 
coincide  with  it.  The  other  four  points  are  the  foci  of  maximum 
magnetic  intensity,  and  to  them  the  dynamical  equator  or  line  of 
minimum  magnetic  intensity  corresponds,  also  surrounding  the  earth 
in  an  irregular  line,  but  which  coincides  with  neither  the  terrestrial 
nor  magnetic  equator.  Besides  these,  and  either  partly  or  nearly 
coinciding  with  the  line  of  minimum  intensity,  is  that  line  which  is 
supposed  to  pass  through  all  places  where  the  hoary  variations  of 
the  magnet  partake  of  the  phenomena  of  each  hemisphere  alter- 
nately. 

The  earth's  magnetism  is  subject  to  vast  unaccountable  commo- 
tions or  storms  of  immense  extent,  which  occur  at  irregular  intervals 
and  are  of  short  duration.  In  1818  a  magnetic  storm,  shown  by  a 
violent  agitation  of  the  needle,  took  place  at  the  same  time  over  47 
degrees  of  longitude,  extending  through  all  the  countries  from  Paris 
to  Kasan ;  and  on  the  25th  of  September,  1841,  one  of  these  storms 
was  simultaneously  observed  at  Toronto  in  North  America,  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Prague  in  Europe,  at  Macao  in  China,  and 
there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  extended  to  Van  Diemen's  Land. 
Similar  storms  have  happened  simultaneously  in  Sicily  and  at  Upsala 
in  Sweden ;  others  of  less  extent  and  shorter  periods  more  frequently 
occur,  and  are,  like  the  greater  storms,  not  to  be  attributed  to  any 
known  cause. 

M.  Necker  de  Saussure  has  traced  a  marked  coincidence  between 
the  prevailing  direction  of  the  stratified  masses  of  the  mountain 
chains  and  that  of  the  curves  of  equal  magnetic  intensity.  The 
coincidence  is  perfect  in  the  Ural  chain,  for  there  the  lines  of  force 
tend  north  and  south ;  and  they  do  not  deviate  much  from  the  stra- 
tification in  the  great  plains  of  European  Russia.  There  is  every 
reason  to  believe  that  a  coincidence  takes  place  in  the  Scandinavian 
mountains,  for  a  line  of  equal  magnetic  intensity  passes  parallel  to 

1  At  St.  Helena  the  north  end  of  the  needle  reaches  its  eastern  extreme 
in  May,  June,  July,  and  August,  and  nearly  at  the  same  hours  it  reaches 
its  -western  extreme  in  November,  December,  January,  and  February.  The 
passage  from  one  to  the  other  takes  place  at,  or  soon  after,  the  equinoxes 
in  March  and  April,  September  and  October.  —  Colonel  Sabine's  Notes  to 
'Cosmos,'  Vol.  ii. 


316  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

the  Norwegian  coast.  In  Scotland  a  line  almost  coincides  with  the 
Grampians;  and  as  it  becomes  less  northerly  before  reaching  Por- 
tugal and  Spain,  it  is  there  also  in  singular  coincidence  with  the 
sierras  on  the  table-land;  the  Pyrenees  however  form  an  exception 
to  the  law.  A  magnetic  line  follows  the  break  of  the  chain  of  the 
Alps  with  great  precision.  The  intersection  of  two  upheavals  makes 
these  mountains  alter  their  direction  from  S.W.  and  N.E.  to  E. 
nearly,  and  near  to  that  change  the  magnetic  line  takes  a  similar 
bend  and  coincides  with  the  Caucasus,  Taurus,  Hindoo-Coosh,  Hi- 
malaya, and  Chinese  mountains,  after  which  it  again  tends  to  the 
north,  and  follows  the  Yablonoi  chain  to  Behring's  Straits. 

In  Africa  the  lines  of  equal  magnetic  force  coincide  with  the 
Komri,  and  with  the  lofty  sea-coast  range  which  unites  the  moun- 
tains of  Abyssinia  with  those  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Through- 
out North  America  the  lines  of  equal  force  coincide  with  the  Alle- 
ghanies,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  they  take  the  direction  of 
the  Kocky  Mountains.  In  Mexico  the  stratified  rocks  are  parallel 
to  the  mountains  of  Anahuac,  which  is  the  same  with  the  direction 
of  the  magnetic  curves,  and  a  similar  coincidence  takes  place  in  the 
Parima  ranges,  and  in  the  coast-chain  of  Venezuela.  The  Andes 
and  the  lines  of  equal  magnetic  intensity  are  completely  discordant, 
for  they  cross  one  another ;  but  lines  of  equal  magnetic  force  stretch 
from  the  southern  promontories  of  America  and  Asia  to  the  moun- 
tains of  Victoria  Land. 

There  is  strong  presumptive  evidence  of  the  influence  of  the  elec- 
tric and  magnetic  currents  on  the  formation  and  direction  of  the 
mountain  masses  and  mineral  veins,  but  their  slow  persevering  action 
on  the  ultimate  atoms  of  matter  has  been  placed  beyond  doubt  by 
the  formation  of  rubies  and  other  gems,  as  well  as  various  other 
mineral  substances,  by  voltaic  electricity. 

The  existence  of  electric  currents  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  has 
been  deduced  from  terrestrial  magnetism,  and  from  the  connection 
between  the  diurnal  variations  of  the  magnet  and  the  apparent 
motion  of  the  sun;  also  from  the  electro-magnetic  properties  of 
metalliferous  veins,  and  from  atmospheric  electricity,  which  is  con- 
tinually passing  between  the  air  and  the  earth. 

[Professor  Faraday  has  shown  that  oxygen  is  magnetic,  being  at- 
tracted towards  the  pole  of  a  magnet;  and  that,  like  other  magnetic 
bodies,  it  loses  and  gains  in  power  as  its  temperature  is  raised  and 
lowered,  and  that  these  changes  occur  with  the  range  of  natural  tem- 
perature. These  properties  it  carries  into  the  atmosphere. 

Oxygen  loses  its  sensible  magnetism  in  almost  all  gases  when  it 
unites  with  them  in  chemical  combination. 

A  magnetic  gas,  mechanically  mixed  with  any  other  gas,  preserves 
its  magnetism  whatever  be  the  density  of  the  mixture ;  but  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  poles,  there  appears  to  be,  to  a  certain  extent, 


CHAP.  XXII.      MAGNETIC   PROPERTIES   OF   MATTER.  317 

a  separation  of  the  gases,  which  must  slightly  augment  the  attraction 
of  the  entire  mass. 

Lieutenant  Maury  has  endeavoured  to  show  a  probable  connection 
between  the  magnetism  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  and  the  circulation 
of  the  atmosphere,  between  the  equatorial  and  polar  regions  of  the 
earth.1] 

Dr.  Faraday's  brilliant  discoveries  have  changed  the  received 
opinions  with  regard  to  the  magnetic  properties  of  matter.  Although 
all  bodies  are  magnetic,  they  show  that  it  assumes  a  totally  different 
form  in  different  substances.  For  example,  if  a  bar  of  iron  be  freely 
suspended  between  the  poles  of  an  electro-magnet,  or  very  powerful 
horse-shoe  magnet,  it  will  be  attracted  by  both  poles,  and  will  rest 
in  the  direction  between  them — that  is,  on  the  line  of  force.  But 
if  a  bar  of  bismuth  be  suspended  in  the  same  manner,  it  will  be  re- 
pelled by  both  poles,  and  will  assume  a  direction  at  right  angles  to 
that  which  the  iron  took,  and  thus  the  same  force,  whether  electric 
or  magnetic,  produces  opposite  effects  upon  these  two  metals.  Sub- 
stances affected  after  the  manner  of  iron  are  magnetic — those  affected 
after  the  manner  of  bismuth  are  said  to  be  diamagnetic.  All  .sub- 
stances come  under  one  or  other  of  these  two  classes :  the  diamag- 
netic are  infinitely  more  abundant  than  the  magnetic;  almost  all 
bodies  on  earth  belong  to  that  class.  Many  of  the  metals,  acids, 
oils,  sugar,  starch,  animal  matter,  flame,  and  all  the  gases,  whether 
light  or  heavy,  have  the  diamagnetic  property  less  or  more,  but 
oxygen  less  than  any  other,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  atmospheric 
air  is  the  most  feebly  diamagnetic  of  all  substances  at  its  natural 
temperature;  for  when  very  hot  it  becomes  more  diamagnetic,  and 
if  extremely  cold  it  takes  a  place  among  the  magnetic  class.  Im- 
portant results  with  regard  to  the  magnetic  state  of  the  globe  will 
undoubtedly  be  deduced  from  this  new  property  of  matter,  and  Dr. 
Faraday's  observations  on  that  subject  show  that  he  is  not  without 
such  anticipations.2 

["Five  years  ago,"  says  Dr.  John  Tyndall,  in  a  paper  presented 
to  the  British  Association  in  1851,  "  Faraday  established  the  exist- 
ence of  a  force  called  diamagnetism,  and  from  that  time  to  the  pre- 
sent, some  of  the  first  minds  in  Germany,  France  and  England,  have 
been  devoted  to  the  investigation  of  this  subject.  One  of  the  most 
important  aspects  of  the  inquiry  is  the  relation  which  subsists  be- 
tween magnetism  and  diamagnetism.  Are  the  laws  which  govern 
both  forces  identical  ?  Will  the  mathematical  expression  of  the  at-, 

['  The  laws  of  magnetism  are  lucidly  explained  by  Dr.  Jjardoer  in  his 
Hand-Books  of  Natural  Philosophy.] 

*  These  anticipations  appear  to  be  fully  verified  by  Dr.  Faraday's  im- 
portant discoveries,  "which  have  been  just  announced',  on  the  effects,  of  solar 
heat  upon  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  a.s  ^h,e  graftd  m,ovi»g  ca.usfi  ia  mag^ 
netic  phenomena. — December,  1850. 
27* 


318  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXII. 

traction  in  one  case  be  converted  into  the  expression  of  the  repul- 
sion in  the  other  by  a  change  of  sign  from  positive  to  negative  ? 

The  following  are  the  principal  results  of  Dr.  Tyndall's  investi- 
gation. 

1.  The  repulsion  of  a  diamagnetic  substance  placed  at  a  fixed  dis- 
tance from  the  pole  of  a  magnet  is  governed  by  the  same  law  as  the 
attraction  of  a  magnetic  substance. 

2.  The  entire  mass  of  a  magnetic  substance  is  most  strongly  at- 
tracted when  the  attracting  force  acts  parallel  to  that  line  which  sets 
axial  when  the  substance  is  suspended  in  the  magnetic  field ;  and 
the  entire  mass  of  a  diamagnetic  substance  is  most  strongly  repelled 
when  the  repulsion  acts  parallel  to  the  line  which  sets  equatorial  in 
the  magnetic  field. 

3.  The  superior  attraction  and  repulsion  of  the  mass  in  a  par- 
ticular direction  is  due  to  the  fact,  that  in  this  direction  the  material 
particles  are  ranged  more  closely  together  than  in  any  other  direc- 
tions ;  the  force  exerted  being  attractive  or  repulsive,  according  as 
the  particles  are  magnetic  or  diamagnetic.     This  is  a  law  applicable 
to  matter  in  general,  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  crystals  in  the 
magnetic  field  being  particular  manifestations  of  the  same.] 

"When  we  consider  the  magnetic  condition  of  the  earth  as  a 
whole,  without  reference  to  its  possible  relation  to  the  sun,  and  re- 
flect upon  the  enormous  amount  of  diamagnetic  matter  which  forms 
its  crust;  and  when  we  remember  that  magnetic  curves  of  a  certain 
amount  of  force,  universal  in  their  presence,  are  passing  through 
these  matters,  and  keeping  them  constantly  in  a  state  of  tension, 
and  therefore  of  action,  we  cannot  doubt  that  some  great  purpose,  of 
utility  to  the  system  and  to  us  its  inhabitants,  is  fulfilled  by  it.  If 
the  sun  have  anything  to  do  with  the  magnetism  of  the  globe,  then 
it  is  possible  that  part  of  this  effect  may  be  due  to  the  action  of  the 
light  that  comes  to  us  from  that  body ;  and  in  that  view  the  air 
seems  most  strikingly  placed  round  our  sphere,  investing  it  with  a 
transparent  diamagnetic,  which  therefore  is  permeable  to  his  rays, 
and  at  the  same  time  moving  with  great  velocity  across  them.  Such 
conditions  seem  to  suggest  the  possibility  of  magnetism  being  thence 
generated." 


CHAP.  XXIII.  VEGETATION.  319 


CHAPTEE  XXIII. 

Vegetation  —  Nourishment  and  Growth  of  Plants  —  Effects  of  the  different 
Rays  of  the  Solar  Spectrum  —  Classes  —  Botanical  Districts. 

IN  the  present  state  of  the  globe  a  third  part  only  of  its  surface 
is  occupied  by  land,  and  probably  not  more  than  a  fourth  part  of 
that  is  inhabited  by  man,  but  animals  and  vegetables  have  a  wider 
range.  The  greater  part  of  the  land  is  clothed  with  vegetation  and 
inhabited  by  quadrupeds,  the  air  is  peopled  with  birds  and  insects, 
and  the  sea  teems  with  living  creatures  and  plants.  These  organ- 
ised beings  are  not  scattered  promiscuously,  but  all  classes  of  them 
have  been  originally  placed  in  regions  suited  to  their  respective 
wants.  Many  animals  and  plants  are  indigenous  only  in  determi- 
nate spots,  while  a  thousand  others  might  have  supported  them  as 
well,  and  to  many  of  which  they  have  been  transported  by  man. 

Plants  extract  inorganic  substances  from  the  ground  which  are 
indispensable  to  bring  them  to  maturity,  but  the  atmosphere  sup- 
plies the  vegetable  creation  with  the  principal  part  of  its  food. 

The  black  or  brown  mould  which  is  so  abundant  is  the  produce 
of  decayed  vegetables.  When  the  autumnal  leaves,  the  spoil  of  the 
summer,  fall  to  the  ground,  and  their  vitality  is  gone,  they  enter 
into  decomposition,  and  combining  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmo- 
sphere convert  it  into  an  equal  volume  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  which 
consequently  exists  abundantly  in  every  good  soil,  and  is  the  most 
important  part  of  the  nourishment  of  vegetables.  This  process  is 
slow,  and  stops  as  soon  as  the  air  in  the  soil  is  exhausted ;  but  the 
plough,  by  loosening  the  earth,  and  permitting  the  atmosphere  to 
enter  more  freely  and  penetrate  deeper  into  the  ground,  accelerates 
the  decomposition  of  the  vegetable  matter,  and  consequently  the 
formation  of  carbonic  acid. 

In  loosening  and  refining  the  mould,  the  common  earth-worm  is 
the  fellow-labourer  with  man ;  it  eats  earth,  and,  after  extracting 
the  nutritious  part,  ejects  the  refuse,  which  is  the  finest  soil,  and 
may  be  seen  lying  in  heaps  at  the  mouth  of  its  burrow.  So  instru 
mental  is  this  creature  in  preparing  the  ground,  that  it  is  said  there 
is  not  a  particle  of  the  finer  vegetable  mould  that  has  not  passed 
through  the  intestines  of  a  worm  :  thus  the  most  feeble  of  living 
things  is  employed  by  Providence  to  accomplish  the  most  important 
ends. 

The  food  of  the  vegetable  creation  consists  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
azote,  [nitrogen,]  and  oxygen  —  all  of  which  plants  obtain  entirely 


320  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIII 

from  the  atmosphere  in  the  form  of  carbonic  acid  gas,  water,  and 
ammonia. 

They  imbibe  these  three  substances,  and,  after  having  decomposed 
them,  they  give  the  oxygen  to  the  air,  and  consolidate  the  carbon, 
water,  and  azote  into  wood,  leaves,  flowers,  and  fruit. 

The  vitality  of  plants  is  a-  chemical  process  entirely  due  to  the 
sun's  light;  it  is  most  active  in  clear  sunshine,  feeble  in  the  shade, 
and  nearly  suspended  in  the  night,  when  plants,  like  animals,  have 
their  rest. 

The  atmosphere  contains  about  one-three-thousandth  part  of  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  yet  that  small  quantity  yields  enough  of  carbon  to 
form  the  solid  mass  of  all  the  magnificent  forests  and  herbs  that 
clothe  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  the  supply  of  that  necessary  ingre- 
dient in  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere  is  maintained  by  the 
breathing  of  animals,  by  volcanoes,  by  decomposition  of  animal  and 
vegetable  matter,  and  by  combustion.  The  green  parts  of  plants 
constantly  imbibe  carbonic  acid  in  the  day ;  they  decompose  it,  as- 
similate the  carbon,  and  return  the  oxygen  pure  to  the  atmosphere. 
As  the  chemical  action  is  feeble  in  the  shade  and  in  gloomy  weather, 
only  a  part  of  the  carbonic  acid  is  decomposed,  then  both  oxygen 
and  carbonic  acid  are  given  out  by  the  leaves ;  but  during  the  dark- 
ness of  the  night  a  chemical  action  of  a  different  character  takes 
place,  and  almost  all  the  carbonic  acid  is  returned  unchanged  to  the 
atmosphere,  together  with  the  moisture  which  is  evaporated  from 
the  leaves  both  night  and  day.  Thus  plants  give  out  pure  oxygen 
during  the  day,  and  carbonic  acid  and  water  during  the  night. 

Since  the  vivifying  action  of  the  sun  brings  about  all  these 
changes,  a  superabundance  of  oxygen  is  exhaled  by  the  tropical 
vegetation  in  a  clear  unclouded  sky,  where  the  sun's  rays  are  most 
energetic,  and  atmospheric  moisture  most  abundant.  In  the  middle 
and  higher  latitudes,  on  the  contrary,  under  a  more  feeble  sun  and 
a  gloomy  sky,  subject  to  rain,  snow,  and  frequent  atmospheric 
changes,  carbonic  acid  is  given  out  in  greater  quantity  by  the  less 
vigorous  vegetation.  But  here,  as  with  regard  to  heat  and  moisture, 
equilibrium  is  restored  by  the  winds ;  the  tropical  currents  carry  the 
excess  of  oxygen  along  the  upper  strata  of  the  atmosphere  to  higher 
latitudes,  to  give  breath  and  heat  to  men  and  animals ;  while  the 
polar  currents,  rushing  along  the  ground,  convey  the  surplus  car- 
bonic acid  to  feed  the  tropical  forests  and  jungles.  Harmony  exists 
between  the  animal  and  vegetable  creations;  animals  consume  the 
oxygen  of  the  atmosphere,  which  is  restored  by  the  exhalation  of 
plants,  while  plants  consume  the  carbonic  acid  exhaled  by  men  and 
animals ;  the  existence  of  each  is  thus  due  to  their  reciprocal  de- 
pendence. Few  of  the  great  cosmical  phenomena  have  only  one 
end  to  fulfil,  they  are  the  ministers  of  the  manifold  designs  of 
Providence. 


CHAP.  XXHI.      NOURISHMENT   OP   PLANTS.  321 

When  a  eeed  is  thrown  into  the  ground,  the  vital  principle  is  de- 
veloped by  heat  and  moisture,  and  part  of  the  substance  of  the  seed 
is  formed  into  roots,  which  suck  up  water  mixed  with  carbonic  acid 
from  the  soil,  decompose  it,  and  consolidate  the  carbon.  In  this 
stage  of  their  growth,  plants  derive  their  whole  sustenance  from  the 
ground.  As  soon,  however,  as  the  sugar  and  mucilage  of  the  s.ecd 
appear  above  the  ground,  in  the  form  of  leaves  or  shoots,  they  ab- 
sorb and  decompose  the  carbonic  acid  of  the  atmosphere,  retain  the 
carbon  for  their  food,  give  out  the  oxygen  in  the  day,  and  pure  car- 
bonic acid  in  the  night.  In  proportion  as  plants  grow,  they  derive 
more  of  their  food  from  the  air  and  less  from  the  soil,  till  their  fruit 
is  ripened,  and  then  the  whole  of  their  nourishment  is  derived  from 
the  atmosphere.  Trees  are  fed  from  the  air  after  their  fruit  is  ripe, 
till  their  leaves  fall,  annuals  till  they  die.  Air-plants  and  several 
species  of  cactus  and  others  derive  all  their  food  from  the  atmo- 
sphere. It  is  wonderful  that  so  small  a  quantity  of  carbonic  acid 
as  exists  in  the  air  should  suffice  to  supply  the  whole  vegetation  of 
the  world  —  and  still  more  wonderful  that  a  seed  minute  enough  to 
be  wafted  invisibly  by  a  breath  of  air  should  be  the  theatre  of  all 
the  chemical  changes  that  make  it  germinate.1 

Plants  absorb  water  from  the  ground  by  their  roots ;  they  decom- 
pose it,  and  the  hydrogen  combines  in  diiferent  proportions  with  their 
carbonic  acid  to  form  wood,  sugar,  starch,  gum,  vegetable  oils  and 
acids.  As  the  green  parts  combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  air, 
especially  during  night,  when  the  function  of  plants  are  torpid,  it  is 
assimilated  on  the  return  of  daylight,  and  assists  in  forming  oils, 
resins,  and  acids.  The  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  air  with 
the  leaves,  and  also  with  the  blossom  and  fruit,  during  night,  appears 
to  be  unconnected  with  the  vital  process,  as  it  is  the  same  in  dead 
plants.  An  acid  exists  in  the  juice  of  every  plant,  generally  in 
combination  with  an  alkali.  It  must  be  observed,  however,  that 
these  different  substances  are  produced  at  different  stages  in  the 
growth ;  for  example,  starch  is  formed  in  the  roots,  wood,  stalk,  and 
seed,  but  it  is  converted  into  sugar  as  the  fruit  ripens,  and  the  more 
starch  the  sweeter  the  fruit  becomes.  Most  of  these  new  compounds 
are  formed  between  the  flowering  of  the  plant  and  the  ripening  of 
the  fruit,  and  indeed  they  furnish  the  materials  for  the  flowers,  fruit, 
and  seed. 

Ammonia,  the  third  organic  constituent  of  plants,  is  the  last  resi- 
due from  the  decay  and  putrefaction  of  animal  matter.  It  is  vola- 
tilized, and  rises  into  the  atmosphere,  where  it  exists  as  a  gas,  but 
in  so  small  a  quantity  that  it  is  with  difficulty  detected  by  chemical 
analysis;  yet,  as  it  is  very  soluble  iu  water,  enough  is  brought  to 

1  The  sporules  or  seeds  of  the  fungi  are  so  minute  that  M.  Freis  counted 
above  ten  millions  in  a  single  plant  of  the  reticularia  maxima :  they  wenj 
so  subtile  that  they  were  like  smoke. 


322  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXIII. 

the  ground  by  rain  to  supply  the  vegetable  world.  Ammonia  enters 
plants  by  their  roots  along  with  rain-water,  and  is  resolved  within 
them  into  its  constituent  elements,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen.  The 
hydrogen  aids  in  forming  the  wood,  acids,  and  other  substances  before 
mentioned ;  while  the  nitrogen  enters  into  every  part  of  the  plant 
and  forms  new  compounds ;  it  exists  in  the  blossom  and  fruit  before 
it  is  ripe,  and  in  the  wood,  as  albumen ;  it  also  forms  gluten,  which 
is  the  nutritious  part  of  wheat,  barley,  oats,  and  all  other  cerealia, 
as  well  as  of  esculent  roots,  as  potatoes,  beet-root,  &c.  Nitrogen 
exists  abundantly  in  peas,  beans,  and  pulse  of  every  kind ; l  it  enters 
into  the  composition  of  most  elementary  vegetable  substances ;  in 
short,  a  plant  may  grow  without  ammonia,  but  it  cannot  produce 
seed  or  fruit ;  the  use  of  animal  manure  is  to  supply  plants  with 
this  essential  article  of  their  food.  Thus  the  decomposition  and 
consolidation  of  the  elementary  food  of  plants,  the  formation  of  the 
green  parts,  the  exhalation  of  moisture  by  their  leaves,  its  absorp- 
tion by  their  roots,  and  all  the  other  circumstances  of  vegetable  life, 
are  owing  to  the  illuminating  power  of  the  sun.  Heat  can  be  sup- 
plied artificially  in  our  northern  climates,  but  it  is  impossible  to 
replace  the  splendour  of  a  southern  sun.  His  illuminating  influence 
is  displayed  in  a  remarkable  degree  by  the  cacalia  ficoides ;  its  leaves 
combine  with  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  during  the  night,  and 
are  as  sour  as  sorrel  in  the  morning :  as  the  sun  rises  they  gradually 
lose  their  oxygen,  and  are  tasteless  at  noon ;  by  the  continued  action 
of  light  they  lose  more  and  more,  till  towards  evening  they  become 
bitter.  The  difference  of  a  clear  or  cloudy  sky  has  an  immense 
effect  on  vegetation ;  the  ripening  of  fruit  depends  upon  the  habitual 
serenity  of  the  sky  more  than  on  summer  temperature  alone. 

The  blue  rays  of  the  solar  spectrum  have  most  effect  on  the  ger- 
mination of  seed ;  the  yellow  rays,  which  are  the  most  luminous, 
on  the  growing  plant.  That  is  on  account  of  the  chemical  rays, 
now  so  well  known  by  their  action  in  Daguerreotype  impressions. 
They  are  most  abundant  beyond  the  visible  part  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum, and  diminish  through  the  violet,  blue,  and  green,  to  the  yel- 
low, where  they  cease.  They  penetrate  the  ground,  and  have  a 
much  greater  influence  on  the  germination  of  seeds  than  ordinary 
light  or  darkness.  That  invisible  principle,  together  with  light,  is 
essential  to  the  formation  of  the  colouring  matter  of  leaves ;  it  is 
most  active  in  spring,  and  is  in  very  considerable  excess  compared 
with  the  quantity  of  light  and  heat;  but  as  summer  advances,  the 
reverse  takes  place;  the  calorific  radiation,  or  those  hot  rays  corre- 
sponding to  the  extreme  red  of  the  spectrum,  which  facilitate  the 

1  It  is  very  doubtful,  from  some  late  researches  noticed  elsewhere,  that 
the  air  contains  any  appreciable  quantity  of  ammoniacal  gas,  or  that  it 
contributes  in  a  material  degree  to  vegetation.  See  M.  de  Ville's  researches 
in  '  Comptes  Rendus.' 


CHAP.  XXIII.        NOURISHMENT    OF    PLANTS. 

flowering  and  forming  of  the  fruit,  become  by  far  the  most  abun- 
dant ;  and  a  set  of  invisible  rays,  which  exist  near  the  point  of  max- 
imum heat  in  the  solar  spectrum,  are  also  most  abundant  in  summer. 
Mr.  Hunt  found  that  the  hot  rays  immediately  beyond  the  visible 
red  destroy  the  colour  of  certain  leaves;  and  for  that  reason  the 
glass  of  the  great  palm-house  at  Kew  Gardens  is  tinged  pale  yellow- 
green,  to  exclude  the  scorching  rays  in  question,  though  it  is  per- 
meable by  the  other  rays  of  heat,  those  of  light,  and  the  chemical 
rays.1 

In  spring  and  summer  the  oxygen  taken  in  by  the  green  leaves  in 
the  night  aids  in  the  formation  of  oils,  acids,  and  the  other  parts 
that  contain  it ;  but  as  soon  as  autumn  comes,  the  vitality  or  che- 
mical action  of  vegetables  is  weakened ;  and  the  oxygen,  no  longer 
given  out  in  the  day,  though  still  taken  in  during  the  night,  becomes 
a  minister  of  destruction ;  it  changes  the  colour  of  the  leaves,  and 
consumes  them  when  they  fall.  Nitrogen,  so  essential  during  the 
life  of  plants,  also  resumes  its  chemical  character  when  they  die,  and 
by  its  escape  hastens  their  decay. 

Although  the  food  which  constitutes  the  mass  of  plants  is  derived 
principally  from  the  water  and  the  gases  of  the  atmosphere,  fixed 
substances  are  also  requisite  for  their  growth  and  perfection,  and 
these  they  obtain  from  the  earth  by  their  roots.  The  inorganic  mat- 
ters are  the  alkalis,  phosphates,  silica,  sulphur,  iron,  and  others. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  vegetable  acids  are  found  in 
the  juices  of  all  the  families  of  plants.  They  generally  are  in  com- 
bination with  one  or  other  of  the  alkaline  substances,  as  potash,  lime, 
soda,  and  magnesia,  which  are  as  essential  to  the  existence  of  plants 
as  the  carbonic  acid  by  which  these  acids  are  formed  :  for  example, 
vines  have  potash ;  plants  used  as  dyes  never  give  vivid  colours  with- 
out it ;  all  leguminous  plants  require  it;  and  only  grow  naturally  on 
ground  that  contains  it.  None  of  the  corn  tribe  can  produce  perfect 
seeds  unless  they  have  both  potash  and  phosphate  of  magnesia  ;  nor 
can  they  or  any  of  the  grasses  thrive  without  silica,  which  gives  the 

1  The  solar  spectrum,  or  coloured  image  of  the  sun,  formed  by  passing 
a  sunbeam  through  a  prism,  is  composed  of  a  variety  of  invisible  as  well 
as  visible  rays.  The  chemical  rays  are  most  abundant  beyond  the  violet 
end  of  the  spectrum,  and  decrease  through  the  violet,  blue,  and  green,  to 
the  yellow,  where  they  cease.  The  rays  of  heat  are  in  excess  a  little  be- 
yond the  red  end,  and  gradually  decrease  towards  the  violet  end.  Besides 
these  there  ate  two  insulated  spots  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  red, 
where  the  heat  is  a  maximum.  Were  the  rays  of  heat  visible,  they  would 
exhibit  differences  as  distinct  as  the  coloured  rays,  so  varied  are  thek. pro- 
perties according  to  their  position  in  the  spectrum.  There  are  also  pecu- 
liar rays  which  produce  phosphorescence,  others  whose  properties  are  not 
quite  made  out,  and  probably  many  undiscovered  influences ;  for  time  has 
not  yet  fully  revealed  the  sublimity  of  that  creation,  when  God  said,  "  Let 
there  be  light  —  and  there  was  light." 


324  PHYSICAL    GEOGKAPHY.          CHAP.  XXIII. 

hard  coating  to  straw,  to  the  beard  of  wheat  and  barley,  to  grass, 
canes,  and  bamboos ;  it  is  even  found  in  solid  lumps  in  the  hollows 
and  joints  of  cane,  known  in  India  by  the  name  of  tabashir.  To 
bring  the  cerealia  to  perfection,  it  is  indispensable  that  in  their  growth 
they  should  be  supplied  with  carbonic  acid  for  the  plant,  silica  to 
give  it  strength  and  firmness,  and  nitrogen  for  the  grain. 

Phosphoric  acid,  combined  with  an  earth  or  alkali,  is  found  in  the 
ashes  of  all  vegetables,  and  is  essential  to  many.  Pulse  contain  but 
little  of  it,  and  on  that  account  are  less  nutritious  than  the  cerealia. 
The  family  of  the  cruciferae,  as  cabbages,  turnips,  mustard,  &c.,  con- 
tain sulphur  in  addition  to  the  substances  common  to  the  growth  of 
all  plants;  each  particular  tribe  has  its  own  peculiarities,  and  re- 
quires a  combination  suited  to  it.  On  that  account  there  is  often  a 
marked  difference  in  the  arborescent  vegetation  on  the  same  moun- 
tain, depending  on  the  nature  of  the  rocks. 

The  ocean  furnishes  some  of  the  matters  found  in^  plants;  the 
prodigious  quantity  of  sea-water  constantly  evaporated  carries  with 
it  salt  in  a  volatilized  state,  which,  dispersed  over  the  land  by  the 
wind,  supplies  the  ground  with  salt  and  the  other  ingredients  of  sea- 
water.  The  inorganic  matters  which  enter  plants  by  their  roots  are 
carried  by  the  sap  to  every  part  of  the  vegetable  system.  The  roots 
imbibe  all  liquids  presented  to  them  indiscriminately,  but  they  retain 
only  the  substances  they  require  at  the  various  stages  of  their  growth, 
and  throw  out  such  parts  as  are  useless,  together  with  the  effete  or 
dead  matter  remaining  after  the  nutriment  has  been  extracted  from 
it.  Plants,  like  animals,  may  be  poisoned,  but  the  power  they  have 
of  expelling  deleterious  substances  by  their  roots  generally  restores 
them  to  health.  The  feculent  matter  injures  the  soil ;  besides,  after 
a  time  the  ground  is  drained  of  the  inorganic  matter  requisite  for 
any  one  kind  of  plant :  hence  the  necessity  for  a  change  or  rotation 
of  crops. 

A  quantity  of  heat  is  set  free  and  also  becomes  latent  in  the  various 
transmutations  that  take  place  in  the  interior  of  plants ;  so  that  they, 
like  the  animal  creation,  have  a  tendency  to  a  temperature  of  their 
own,  independent  of  external  circumstances. 

The  quantity  of  electricity  requisite  to  resolve  a  grain  weight  of 
water  into  its  elementary  oxygen  and  hydrogen  is  equal  to  the  quan- 
tity of  atmospheric  electricity  which  is  active  in  a  very  powerful 
thunder-storm  ;  hence  some  idea  maybe  formed  of  the  intense  energy 
exerted  by  the  vegetable  creation  in  the  decomposition  of  the  vast 
mass  of  water  and  other  matters  necessary  for  its  sustenance.  But 
there  must  be  a  compensation  in  the  consolidation  of  the  vegetable 
food,  otherwise  a  tremendous  quantity  would  be  in  perpetual  activity. 
It  is  said  to  be  given  out  from  the  points  of  their  leaves,  so  possibly 
some  part  of  the  atmospheric  electricity  may  be  ascribed  to  this 
cause ;  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  electricity,  excited  by 


CHAP.  XXIII.  SLEEP    OP    PLANTS. 

the  power  of  solar  light,  constitutes  the  chemical  vitality  of  vege- 
tation. 

The  colouring  matter  of  flowers  is  various,  if  we  may  judge  from 
the  effect  which  the  solar  spectrum  has  upon  their  expressed  juices. 
The  colour  is  very  brilliant  on  the  tops  of  mountains  and  in  the 
Arctic  lands.  Possibly  the  diminished  weight  of  the  air  may  have 
some  effect,  for  it  can  scarcely  be  supposed  that  barometrical  changes 
should  be  entirely  without  influence  on  vegetation. 

The  perfume  of  flowers  and  leaves  is  owing  to  a  volatile  oil,  which 
is  often  carried  by  the  air  to  a  great  distance :  in  hot  climates  it  is 
most  powerful  in  the  morning  and  evening.  The  odour  of  the  Hu- 
miria  has  been  perceived  three  miles  from  the  coast  of  South  Ame- 
rica ;  a  species  of  Tetracera  sends  its  perfume  as  far  from  the  island 
of  Cuba ;  and  the  aroma  of  the  Spice  Islands  is  wafted  to  a  conside- 
rable distance  out  to  sea.  The  variety  of  perfumes  is  infinite,  and 
shows  the  innumerable  combinations  of  which  a  few  simple  substan- 
ces are  capable,  and  the  extreme  minuteness  of  the  particles  of 
matter. 

In  northern  and  mean  latitudes  winter  is  a  time  of  complete  rest 
to  the  vegetable  world,  and  in  tropical  climates  the  vigour  of  vege- 
tation is  suspended  during  the  dry,  hot  season,  to  be  resumed  at  the 
return  of  the  periodical  rains.  The  periodical  phenomena  of  the 
appearance  of  the  first  leaves,  the  flowering,  ripening  of  the  fruit, 
and  the  fall  of  the  leaf,  depend  upon  the  annual  and  diurnal  changes 
of  temperature,  moisture,  electricity,  and  perhaps  on  magnetism, 
and  succeed  with  such  perfect  harmony  and  regularity,  that,  were 
there  a  sufficient  number  of  observations,  lines  might  be  drawn  on 
a  globe  passing  through  all  places  where  the  leaves  of  certain  plants 
appear  simultaneously,  and  also  for  the  other  principal  phases  of 
vegetation.  In  places  where  the  same  plant  flowers  on  the  same 
day,  the  fruit  may  not  ripen  at  the  same  period  in  both ;  it  would 
therefore  be  interesting  to  know  what  relation  lines  passing  through 
those  would  have  to  one  another  and  to  the  isothermal  lines ;  more 
especially  with  regard  to  the  plants  indispensable  to  man,  since  the 
periodicity  of  vegetation  affects  his  whole  social  condition.1 

Almost  all  plants  sleep  during  the  night;  some  show  it  in  their 
leaves,  others  in  their  blossom.  The  Mimosa  tribe  not  only  close 
their  leaves  at  night,  but  their  foot-stalks  droop ;  in  a  clover-field 
not  a  leaf  opens  until  after  sunrise.  The  common  daisy  is  a  fami- 
liar instance  of  a  sleeping  flower;  it  shuts  up  its  blossom  in  the 

1  Professor  Quetelet  is  desirous  that  the  periodical  phenomena  of  vege- 
tation should  be  observed  at  a  number  of  places,  in  order  to  establish  a 
comparison  between  the  periods  at  •which  they  take  place ;  and  for  that 
purpose  he  gives  a  list  of  the  commonest  plants,  as  lilac,  laburnum,  elder, 
birch,  oak,  horse-chestnut,  peach,  pear,  crocus,  daisy,  &c.,  which  he  him- 
self observes  annually  at  Brussels. 

28 


326  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXITI. 

evening,  and  opens  its  white  and  crimson-tipped  star,  the  "day's 
eye,"  to  meet  the  early  beams  of  the  morning  sun ;  and  then  also 
"  winking  mary-buds  begin  to  ope  their  golden  eyes." 

The  crocus,  tulip,  convolvulus,  and  many  others,  close  their  blos- 
soms at  different  hours  towards  evening,  some  to  open  them  again, 
others  never.  The  ivy-leaved  lettuce  opens  at  eight  in  the  morning, 
and  closes  for  ever  at  four  in  the  afternoon.  Some  plants  seem  to 
be  wide  awako  all  night,  and  to  give  out  their  perfume  only,  or  at 
nightfall.  Many  of  the  jessamines  are  most  fragrant  during  the 
twilight :  the  Olea  fragrans,  the  Daphne  odorata,  and  the  night- 
stock  reserve  their  sweetness  for  the  midnight  hour,  and  the  night- 
flowering  Cereus  turns  night  into  day.  It  begins  to  expand  its  mag- 
nificent sweet-scented  blossom  in  the  twilight,  it  is  full  blown  at 
midnight,  and  closes,  never  to  open  again,  with  the  dawn  of  day; 
—  these  are  "the  bats  and  owls  of  the  vegetable  kingdom." ' 

Many  plants  brought  from  warm  to  temperate  climates  have  be- 
come habituated  to  their  new  situation,  and  flourish  as  if  they  were 
natives  of  the  soil ;  such  as  have  been  accustomed  to  flower  and  rest 
at  particular  seasons  change  their  habits  by  degrees,  and  adapt  them- 
selves to  the  seasons  of  the  country  that  has  adopted  them.  It  is 
much  more  difficult  to  transfer  alpine  plants  to  the  plains.  Whether 
from  a  change  of  atmospheric  pressure  or  mean  temperature,  all 
attempts  to  cultivate  them  at  a  lower  level  generally  fail :  it  is  much 
easier  to  accustom  a  plant  of  the  plains  to  a  higher  situation. 

Plants  are  propagated  by  seeds,  offsets,  cuttings,  and  buds;  hence 
they,  but  more  especially  trees,  have  myriads  of  seats  of  life,  a  con- 
geries of  vital  systems  acting  in  concert,  but  independently  of  each 
other,  every  one  of  which  might  become  a  new  plant.  In  this  re- 
spect the  fir  and  pine  tribe  are  inferior  to  deciduous  trees,  which  lose 
their  leaves  annually,  because  they  are  not  easily  propagated  except 
by  seeds.  It  has  been  remarked  that  all  plants  that  are  propagated 
by  buds  from  a  common  parent  stock  have  the  same  duration  of  life  : 
this  has  been  noticed  particularly  with  regard  to  some  species  of 
apple-trees  in  England.  It  appears  that  all  the  garden  varieties  of 
fruit,  whether  from  buds,  layers,  or  cuttings,  wear  out  after  a  time ; 
and  that  seedlings  have  a  great  tendency  to  revert  to  the  original 
wild  character  of  the  plant. 

A  certain  series  of  transitions  takes  place  throughout  the  lives  of 
plants,  each  part  being  transformed  and  passing  into  another ;  a  law 

1  Dandelion  opens  at  five  or  six  in  the  morning,  and  shuts  at  nine  in  the 
evening ;  the  goafs-beard  wakes  at  three  in  the  morning,  and  shuts  at  five 
or  six  in  the  afternoon.  The  orange-coloured  Escholtzia  is  so  sensitive  that 
it  closes  during  the  passage  of  a  cloud.  "  The  marigold  that  goes  to  bed 
vri'  the  sun,  and  •with  him  rises  weeping,"  with  many  more,  are  instances 
of  the  sleep  of  plants :  the  gentianella,  veronica,  and  other  plants  close 
their  blossoms  on  the  approach  of  rain. 


CHAP.  XXIII.  BOTANICAL    CLASSES.  327 

that  was  first  observed  by  the  illustrious  poet  Grb'the.  For  example, 
the  embryo  leaves  pass  into  common  leaves,  these  into  bractese,  the 
bractese  into  sepals,  the  sepals  into  petals,  which  are  transformed 
into  stamens  and  anthers,  and  these  again  pass  into  ovaries  with  their 
styles  and  stigmas,  that  are  to  become  the  fruit  and  ultimately  the 
seed  of  a  new  plant. 

Plants  are  naturally  divided  into  three  classes,  differing  materially 
in  organization: — The  Cryptogamia,  whose  flowers  and  seeds  aro 
either  too  minute  to  be  easily  visible,  or  are  hidden  in  some  part  of 
the  plant,  as  in  fungi,  mosses,  ferns,  and  lichens,  which  are  of  the 
least  perfect  organization.  Next  to  these  are  the  monocotyledonous 
plants,  as  grasses  arid  palms,  in  which  the  foot-stalks  of  the  old 
leaves  form  the  outside  of  the  stem ;  plants  of  this  class  have  but 
one  seed  lobe,  which  forms  one  little  leaf  in  their  embryo  state. 
Their  flowers  and  fruit  are  generally  referable  to  some  law  in  which 
the  number  3  prevails,  as,  for  example,  the  petals  and  other  parts 
are  three  in  number.  The  dicotyledonous  plants  form  the  third 
class,  which  is  the  most  perfect  in  its  organization  and  by  much  the 
most  numerous,  including  the  trees  of  the  forest  and  most  of  the 
flowering  shrubs  and  herbs.  They  increase  by  coatings  from  with- 
out, as  trees,  where  the  growth  of  each  year  forms  a  concentric  cir- 
cle of  wood  round  the  pith  or  centre  of  the  stem ;  the  seeds  of  theso 
plants  have  two  lobes,  which  in  their  embryo  state  appear  first  in 
two  little  leaves  above  ground,  like  most  of  the  European  species. 
The  parts  of  the  flowers  and  fruit  of  this  class  generally  have  some 
relation  to  the  number  5. 

,  The  three  botanical  classes  are  distributed  in  very  different  pro- 
portions in  different  zones  :  monocotyledonous  plants,  such  as  grasses 
and  palms,  are  much  more  rare  than  the  dicotyledonous  class.  Be- 
tween the  tropics  there  are  four  of  the  latter  to  one  of  the  grass 
or  palm  tribes,  in  the  temperate  zones  six  to  one,  and  in  the  polar 
regions  only  two  to  one,  because  mosses  and  lichens  are  most  abun- 
dant in  the  high  latitudes,  where  dictyledonous  plants  are  compara- 
tively rare.  In  the  temperate  zones  one-sixth  of  the  plants  are 
annuals,  omitting  the  cryptogamia ;  in  the  torrid  zone  scarcely  one 
plant  in  twenty  is  annual,  and  in  the  polar  regions  only  one  in  thirty. 
The  number  of  ligneous  vegetables  increases  on  approaching  the 
equator,  yet  in  North  America  there  are  120  different  species  of 
forest-trees,  whereas  in  the  same  latitudes  in  Europe  there  are  only 
34.  The  social  plants,  grasses,  heaths,  furze,  .broom,  daisies,  &c., 
which  cover  large  tracts,  are  rare  between  the  tropics,  except  on  the 
mountains  and  table-lands  and  on  the  llanos  of  equatorial  America. 
Equinoctial  America  has  a  more  extensive  and  richer  vegetation 
than  any  other  part  of  the  world;  Europe  has  not  above  half  the 
number  of  indigenous  species  of  plants;  Asia,  with  its  islands,  has 
somewhat  less  than  Europe ;  Australia,  with  its  islands,  in  the  Pa- 


328  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIII. 

cific,  still  less  j  and  there  are  fewer  vegetable  productions  in  Africa 
than  in  any  part  of  the  globe  of  the  same  extent. 

Since  the  constitution  of  the  atmosphere  is  very  much  the  same 
everywhere,  vegetation  depends  principally  on  the  sun's  light,  mois- 
ture, and  the  mean  annual  temperature,  and  it  is  also  in  some  de- 
gree regulated  by  the  heat  of  summer  in  the  temperate  zones,  and 
also  by  exposure,  for  such  plants  as  require  warmth  are  found  at  a 
lower  level  on  the  north  than  on  the  south  side  of  a  mountain.  Be- 
tween the  tropics,  wherever  rain  does  not  fall,  the  soil  is  burnt  up 
and  is  as  unfruitful  as  that  exposed  to  the  utmost  rigour  of  frost ; 
but  where  moisture  is  combined  with  heat  and  light,  the  luxuriance 
of  the  vegetation  is  beyond  description.  The  abundance  and  vio- 
lence of  the  periodical  rains  combine  with  the  intense  light  and  heat 
to  render  the  tropical  forests  and  jungles  almost  impervious  from 
the  rankness  of  the  vegetation.  This  exuberance  gradually  de- 
creases with  the  distance  from  the  equator ;  it  also  diminishes  pro- 
gressively as  the  height  above  the  level  of  the  sea  increases,  so  that 
each  height  has  a  corresponding  parallel  of  latitude  where  the  cli- 
mates and  floras  are  similar,  till  the  perpetual  snow  on  the  mountain- 
tops,  and  its  counterpart  in  the  polar  regions,  have  a  vegetation  that 
scarcely  rises  above  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Hence,  in  ascending 
the  Himalaya  or  Andes  from  the  luxuriant  plains  of  the  Ganges  or 
Amazon,  changes  take  place  in  the  vegetation  analogous  to  what  a 
traveller  would  meet  with  in  a  journey  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles.  This  law  of  decrease,  though  perfectly  regular  over  a  wide 
extent,  is  perpetually  interfered  with  by  local  climate,  and  soil. 
From  the  combination  of  various  causes,  as  the  distribution  of  land 
and  water,  their  different  powers  of  absorption  and  radiation,  to- 
gether with  the  form,  texture,  and  clothing  of  the  land,  and  the 
prevailing  winds,  it  is  found  that  the  isothermal  lines,  or  imaginary 
lines  drawn  through  places  on  the  surface  of  the  globe  which  have 
the  same  mean  annual  temperature,  do  not  correspond  with  the 
parallels  of  latitude.  Thus,  in  North  America,  the  climate  is  much 
colder  than  in  the  corresponding  European  latitudes.  Quebec  is  in 
the  latitude  of  Paris,  and  the  country  is  covered  with  deep  sno\f 
four  or  five  months  in  the  year,  and  it  has  occurred  that  a  summer 
has  passed  there  in  which  not  more  than  60  days  have  been  free 
from  frost. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere,  beyond  the  34th  parallel,  the  sum- 
mers are  colder  and  the  winters  milder  than  in  corresponding  lati- 
tudes of  the  northern  hemisphere.  Neither  does  the  temperature 
of  mountains  always  vary  exactly  with  their  height  above  the  sea; 
other  causes,  as  prevailing  winds,  difference  of  radiation,  and  geolo- 
gical structure,  concur  in  producing  irregularities  which  have  a  pow- 
erful effect  on  the  vegetable  world. 

However,  no  similarity  of  existing  circumstances  can  account  for 


CHAP.  XXIII.  BOTANICAL    DISTRICTS.  329 

whole  families  of  plants  being  confined  to  one  particular  country, 
or  even  to  a  very  limited  district,  which,  as  far  as  we  can  judge, 
might  have  grown  equally  well  on  many  others.  Latitude,  eleva- 
tion, soil,  and  climate  are  but  secondary  causes  in  the  distribution 
of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  and  are  totally  inadequate  to  explain  why 
there  are  numerous  distinct  botanical  districts  in  the  continents  and 
islands,  each  of  which  has  its  own  vegetation,  whose  limits  are  most 
decided  when  they  are  separated  by  the  ocean,  mountain-chains, 
sandy  deserts,  salt-plains,  or  internal  seas.  Each  of  these  districts 
is  the  focus  of  families  and  genera,  some  of  which  are  found  no- 
where else,  and  some  are  common  to  others,  but,  with  a  very  few 
remarkable  exceptions,  the  species  of  plants  in  each  are  entirely 
different  or  representative.1  This  does  not  depend  upon  the  dif- 

1  M.  de  Candolle  established  20  botanical  regions,  and  Professor  Schow 
20 ;  but  Professor  Martius,  of  Munich,  has  divided  the  vegetation  of  the 
globe  into  51  provinces,  namely,  5  in  Europe,  11  in  Africa,  13  in  Asia,  3 
in  New  Holland,  4  in  North  and  8  in  South  America,  besides  Central 
America,  the  Antilles,  the  Antarctici  Lands,  New  Zealand,  Van  Diemen's 
Land,  New  Guinea,  and  Polynesia.  To  these,  other  divisions  might  be 
added,  as  the  Galapagos,  which  is  so  strongly  denned. 

Baron  Humboldt  gives  the  following  concise  view  of  the  distribution  of 
plants,  both  as  to  height  and  latitude :  — 

The  equatorial  zone  is  the  region  of  palms  and  bananas. 

The  tropical  zone  is  the  region  of  tree-ferns  and  figs. 

The  subtropical  zone,  that  of  myrtles  and  laurels. 

The  warm  temperate  zone,  that  of  evergreen  trees. 

The  cold  temperate  zone,  that  of  European  or  deciduous  trees. 

The  subarctic  zone,  that  of  pines. 

The  arctic  zone,  that  of  rhododendrons. 

The  polar  zone,  that  of  alpine  plants. 

Upper  Limit  of  Trees  on  Mountains.  —  The  upper  limit  of  trees  is  distin- 
guished by  the  Escallonire,  on  the  Andes  of  Quito,  at  the  height  of  11,500 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

In  tropical  Mexico  the  upper  limit  of  trees,  at  the  height  of  12,789  feet, 
is  distinguished  by  the  Pinus  occidentalis. 

In  the  temperate  zone  the  limit  of  trees  is  marked  by  the  Quercus  Semi- 
carpifolia,  at  11,500  feet,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Himalaya,  and  by  the 
Betula  Alba,  on  the  north  side,  at  the  height  of  14,000  feet;  the  same  birch 
forms  the  limit  of  the  Caucasus,  at  the  elevation  of  6894  feet.  On  the 
Pyrenees  and  Alps  the  limit  is  marked  by  the  Coniferae  or  pine  tribe :  on 
the  Pyreness  by  the  Pinus  uncinata,  at  the  height  of  J 0,870  feet;  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Alps  by  the  larch,  at  the  elevation  of  6700  feet ;  and  by 
the  Pinus  abies,  at  5883  feet  on  the  north. 

In  Lapland  the  Betula  Alba  forms  the  upper  limit  of  trees,  at  the  height 
of  only  1918  feet. 

The  upper  Limit  of  Shrubs. — In  the  Andes  of  Quito  the  Bejarias  are  the 
shrubs  that  attain  the  greatest  height,  and  terminate  at  13,420  feet  above 
the  sea-level. 

The  juniper,  Salix,  and  Kibes,  or  currant  tribe,  form  the  upper  limit  of 
shrubs  on  the  south  side  of  the  Himalaya,  at  the  height  of  11,500  feet. 
The  tama,  or  Genista  versicolor,  a  species  of  broom,  nourishes  at  the  height 
28* 


330  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXIII. 

ference  in  latitude,  for  the  vegetation  of  the  United  States  of  North 
America  is  totally  unlike  that  of  Europe  under  the  same  isothermal 
lines,  and  even  between  the  tropics  the  greatest  dissimilarity  often 
prevails  under  different  degrees  of  longitude ;  consequently  the  cause 
of  this  partial  distribution  of  plants,  and  that  of  animals  also,  which 
is  according  to  the  same  law,  must  be  looked  for  in  those  early. geo- 
logical periods  when  the  earth  first  began  to  be  tenanted  by  the 
present  races  of  organised  beings. 

As  the  land  rose  at  different  periods  above  the  ocean,  each  part, 
as  it  emerged  from  the  waves,  had  probably  been  clothed  with  vege- 
tation, and  peopled  with  animals,  suited  to  its  position  with  regard 
to  the  equator,  and  to  the  climate  and  condition  of  the  globe  then 
being.  And  as  the  conditions  and  climate  were  different  at  each 
succeeding  geological  epoch,  so  each  portion  of  the  land,  as  it  emerged 
from  the  ocean,  would  be  characterized  by  its  own  vegetation  and 
animals,  and  thus  at  last  there  would  be  many  centres  of  creation, 
as  at  this  day,  all  differing  more  or  less  from  one  another,  and  hence 
alpine  floras  must  be  of  older  date  than  those  in  the  plains.  The 
vegetation  and  faunas  of  those  lands  that  differed  most  in  age  and 
place  would  be  most  dissimilar,  while  the  plants  and  animals  of  such 
as  were  not  far  removed  from  one  another  in  time  and  place  would 
have  correlative  forms  or  family  likenesses,  yet  each  would  form  a 
distinct  province.  Thus,  in  opposite  hemispheres,  and  everywhere 
at  great  distances,  but  under  like  circumstances,  the  species  are  re- 
presentatives of  one  another,  rarely  identical :  when,  however,  the 
conditions  which  suit  certain  species  are  continuous,  identical  species 
are  found  throughout,  either  by  original  creation  or  by  migration. 
The  older  forms  may  have  been  modified  to  a  certain  extent  by  the 
succeeding  conditions  of  the  globe,  but  they  never  could  have  been 
changed,  since  immutability  of  species  is  a  primordial  law  of  nature. 
Neither  external  circumstances,  time,  nor  human  art,  can  change 
one  species  into  another,  though  each  to  a  certain  extent  is  capable 
of  accommodating  itself  to  a  change  of  external  circumstances,  so 
as  to  produce  varieties  even  transmissible  to  their  offspring. 

The  flora  of  Cashmere  and  the  higher  parts  of  the  Himalaya 
mountains  is  similar  to  that  of  southern  Europe,  yet  the  species  are 
representative,  not  identical.  In  the  plains  of  Tartary,  where  from 
their  elevation  the  degree  of  cold  is  not  less  than  in  the  wastes  of 
Siberia,  the  vegetation  of  one  might  be  mistaken  for  that  of  the 
other;  the  gooseberry,  currant,  willow,  rhubarb,  and  in  some  places 

of  17,000  feet  on  the  north  side,  and  vegetation  is  prolonged  to  nearly 
18,000  feet. 

The  Rhododendron  forms  the  upper  limit  of  shrubs  on  the  Caucasus,  at 
8825  feet ;  in  the  Pyrenees  it  grows  to  8312  feet ;  in  the  Alps  to  7480  feet; 
and  in  Lapland  it  forms  the  upper  limit  of  shrubs  at  an  elevation  of  3000 
feet  above  the  Arctic  Ocean. 


CHAP.  XXIII.          BOTANICAL    DISTRICTS.  331 

the  oak,  hazel,  cypress,  poplar,  and  birch,  grow  in  both,  but  they.are 
of  different  species.  The  flora  near  the  snow-line  on  the  lofty  moun- 
tains of  Europe,  and  lower  down,  has  also  a  perfect  family  likeness 
to  that  in  high  northern  latitudes.  In  like  manner  many  plants  on 
the  higher  parts  of  the  Chilian  Andes  are  similar,  and  even  identi- 
cal, with  those  in  Terra  del  Fuego ;  nay,  the  Arctic  flora  has  a  cer- 
tain resemblance  to  that  of  the  Antarctic  regions,  and  even  occasional 
identity  of  species.  These  remarkable  coincidences  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  different  places  having  been  at  an  early  geological  period 
at  the  same  level  above  the  ocean,  and  that  they  continue  to  retain 
part  of  their  original  flora  after  their  relative  positions  have  been 
changed.  The  tops  of  the  Chilian  Andes  were  probably  on  a  level 
with  Terra  del  Fuego  when  both  were  covered  with  the  same  vege- 
tation, and  in  the  same  manner  the  lofty  plains  of  Tartary  may  have 
acquired  their  vegetation  when  they  were  on  the  level  of  southern 
Siberia. 

In  the  many  vicissitudes  the  surface  of  the  globe  has  undergone, 
continents  formed  at  one  period  were  broken  up  at  another  into 
islands  and  detached  masses  by  inroads  of  the  sea  and  other  causes. 
Professor  E.  Forbes  has  shown  that  some  of  the  primary  floras  and 
faunas  have  spread  widely  from  their  original  centres  over  large  por- 
tions of  the  continents  before  the  land  was  broken  up  into  the  form 
it  now  has,  and  thus  accounts  for  the  similarity  and  sometimes  iden- 
tity of  the  plants  and  animals  of  regions  now  separated  by  seas, — 
as,  for  example,  islands,  which  generally  partake  of  the  vegetation 
and  fauna  of  the  continents  adjacent  to  them.  Taking  for  granted 
the  original  creation  of  specific  centres  of  plants  and  animals,  Pro- 
fessor E.  Forbes  has  clearly  proved  that  "  the  specific  identity,  to 
any  extent,  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  one  area,  with  those  of  another, 
depends  on  both  areas  forming,  or  having  formed,  part  of  the  same 
specific  centre,  or  on  their  having  derived  their  animal  and  vegetable 
population  by  transmission,  through  migration,  over  continuous  or 
closely  contiguous  land,  aided,  in  the  case  of  alpine  floras,  by  trans- 
portation on  floating  masses  of  ice." 

By  the  preceding  laws  the  limited  provinces  and  dispersion  of 
animal  and  vegetable  life  are  explained,  but  the  existence  of  single 
species  in  regions  very  far  apart  has  not  yet  been  accounted  for. 

Very  few  of  the  exogenous  or  dicotyledonous  plants  are  common 
to  two  or  more  countries  far  apart :  among  the  few,  the  Samolus 
Valerandi,  a  common  English  plant,  is  a  native  of  Australia ;  the 
Potentilla  tridentata,  not  found  in  Britain,  except  on  one  hill  in 
Angusshire,  is  common  to  Arctic  Europe  and  the  mountains  of 
North  America;  and  in  the  Falkland  Islands  there  are  more  than 
30  flowering  plants  identical  with  those  in  Great  Britain. 

There  are  many  more  instances  of  wide  diffusion  among  the 
monocotyledonous  plants,  especially  grasses:  the  Phleum  alpinurn 


332  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIII. 

of  Switzerland  grows  without  the  smallest  variation  at  the  Straits 
of  Magellan,  and  Mr.  Bunbury  met  with  the  European  quaking- 
grass  in  the  interior  of  Southern  Africa  north  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope ; '  but  the  cellular  or  cryptogamous  class  is  most  widely  dif- 
fused— plants  not  susceptible  of  cultivation,  of  little  use  to  man, 
and  of  all  others  the  most  difficult  to  transport.  The  Stricta  aurata, 
found  in  Cornwall,  is  a  native  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  St.  He- 
lena, the  West  India  islands,  and  Brazil;  the  Trichomanes  bre- 
visetum,  long  supposed  to  be  peculiar  to  the  British  isles,  is  ascer- 
tained to  grow  in  Madeira,  South  America,  &c. ;  and  our  eminent 
botanist,  Mr.  Robert  Brown,  found  38  British  lichens  and  28  British 
mosses  in  New  Holland,  yet  in  no  two  parts  of  the  world  is  the 
vegetation  more  dissimilar ;  and  almost  all  the  lichens  brought  from 
the  southern  hemisphere  by  Sir  James  Ross,  amounting  to  200 
species,  are  also  inhabitants  of  the  northern  hemisphere,  and  mostly 
European. 

In  islands  far  from  continents  the  number  of  plants  is  small,  but 
of  these  a  large  proportion  occur  nowhere  else.  In  St.  Helena,  of 
30  flower-bearing  plants,  1  or  2  only  are  native  elsewhere,  but  in  60 
species  of  cryptogamous  plants  Dr.  Hooker  found  only  12  peculiar 
to  the  island. 

Some  plants  are  more  particularly  confined  to  certain  regions : 
the  species  of  Cinchona  which  furnish  the  Peruvian  bark  grow  along 
the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Andes,  as  far  as  18°  S.  lat. ;  the  cedar 
of  Lebanon  is  indigenous  on  that  celebrated  mountain  only ;  and 
the  disa  grandiflora  is  limited  to  a  very  small  spot  on  the  top  of  the 
Table-mountain  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope ;  but  whether  these  are 
remnants  whose  kindred  have  perished  by  a  change  of  physical  cir- 
cumstances, or  centres  only  beginning  to  spread,  it  is  impossible  to 
say. 

Plants  are  dispersed  by  currents :  of  600  plants  from  the  vicinity 
of  the  river  Zaire  on  the  coast  of  Africa,  13  are  found  also  on  the 
shores  of  Guiana  and  Brazil,  evidently  carried  by  the  great  equato- 
rial current  to  countries  congenial  in  soil  and  climate.  The  seeds 
of  the  mimosa  scandens,  the  guilandina  Bonduc,  and  the  cachew- 
nut,  are  wafted  from  the  West  India  islands  to  the  coasts  of  Scot- 
land and  Ireland  by  the  Gulf-stream,  a  climate  and  soil  which  do 
not  suit  them,  therefore  they  do  not  grow.  Of  all  the  great  orders, 
the  species  of  Leguminosae  are  most  widely  dispersed  on  coasts,  be- 

1  The  Aquatic  Monocotyledonous  plants  offer  perhaps  more  striking  ex- 
amples of  wide  diffusion  over  the  surface  of  the  globe  than  any  others. 
The  Pistia  stratiotes  is  found  in  India  and  in  many  parts  of  South  America ; 
the  Lemna  trisulca  and  gibba  are  found  throughout  Europe  and  in  Austra- 
lia. Dr.  Weddell  found  the  •well  known  Caulinia  fragilis  of  Europe  in 
South  America,  but  the  Chara  foetida  is  perhaps  the  most  widely  distributed 
plant  among  the  monocotyledonous  aquatics. 


CHAP.  XXIV.  FLORA    OP    ICELAND.  33S 

cause  their  seeds  are  not  injured  by  the  water.  Winds  also  waft 
seeds  to  great  distances ;  birds  and  quadrupeds,  and  above  all  man, 
are  active  agents  in  dispersing  plants. 


CHAPTER  XXIV. 

Vegetation  of  the  Great  Continent  —  of  the  Arctic  Islands  —  And  of  the 
Arctic  and  North  Temperate  Regions  of  Europe  and  Asia. 

THE  southern  limit  of  the  polar  flora,  on  the  old  continent,  lies 
mostly  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  but  stretches  along  the  tops  of  the 
Scandinavian  mountains,  and  reappears  in  the  high  lands  of  Scot- 
land, Cumberland,  and  Ireland,  on  the  summits  of  the  Pyrenees, 
Alps,  and  other  mountains  in  southern  Europe,  as  well  as  on  the 
table-land  of  eastern  Asia,  and  on  the  high  ridges  of  the  Himalaya. 

The  great  European  plain  to  the  Ural  Mountains,  as  well  as  the 
low  lands  of  England  and  Ireland,  were  at  one  period  covered  by  a 
sea  full  of  floating  ice  and  icebergs,  which  made  the  climate  much 
colder  than  it  now  is.  At  the  beginning  of  that  period  the  Scandi- 
navian range,  the  other  continental  mountains,  and  those  in  Britain 
and  Ireland,  were  islands  of  no  great  elevation,  and  were  then 
clothed  with  the  Arctic  flora,  or  a  representative  of  it,  which  they 
still  retain  now  that  they  form  the  tops  of  the  mountain-chains,  and 
at  that  time  both  plants  and  animals  were  conveyed  from  one  coun- 
try to  another  by  the  floating  ice.  It  is  even  probable,  from  the 
relations  of  the  fauna  and  flora,  that  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  the 
very  high  European  latitudes,  are  the  residue  of  a  great  northern 
land  which  had  sunk  down  at  the  close  of  the  glacial  period,  for 
there  were  many  vicissitudes  of  level  during  that  epoch.  At  all 
events  it  may  be  presumed  that  the  elevation  of  the  Arctic  regions 
of  both  continents,  if  not  contemporaneous,  was  probably  not  far 
removed  in  time.  Similarity  of  circumstances  had  extended  through- 
out the  whole  Arctic  regions,  since  there  is  a  remarkable  similarity 
and  occasional  identity  of  species  of  plants  and  animals  in  the  high 
latitudes  of  both  continents,  which  is  continued  along  the  tops  of 
their  mountain-chains,  even  in  the  temperate  zones;  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  relations  between  the  faunas  and  floras  of 
Northern  America,  Asia,  and  Europe,  must  have  been  established 
towards  the  close  of  the  glacial  period. 

The  flora  of  Iceland  approaches  that  of  Britain,  yet  only  one  in 
four  of  the  British  plants  are  known  in  Iceland.  There  are  870 
species  in  Iceland,  of  which  more  than  half  are  flower-bearing :  this 


334  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXIV. 

is  a  greater  proportion  than  is  found  in  Scotland,  but  there  are  only 
32  of  woody  texture.  This  flora  is  scattered  in  groups  according  as 
the  plants  like  a  dry,  marshy,  volcanic,  or  marine  soil.  Many  grow 
close  to  the  hot-springs ;  some  not  far  from  the  edge  of  the  basin  of 
the  Great  Geyser,  where  every  other  plant  is  petrified;  and  species 
of  Confervse  flourish  in  a  spring  said  to  be  almost  hot  enough  to  boil 
an  egg.  The  cerealia  cannot  be  cultivated  on  account  of  the  seve- 
rity of  the  climate,  but  the  Icelanders  make  bread  from  metur,  a 
species  of  wild  corn,  and  also  from  the  bulbous  root  of  Polygonum 
viviparum ;  their  greatest  delicacy  is  the  Angelica  archangelica ; 
Iceland  moss,  used  in  medicine,  is  an  article  of  commerce.  There 
are  583  species  in  the  Feroe  islands,  of  which  270  are  flowering 
plants :  many  thrive  there  that  cannot  bear  the  cold  of  Iceland. 

ARCTIC  FLORA  OF  THE  GREAT  CONTINENTS. 

In  the  most  northern  parts  of  the  Arctic  lands  the  year  is  divided 
into  one  long  intensely  cold  night  and  one  bright  and  fervid  day, 
which  quickly  brings  to  maturity  the  scanty  vegetation.  Within  the 
limit  of  perpetual  congelation  the  Palrnella  nivalis  (or  red  snow  of 
the  Arctic  voyagers),  a  very  minute  red  or  orange-coloured  plant, 
finds  nourishment  in  the  snow  itself,  the  first  dawn  of  vegetable  life ; 
it  is  also  found  colouring  large  patches  of  snow  in  the  Alps  and 
Pyrenees. 

Lichens  are  the  first  vegetables  that  appear  at  the  limits  of  the 
snow-line,  whether  in  high  latitudes  or  mountain-tops,  and  they  are 
the  first  vegetation  that  takes  possession  of  volcanic  lavas  and  new 
islands,  where  they  prepare  soil  for  plants  of  a  higher  order ;  they 
grow  on  rocks,  stones,  and  trees,  in  fact  on  anything  that  affords 
them  moisture.  More  than  2400  species  are  already  known;  no 
plants  are  more  widely  diffused,  and  none  afford  a  more  striking  in- 
stance of  the  arbitrary  location  of  species,  as  they  are  of  so  little 
direct  use  to  man  that  they  could  not  have  been  disseminated  by  his 
agency.  The  same  kinds  prevail  throughout  the  Arctic  regions,  and 
the  species  common  to  both  hemispheres  are  very  numerous.  Some 
lichens  produce  brilliant  red,  orange,  and  brown  dyes ;  and  the  tripe 
de  roche,  a  species  of  Gyrophora,  is  a  miserable  substitute  for  food, 
as  our  intrepid  countryman,  Sir  John  Franklin,  and  his  brave  com- 
panions experienced  in  their  perilous  Arctic  journey. 

Mosses  follow  lichens  on  newly  formed  soil,  and  they  are  found 
everywhere  throughout  the  world  in  damp  situations,  but  in  greatest 
abundance  in  temperate  climates;  800  species  are  known,  of  which 
a  great  part  inhabit  the  Arctic  regions,  constituting  a  large  portion 
of  the  vegetation 

In  Asiatic  Siberia,  north  of  the  60th  parallel  of  latitude,  the 
ground  is  perpetually  frozen  at  a  very  small  depth  below  the  surface : 


CHAP.  XXIV.  ARCTIC     FLORA.  335 

a  temperature  of  70°  below  zero  of  Fahrenheit  is  not  uncommon, 
and  in  some  instances  the  cold  has  been  120°  below  zero.  Then  it 
is  fatal  to  animal  life,  especially  if  accompanied  by  wind.  In  some 
places  trees  grow  and  corn  ripens  even  at  70°  of  north  latitude ;  but 
in  the  most  northern  parts  boundless  swamps,  varied  by  lakes  both 
of  salt  and  fresh  water,  cover  wide  portions  of  this  desolate  country, 
which  is  buried  under  snow  nine  or  ten  months  in  the  year.  As 
soon  as  the  snow  is  melted  by  the  returning  sun,  these  extensive 
morasses  are  covered  with  coarse  grass  and  rushes,  while  mosses  and 
lichens  mixed  with  dwarf  willows  clothe  the  plains;  saline  plants 
abound,  and  whole  districts  produce  Diotis  ceratoides. 

In  Nova  Zembla  and  other  places  in  the  far  north  the  vegetation 
is  so  stunted  that  it  barely  covers  the  ground,  but  a  much  greater 
variety  of  minute  plants  of  considerable  beauty  are  crowded  together 
there  in  a  small  space  than  in  the  Alpine  regions  of  Europe,  where 
the  same  genera  grow.  This  arises  from  the  weakness  of  the  vege- 
tation ;  for  in  the  Swiss  Alps  the  same  plant  frequently  occupies  a 
large  space,  excluding  every  other,  as  the  dark  blue  gentian,  the 
violet-coloured  pansy,  the  pink  and  yellow  stone-crops.  In  the 
remote  north,  on  the  contrary,  where  vitality  is  comparatively  feeble 
and  the  seeds  do  not  ripen,  thirty  different  species  may  be  seen 
crowded  together  in  a  brilliant  mass,  no  one  having  strength  to  over- 
come the  rest.  In  such  frozen  climates  plants  may  be  said  to  live 
between  the  air  and  the  earth,  for  they  scarcely  rise  above  the  soil, 
and  their  roots  creep  along  the  surface,  having  scarcely  power  to 
enter  it.  All  the  woody  plants,  as  the  betula  nana,  and  reticulated 
willow,  Andromeda  tetragona,  with  a  few  berry-bearing  shrubs,  trail 
along  the  ground,  never  rising  more  than  an  inch  or  two  above  it. 
The  salix  lanata,  the  giant  of  these  Arctic  forests,  never  grows  more 
than  five  inches  above  the  surface,  while  its  stem,  10  or  12  feet  long, 
lies  hidden  among  the  moss,  owing  shelter  to  its  lowly  neighbour. 

The  chief  characteristic  of  the  vegetation  of  the  Arctic  regions  is 
the  predominance  of  perennial  and  cryptogamous  plants,  and  also  of 
the  sameness  of  its  nature;  but  more  to  the  south,  where  night 
begins  to  alternate  with  day,  a  difference  of  species  appears  with  that 
of  longitude  as  well  as  of  latitude.  A  beautiful  flora  of  vivid  colours 
adorns  these  latitudes  both  in  Europe  and  Asia  during  their  brief  but 
bright  and  ardent  summer,  consisting  of  potentillas,  gentians,  chick- 
weeds,  saxifragas,  sedums,  ranunculi,  spirseas,  drabas,  artemisias, 
claytonias,  and  many  more.  Such  is  the  power  of  the  sun  and  the 
consequent  rapdity  of  vegetation,  that  these  plants  spring  up,  blos- 
som, ripen  their  seed,  and  die,  in  six  weeks :  in  a  lower  latitude 
woody  plants  follow  these,  as  berry-bearing  shrubs,  the  glaucous  kal- 
mia,  the  trailing  azalea,  and  rhododendrons.  The  Siberian  flora 
differs  from  that  in  the  same  European  latitudes  by  the  North  Ame- 
rican genera  Phlox,  Mitella,  Claytonia,  and  the  predominance  of 


836  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIV. 

asters,  solidagog,  spiraeas,  milk-vetches,  wormwood,  and  the  saline 
plants  goosefoot,  and  saltworts. 

Social  plants  abound"  in  many  parts  of  the  northern  countries,  as 
grass,  heath,  furze,  and  broom ;  the  steppes  are  an  example  of  this 
on  a  very  extensive  scale.  Both  in  Europe  and  Asia  they  are  sub- 
ject to  a  rigorous  winter,  with  deep  snow  and  chilling  blasts  of  wind  ; 
and  as  the  soil  generally  consists  of  a  coating  of  vegetable  mould 
over  clay,  no  plants  with  deep  roots  thrive  upon  them ;  hence  the 
steppes  are  destitute  of  trees,  and  even  bushes  are  rare  except  in 
ravines ;  the  grass  is  thin  but  nourishing.  Hyacinths  and  some 
other  bulbs,  mignonette,  asparagus,  liquorice,  and  wormwood,  grow 
in  the  European  steppes ;  the  two  last  are  peculiarly  characteristic. 
The  nelumbium  speciosum  grows  in  one  spot  five  miles  from  the 
town  of  Astracan,  and  nowhere  else  in  the  wide  domains  of  Russia  : 
the  leaves  of  this  beautiful  aquatic  plant  are  often  two  feet  broad, 
and  its  rose-coloured  blossoms  are  very  fragrant.  It  is  also  native 
in  India  and  Tibet,  where  it  is  held  sacred,  as  it  was  formerly  in 
Egypt,  where  it  is  said  to  be  extinct :  it  is  one  of  the  many  instances 
of  a  plant  growing  in  countries  far  apart. 

Each  steppe  in  Siberia  has  its  own  peculiar  plants;  the  Peplis 
and  Camphorosma  are  peculiar  to  the  steppe  of  the  Irtish,  and  the 
Amaryllis  tartarica  abounds  in  the  meadows  of  eastern  Siberia, 
where  vegetation  bears  a  great  analogy  to  that  of  north-western 
America;  several  genera  and  species  are  common  to  both. 

Half  the  plants  found  by  Worrnskiold  in  Kamtchatka  are  Euro- 
pean, with  the  exception  of  eight  or  ten,  which  are  American.  Few 
European  trees  grow  in  Asiatic  Siberia,  notwithstanding  the  simi- 
larity of  climate,  and  most  of  them  disappear  towards  the  rivers 
Tobol  and  Irtish. 

In  Lapland  and  in  the  high  latitudes  of  Russia  large  tracts  are 
covered  with  birch-trees,  but  the  pine  and  fir  tribes  are  the,principal 
inhabitants  of  the  north.  Prodigious  forests  of  these  are  spread 
over  the  mountains  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  and  in  European  Rus- 
sia 200,000,000  acres  are  clothed  with  these  Coniferae  alone,  or 
occasionally  mixed  with  willows,  poplars,  and  alders.  Although 
soils  of  pure  sand  and  lime  are  absolutely  barren,  yet  they  generally 
contain  enough  of  alkali  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  fir  and  pine 
tribes,  which  require  ten  times  less  than  oaks  and  other  deciduous 
trees. 

The  Siberian  steppes  are  bounded  on  the  south  by  great  forests 
of  pine,  birch,  and  willow :  poplars,  elms,  and  Tartarian  maple  over- 
hang the  upper  courses  of  the  noble  rivers  which  flow  from  the 
mountains  to  the  Frozen  Ocean,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  Yenessei 
the  pinus  Cembra,  or  Siberian  pine,  with  edible  fruit,  grows  120 
feet  high.  The  Altai'  are  covered  nearly  to  their  summit  with  simi- 
Jar  forests,  but  on  their  greatest  heights  the  stunted  larch  crawls  on 


CHAP.  XXIV.  ARCTIC    FLORA.  337 

the  ground,  and  the  flora  is  like  that  of  northern  Siberia :  round 
lake  Baikal  the  pinus  Cembra  grows  nearly  to  the  snow-line. 

Forests  of  black  birch  are  peculiar  to  Daouria,  where  there  are 
also  apricot  and  apple  trees,  and  rhododendrons,  of  which  a  species 
grows  in  thickets  on  the  hills  with  yellow  blossoms.  Here  and 
everywhere  else  throughout  this  country  are  found  all  the  species  of 
Caragana,  a  genus  entirely  Siberian.  Each  terrace  of  the  mountains 
and  each  steppe  on  the  plains  has  its  peculiar  plants,  as  well  as 
some  common  to  all;  perennial  plants  are  more  numerous  than 
annuals. 

If  temperature  and  climate  depended  upon  latitude  alone,  all  Asia 
between  the  50th  and  30th  parallels  would  have  a  mild  climate ;  but 
that  is  far  from  being  the  case,  on  account  of  the  structure  of  the 
continent,  which  consists  of  the  highest  table-lands  and  the  lowest 
plains  on  the  globe. 

The  table-land  of  Tibet,  where  it  is  not  cultivated,  has  the  char- 
acter of  great  sterility,  and  the  climate  is  as  unpropitious  as  the  soil ; 
frost,  snow,  and  sleet  begin  early  in  September,  and  continue  with 
little  interruption  till  May ;  snow,  indeed,  falls  every  month  in  the 
year.  The  air  is  always  dry,  because  in  winter  moisture  falls  in  the 
form  of  snow,  and  in  summer  it  is  quickly  evaporated  by  the  intense 
heat  of  the  sun.  The  thermometer  sometimes  rises  to  144°  of  Fah- 
renheit in  the  sun,  and  even  in  winter  his  direct  rays  have  great 
power  for  an  hour  or  two,  so  that  a  variation  of  100°  in  the  tempe- 
rature of  the  air  has  occurred  in  twelve  hours.  Notwithstanding 
these  disadvantages,  there  are  sheltered  spots  which  produce  most  of 
the  European  grain  and  fruits,  though  the  natural  vegetation  bears 
the  Siberian  character,  but  the  species  are  quite  distinct.  The  most 
common  indigenous  plants  are  Tartarian  furze  and  various  prickly 
shrubs  resembling  it,  goose-berries,  currants,  hyssop,  dog-rose,  dwarf 
sow-thistle,  equisetum,  rhubarb,  lucern,  and  asafoetida,  on  which  the 
flocks  feed.  Prangos,  an  umbelliferous  plant  with  broad  leaves  and 
scented  blossom,  is  peculiar  to  Ladak  and  other  parts  of  Tibet.  Mr. 
Moorcroft  says  it  is  so  nutritious,  that  sheep  fed  on  it  become  fat  in 
twenty  days.  There  are  three  species  of  wheat,  three  of  barley,  and 
two  of  buckwheat,  natives  of  the  lofty  table-land,  where  the  sarsinh 
is  the  only  fruit  known  to  be  indigenous.  Owing  to  the  rudeness 
of  the  climate,  trees  are  not  numerous,  yet  on  the  lower  declivities 
of  some  mountains  there  are  aspens,  birch,  yew,  ash,  Tartaric  oak, 
various  pines,  and  the  Pavia,  a  species  of  horse-chesnut.  Much  of 
the  table-land  of  Tartary  is  occupied  by  the  Great  Grobi  and  other 
deserts  of  sand,  with  grassy  steppes  near  the  mountains ;  but  of  the 
flora  of  these  regions  we  know  nothing. 


29 


388  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXIV. 


FLORA  OF  BRITAIN  AND  OF  MIDDLE  AND  SOUTHERN 
EUROPE. 

The  British  islands  afford  an  excellent  illustration  of  distinct 
provinces  of  animals  and  plants,  and  also  of  their  migration  from 
other  centres.  Professor  E.  Forbes  has  determined  five  botanical 
districts,  four  of  which  are  restricted  to  limited  provinces,  whilst  the 
fifth,  which  comprehends  the  great  mass  of  British  plants,  is  every- 
where, either  alone  or  mixed  with  the  others.  All  of  these,  with  a 
very  few  doubtful  exceptions,  have  migrated  before  the  British 
islands  were  separated  from  the  continent.  The  first,  which  is  of 
great  antiquity,  includes  the  flora  of  the  mountain  districts  of  the 
west  and  south-west  of  Ireland,  and  is  similar  to  that  in  the  south 
of  Spain,  but  the  more  delicate  plants  had  been  killed  by  the  change 
of  climate  after  the  separation  of  Ireland  from  the  Asturias.  The 
flora  in  the  south  of  England  and  the  south-east  of  Ireland  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  in  all  other  parts  of  the  British  Islands ;  it  is  inti- 
mately related  to  the  vegetation  of  the  Channel  Islands  and  the 
coast  of  France  opposite  to  them,  yet  there  are  many  plants  in  the 
Channel  Islands  which  are  not  indigenous  in  Britain.  In  the  south- 
west of  England,  where  the  chalk  plants  prevail,  the  flora  is  like 
that  on  the  adjacent  coast  of  France. 

The  tops  of  the  Scottish  mountains  are  the  focus  of  a  separate 
flora,  which  is  the  same  with  that  in  the  Scandinavian  Alps,  and  is 
very  numerous.  Scotland,  Wales,  and  a  part  of  Ireland  received 
this  flora  when  they  were  groups  of  islands  in  the  Glacial  Sea.  The 
rare  Eriocaulon  is  found  in  the  Hebrides,  in  Connemara,  and  in 
Northern  America,  and  nowhere  else.  Some  few  individuals  of  this 
flora  grow  on  the  summits  of  the  mountains  in  Cumberland  and 
Wales.  The  fifth,  of  more  recent  origin  than  the  alpine  flora,  in- 
cluding all  the  ordinary  flowering  plants,  as  the  common  daisy  and 
primrose,  hairy  ladies'  smock,  upright  meadow  crowfoot,  and  the 
lesser  celandine,  together  with  our  common  trees  and  shrubs,  has 
migrated  from  Germany  before  England  was  separated  from  the 
Continent  of  Europe  by  the  British  Channel.  It  can  be  distinctly 
traced  in  its  progress  across  the  island,  but  the  migration  was  noc 
completed  till  after  Ireland  was  separated  from  England  by  the  Irish 
Channel,  and  that  is  the  reason  why  many  of  the  ordinary  English 
plants,  animals,  and  reptiles  are  not  found  in  the  sister  island,  for 
the  migration  of  animals  was  simultaneous  with  that  of  plants,  and 
took  place  between  the  last  of  the  tertiary  periods  and  the  historical 
epoch,  that  of  man's  creation :  it  was  extended  also  over  a  great 
part  of  the  continent.1 

1  The  British  flora  contains  at  least  3000  species. 


CHAP.  XXIV.  EUROPEAN     FLORA.  339 

Deciduous  trees  are  the  chief  characteristic  of  the  temperate  zone 
of  the  old  continent,  more  especially  of  middle  Europe ;  these  thrive 
best  in  soil  produced  by  the  decay  of  the  primary  and  ancient  vol- 
canic rocks,  which  furnish  abundance  of  alkali.  Oaks,  elms,  beech, 
ash,  larch,  maple,  lime,  alder,  and  sycamore,  all  of  which  lose  their 
leaves  in  winter,  are  the  prevailing  vegetation,  occasionally  mixed 
with  fir  and  pine. 

The  undergrowth  consists  of  wild  apple,  cherry,  yew,  holly,  haw- 
thorn, broom,  furze,  wild  rose,  honeysuckle,  clematis,  &c.  The 
most  numerous  and  characteristic  herbaceous  plants  are  the  umbel- 
liferous class,  as  carrot  and  anise,  the  campanulas,  the  Cichoracese, 
a  family  to  which  lettuce,  endive,  dandelion,  and  sow-thistle  belong. 
The  cruciform  tribe,  as  wallflower,  stock,  turnip,  cabbage,  cress,  &c., 
are  so  numerous,  that  they  form  a  distinguishing  feature  in  the 
botany  of  middle  Europe,  to  which  45  species  of  them  belong. 
This  family  is  almost  confined  to  the  northern  hemisphere,  for,  of 
800  known  species,  only  100  belong  to  the  southern,  the  soil  of 
which  must  contain  less  sulphur,  which  is  indispensable  for  these 
plants. 

In  the  Pyrenees,  Alps,  and  other  high  lands  in  Europe,  the  gra- 
dation of  botanical  forms,  from  the  summit  to  the  foot  of  the  moun- 
tains, is  similar  to  that  which  takes  place  from  the  Arctic  to  the 
middle  latitudes  of  Europe.  The  analogy,  however,  is  true  only 
when  viewed  generally,  for  many  local  circumstances  of  climate  and 
vegetation  interpose ;  and  although  the  similarity  of  botanical  forms 
is  very  great  between  certain  zones  of  altitude  and  parallels  of  lati- 
tude, the  species  are  for  the  most  part  different.  , 

Evergreen  trees  and  shrubs  become  more  frequent  in  the  southern 
countries  of  Europe,  where  about  a  fourth  part  of  the  ligneous  ve- 
getation never  entirely  lose  their  leaves.  The  flora  consists  chiefly 
of  ilex,  oak,  cypress,  hornbeam,  sweet  chesnut,  laurel,  laurustinus, 
the  apple  tribe,  manna  or  the  flowering  ash,  carob,  jujube,  juniper, 
terebinths,  lentiscus  and  pistaccio,  which  yield  resin  and  mastic,  ar- 
butus, myrtle,  jessamine  (yellow  and  white),  and  various  pines,  as 
the  Pinus  maritima,  and  Pinus  Pinea,  or  stone  pine,  which  forms 
so  picturesque  a  feature  in  the  landscape  of  southern  Europe.  The 
most  prevalent  herbaceous  plants  are  Caryophyllese,  as  pinks,  Stel- 
laria,  and  arenarias,  and  also  the  labiate  tribe,  mint,  thyme,  rose- 
mary, lavender,  with  many  others,  all  remarkable  for  their  aromatic 
properties,  and  their  love  of  dry  situations.  Many  of  the  choicest 
plants  and  flowers  which  adorn  the  gardens  and  grounds  in  northern 
Europe  are  indigenous  in  these  warmer  countries :  the  anemone, 
tulip,  mignonette,  narcissus,  gladiolus,  iris,  asphodel,  amaryllis,  car- 
nation, &c.  In  Spain,  Portugal,  Sicily,  and  the  other  European 
shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  tropical  families  begin  to  appear  in  the 


340  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIV. 

arums,  plants  yielding  balsams,  oleander,  date  and  palmetto  palms, 
and  grasses  of  the  group  of  Panicum  or  millet,  Cyperacese  or  sedges, 
Aloe  and  Cactus.  In  this  zone  of  transition  there  are  six  herbaceous 
for  one  woody  plant. 

FLORA  OF  TEMPERATE  ASIA. 

The  vegetation  of  western  Asia  approaches  nearly  to  that  of  India 
at  one  extremity,  and  Europe  at  the  other;  of  281  genera  of  plants 
which  grow  in  Asia  Minor  and  Persia,  109  are  European.  Syria 
and  Asia  Minor  form  a  region  of  transition,  like  the  other  countries 
on  the  Mediterranean,  where  the  plants  of  the  temperate  and  tropi- 
cal zones  are  united.  We  owe  many  of  our  best  fruits  and  sweetest 
flowers  to  these  regions.  The  cherry,  almond,  oleander,  syringa, 
locust-tree,  &c.,  come  from  Asia  Minor;  the  walnut,  peach,  melon, 
cucumber,  hyacinth,  ranunculus,  come  from  Persia;  the  date-palm, 
fig,  olive,  mulberry,  and  damask-rose,  come  from  Syria;  the  vine 
and  apricot  are  Armenian ;  the  latter  grows  also  everywhere  in  mid- 
dle and  northern  Asia.  The  tropical  forms  met  with  in  more  shel- 
tered places  are  the  sugar-cane,  date  and  palmetto  palms,  mimosas, 
acacias,  Asclepias  gigantea,  and  arborescent  Apocineas.  On  the 
mountains  south  of  the  Black  Sea,  American  types  appear  in  rho- 
dodendrons and  the  Azalea  pontica,  and  herbaceous  plants  are  nume- 
rous and  brilliant  in  these  countries. 

The  table-land  of  Persia,  though  not  so  high  as  that  of  Eastern 
Asia,  resembles  it  in  the  quality  of  the  soil,  which  is  chiefly  clayey, 
sandy,  or  saline,  and  the  climate  is  very  dry ;  hence  vegetation  is 
poor,  and  consists  of  thorny  bushes,  acacias,  mimosas,  tamarisk, 
jujube,  and  asafoetida.  Forests  of  oak  cover  the  mountains  of  Lu- 
sistan,  but  the  date-palm  is  the  only  produce  of  the  parched  shores 
of  the  Arabian  Gulf  and  of  the  oases  on  the  Persian  table-land. 
In  the  valleys,  which  are  beautiful,  there  are  clumps  of  Oriental 
plane  and  other  trees,  hawthorn,  tree-roses,  and  many  of  the  odori- 
ferous shrubs  of  Arabia  Felix. 

Afghanistan  produces  the  seedless  pomegranate,  acacias,  date- 
palms,  tamarisks,  &c.  The  vegetation  has  much  the  same  general 
character  as  that  of  Egypt.  The  valleys  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh  are 
covered  with  clover,  thyme,  violets,  and  many  odoriferous  plants : 
the  greater  part  of  the  trees  in  the  mountains  are  of  European 
genera,  though  all  the  species  of  plants,  both  woody  and  herbaceous, 
are  peculiar.  The  small  leguminous  plant  from  whose  leaves  and 
twigs  the  true  indigo  dye  is  extracted  grows  spontaneously  on  the 
lower  offsets  of  the  Hindoo  Coosh.  This  dye  has  been  in  use  in 
India  from  the  earliest  times,  but  the  plant  which  produces  it.  was 
not  known  in  England  till  towards  the  end  of  the  16th  century. 


OHAP.  XXIV.      FLORA   OF   TEMPERATE   ASIA.  341 

Since  that  time  it  has  been  cultivated  in  the  West  Indies  and  tro- 
pical America,  though  in  that  country  there  is  a  species  which  is 
indigenous. 

Hot  arid  deserts  bound  India  on  the  west,  where  the  stunted  and 
scorched  vegetation  consists  of  tamarisks,  thorny  acacia,  deformed 
Euphorbias,  and  alitiost  leafless  thorny  trees,  shaggy  with  long  hair, 
by  which  they  imbibe  moisture  and  carbon  from  the  atmosphere. 
Indian  forms  appear  near  Delhi,  in  the  genera  Flacourtia  and  others, 
mixed  with  Syrian  plants.  East  of  this  transition  the  vegetation 
becomes  entirely  Indian,  except  on  the  higher  parts  of  the  moun- 
tains, where  European  types  prevail. 

The  Himalaya  mountains  form  a  distinct  botanical  district.  Im- 
mediately below  the  snow-line  the  flora  is  almost  the  same  with  that 
on  the  high  plains  of  Tartary,  to  which  may  be  added  rhododen- 
drons and  andromedas,  and  among  the  herbaceous  plants  primroses 
appear.  Lower  down  vast  tracts  are  covered  with  prostrate  bamboos, 
and  European  forms  become  universal,  though  the  species  are  Indian, 
as  gentians,  plantagos,  campanulas,  and  gale.  There  are  extensive 
forests  of  Coniferae,  consisting  chiefly  of  Pinus  excelsa,  Deodora, 
and  Morinda,  with  many  deciduous  forest  and  fruit  trees  of  Euro- 
pean genera.  A  transition  from  this  flora  to  a  tropical  vegetation 
takes  place  between  the  altitudes  of  9000  and  5000  feet,  because 
the  rains  of  the  monsoons  begin  to  be  felt  in  this  region,  which 
unites  the  plants  of  both.  Here  the  scarlet  and  other  rhododen- 
drons grow  luxuriantly ;  walnuts,  and  at  least  25  species  of  oak, 
attain  a  great  size,  one  of  which,  the  Quercus  semicarpifolia,  has  a 
clean  trunk  from  80  to  100  feet  high.  Geraniums  and  labiate  plants 
are  mixed  in  sheltered  spots  with  the  tropical  genera  of  Scitamineaj, 
or  the  ginger  tribe ;  bignonias  and  balsams,  and  camellias,  grow  on 
the  lower  part  of  this  region. 

It  is  remarkable  that  Indian,  European,  American,  and  Chinese 
forms  are  united  in  this  zone  of  transition,  though  the  distinctness 
of  species  still  obtains :  the  Triosteum,  a  genus  of  the  honeysuckle 
tribe,  is  American ;  the  Abelia,  another  genus  of  the  same,  together 
with  the  Camellia  and  and  Tricyrtis,  are  peculiarly  Chinese ;  the 
daisy  and  wild  thyme  are  European.  A  few  of  the  trees  and  plants 
mentioned  descend  below  the  altitude  of  5000  feet,  but  they  soon 
disappear  on  the  hot  declivities  of  the  mountain,  where  the  Ery- 
thrina  monosperma  and  Bombax  hcptaphyllum  are  the  most  com- 
mon trees,  together  with  the  Millingtonias,  a  tribe  of  large  timber- 
trees,  met  with  everywhere  between  the  Himalaya  and  10°  N.  lat. 
The  shorea  robusta,  Dalbergia,  and  Cedrela,  a  genus  allied  to  maho- 
gany, are  the  most  common  trees  in  the  forests  of  the  lower  regions 
of  these  mountains. 

The  temperate  regions  of  eastern  Asia,  including  Chinese  Tartary, 
China,  and  Japan,  have  a  vegetation  totally  different  from  that  of 
29* 


342  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIV. 

any  other  part,  of  the  globe  similarly  situated,  and  show  in  a  strong 
point  of  view  the  distinct  character  which  vegetation  assumes  in 
different  longitudes.  In  Manchouria  and  the  vast  mountain-chains 
that  slope  from  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  high  Tartarian  table- 
land to  the  fertile  plains  in  China,  the  forests  and  flora  are  generally 
of  European  genera,  but  Asiatic  species;  in  these  countries  the 
buckthorn  and  honeysuckle  tribes  are  so  numerous  as  to  give  a  pecu- 
liar character  to  the  vegetation.  Mixed  with  these  and  with  roses 
are  thickets  of  azaleas  covered  with  blossoms  of  dazzling  brightness 
and  beauty. 

The  transition  zone  in  this  country  lies  between  the  35th  and  27th 
parallels  of  north  latitude,  in  which  the  tropical  flora  is  mixed  with 
that  of  the  northern  provinces.  The  prevailing  plants  on  the  Chi- 
nese low  grounds  are  Glycine,  Hydrangea,  the  camphor  laurel,  stil- 
lingia  sebifera,  or  wax-tree,  Clerodendron,  Hibiscus  rosa-sinensis, 
thuia  orientalis,  olea  fragrans,  the  sweet-blossoms  of  which  are  mixed 
with  the  finer  teas  to  give  them  flavour;  Melia  azedarach,  or  Indian 
pride,  the  paper  mulberry,  and  others  of  the  genus,  and  camellia 
sasanqua,  which  covers  hills  in  the  province  of  Kiong-si.  The  tea- 
plant,  and  other  species  of  Camellia,  grow  in  many  parts;  the  finest 
tea  is  the  produce  of  a  low  range  of  hills  from  between  the  33rd  and 
25th  parallels,  an  offset  from  the  great  chain  of  Peling.  Thea  viri- 
dis  and  bohea  are  possibly  only  varieties  of  the  same  plant;  the 
green  tea  is  strong  and  hardy,  the  black  a  small  delicate  plant.  The 
quality  of  the  tea  depends  upon  the  stage  of  growth  at  which  it  is 
gathered ;  early  leaves  make  the  best  tea,  those  picked  late  in  the 
season  give  a  very  coarse  tea.  Bohea  grows  in  the  province  of  Fu- 
kian,  hyson  in  Song-lo.  Pekoe  or  pak-ho,  which  means  white  down 
in  Chinese,  consists  of  the  first  downy  sprouts  or  leaf-buds  of  three- 
years-old  plants.  A  very  costly  tea  of  this  kind,  never  brought  to 
Europe,  and  known  as  the  tea  of  the  Wells  of  the  Dragon,  is  used 
only  by  persons  of  the  highest  rank  in  China.  The  true  Imperial 
tea  also,  called  Flos  these,  which  is  not,  as  was  supposed,  the  flower- 
buds,  but  merely  a  very  superior  quality  of  tea,  seldom  reaches  Eu- 
rope ;  that  sold  under  this  name  is  really  Chusan  tea  flavoured  with 
blossoms  of  olea  fragrans.1  The  Chinese  keep  tea  a  year  before  they 
use  it,  because  fresh  tea  has  an  intoxicating  quality  which  produces 
disturbance  of  the  nervous  system.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance 
that  tea  and  coffee,  belonging  to  different  families,  natives  of  differ- 
ent quarters  of  the  globe,  should  possess  the  same  principle,  and  it 

1  The  plants  with  which  the  Chinese  give  flavour  to  tea  are  the  olea  fra- 
grans, Chloranthus  inconspicuus,  gardenia  florida,  aglaia,  odorata,  mogo- 
rium  sambac,  vitex  spicata,  camellia  sasanqua,  camellia  odorifera,  illicium 
anisatum,  magnolia  yulan,  rosa  indica  odoratissima,  turmeric,  oil  of  Bixa 
orellana,  and  the  root  of  the  Florentine  iris. 

The  principles  of  caffeine  and  theine  are  in  all  respects  identical. 


CHAP.  XXIV.     FLORA    OF    TEMPERATE     ASIA.  343 

is  not  less  remarkable  that  their  application  to  the  same  use  should 
have  been  so  early  discovered  by  man. 

The  tea-plant  grows  naturally  in  Japan  and  upper  Assam ;  it  is 
hardy,  and  possesses  great  power  of  adaptation  to  climate.  It  has 
lately  been  cultivated  in  Brazil,1  in  Provence,  and  in  Algiers,  but  at 
an  expense  which  renders  it  unprofitable.  Tea  comes  to  Europe  al- 
most exclusively  from  China,  but  the  plant  thrives  so  well  in  the 
north-western  provinces  of  India  that  the  English  will  ultimately 
compete  with  the  Chinese  in  producing  it,  especially  for  the  con- 
sumption of  Tibet.  Tea  was  first  brought  to  Europe  by  the  Dutch 
in  1610;  a  small  quantity  came  to  England  in  1666,  and  now  the 
annual  consumption  of  tea  in  Great  Britain  is  upwards  of  fifty  mil- 
lions of  pounds.2 

The  climate  of  Japan  is  milder  than  its  latitude  would  indicate, 
owing  to  the  influence  of  the  surrounding  ocean.  European  forms 
prevail  in  the  high  lands,  as  they  do  generally  throughout  the  moun- 
tains of  Asia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  with  the  difference  of 
species,  as  Abies,  Cembra,  Strobus,  and  Larix.  The  Japanese  flora 
is  similar  to  the  Chinese,  and  there  are  30  American  plants,  besides 
others  of  Indian  and  tropical  climates.  These  islands,  nevertheless, 
have  their  own  peculiar  flora,  distinct  in  its  nature ;  as  the  Sophora, 
Kerria,  Aucuba,  Mespilus,  and  pyrus  japonica,  rhus  vernix,  illicium 
anisatum,  or  the  anise-tree,  daphne  odorata,  the  soap-tree,  various 
species  of  the  Calycanthus  tribe,  the  custard-apple,  the  Khair 
mimosa,  which  yields  the  catechu,  the  litchi,  the  sweet  orange,  the 
cycas  revoluta,  a  plant  resembling  a  dwarf  palm,  with  various  other 
fruits.  Many  tropical  plants  mingle  with  the  vegetation  of  the  cocoa- 
nut  and  fan  palms. 

Thus  the  vegetation  in  Japan  and  China  is  widely  different  from 
that  in  the  countries  bordering  the  Mediterranean,  though  between 
the  same  parallels  of  latitude.  In  the  tropical  regions  of  Asia,  where 
heat  and  moisture  are  excessive,  the  influence  of  latitude  vanishes 
altogether,  and  the  peculiarities  of  the  vegetation  in  different  longi- 
tudes become  more  evident. 

1  [The  produce  of  tea  in  Brazil  is  almost  sufficient  to  meet  the  demand ; 
there  is  no  tea  imported  into  that  country  direct  froiiLChina.  Only  a  small 
quantity  from  the  latter  country  is  brought  by  American  and  European 
traders,  which  is  used  chiefly  by  the  foreign  population.] 

8  Davis  on  China. 


344  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXV, 

CHAPTER  XXV. 

Flora  of  Tropical  Asia  —  Of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  India,  and  Arabia. 

TROPICAL  Asia  is  divided  by  nature  into  three  distinct  botanical 
regions :  the  Malayan  peninsula,  with  the  Indian  Archipelago ; 
India,  south  of  the  Himalaya,  -with  the  island  of  Ceylon ;  and  the 
Arabian  peninsula.  The  two  first  have  strong  points  of  resemblance, 
though  their  floras  are  peculiar. 

FLORA  OF  THE  INDO-CHINESE  PENINSULA  AND  THE 

INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

* 

Many  of  the  vegetable  productions  of  the  peninsula  beyond  the 
Ganges  are  the  same  with  those  of  India,  mixed  with  plants  of  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  so  that  this  country  is  a  region  of  transition, 
though  it  has  a  splendid  vegetation  of  innumerable  native  produc- 
tions, dyes  of  the  most  vivid  hues,  spices,  medicinal  plants,  and  many 
with  the  sweetest  perfume.  The  soil  in  many  places  yields  three 
crops  in  the  year :  the  fruits  of  India,  and  most  of  those  of  China, 
come  to  perfection  in  the  low  lands.  The  Arang  forms  an  exception 
to  the  extreme  beauty  of  the  multitude  of  palms  which  adorn  the 
Malayan  peninsula;  though  it  is  eminently  characteristic  of  that 
country,  it  is  an  ugly  plant,  covered  with  black  fibres  like  horsehair, 
sufficiently  strong  to  make  cordage.  It  is  Cultivated  for  the  sugar 
and  wine  made  from  its  juice.  Teak  is  plentiful;  almost  all  that  is 
used  in  Bengal  comes  from  the  Birman  empire,  though  it  is  less 
durable  than  that  of  the  Malabar  coast.  The  Hopea  odorata  is  so 
large  that  a  canoe  is  made  of  a  single  trunk;  the  Gordonia  integri- 
folia  is  held  in  such  veneration  that  every  Birman  house  has  a  beam 
of  it. 

There  are  seven  species  of  native  oak  in  the  forests;  the  mimosa 
catechu,  which  furnishes  the  terra  japonica  used  in  medicine ;  the 
trees  which  produce  varnish  and  stick-lac;  the  glyphyria  nitida,  a 
myrtle,  the  leaves  of  which  are  used  as  tea  in  Bencoolen,  called  by 
the  natives  the  tree  of  long  life.  The  coasts  are  wooded  by  the 
heritiera  robusta,  a  large  tree  which  thrives  within  reach  of  the 
tide ;  bamboos  with  stems  a  foot  and  a  half  in  diameter  grow  in 
dense  thickets  in  the  low  lands.  The  Palmyra  palm  and  the  bo- 
rassus  flabelliformis  grow  in  extensive  groves  in  the  valley  of  the 
Irrawaddy :  it  is  a  magnificent  tree,  often  100  feet  high,  remarkable 
for  its  gigantic  leaves,  one  of  which  would  shelter  12  men. 

The  anomalous  plants  the  Zamias  and  Cycadese,  somewhat  like  a 


CHAP.  XXV.     FLORA   OF   INDIAN   ARCHIPELAGO.  345 

palm  with  large  pinnated  leaves,  but  of  a  different  family,  are  found 
here  and  in  tropical  India;  those  in  America  are  of  a  different  spe- 
cies. Orchideae  and  tree-ferns  are  innumerable  in  the  woody  dis- 
tricts of  the  peninsula. 

The  vegetation  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  is  gorgeous  beyond  de- 
scription ;  although  in  many  instances  it  bears  a  strong  analogy  to 
that  of  the  Malayan  peninsula,  tropical  India,  and  Ceylon,  still  it  is 
iu  an  eminent  degree  peculiar.  The  height  of  the  mountains  causes 
variety  in  the  temperature  sufficient  to  admit  of  the  growth  of  dam- 
mar pines,  oaks,  rhododendrons,  magnolias,  valerians,  honeysuckles, 
bilberries,  gentians,  oleasters,  and  other  European  orders  of  woody 
and  herbaceous  plants;  yet  there  is  not  one  species  in  common. 

Palm-trees  are  more  abundant  in  these  islands  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  world,  especially  in  the  Sunda  group,  the  origin  of  many, 
a  few  of  which  are  now  widely  spread  over  the  eastern  countries. 
Three  species  of  Areca,  attaining  a  height  of  from  40  to  50  and 
more  feet,  are  cultivated  in  all  the  hot  parts  of  India;  and  caroyta 
Urens,  the  fruit  of  which  is  acrid,  yet  it  yields  wine  and  sugar,  are 
all  native.  The  attempt  is  vain  to  specify  the  multitudes  of  these 
graceful  trees  which  form  so  characteristic  a  feature  in  the  vegeta- 
tion of  these  tropical  islands,  where  a  rich  moist  soil  with  intense 
heat  brings  them  to  such  perfection.  It  has  been  observed  that 
monocotyledonous  plants  are  generally  more  plentiful  in  islands  than 
on  continents,  and  also  that  they  extend  farther  into  the  southern 
than  into  the  northern  hemisphere,  which  may  be  accounted  for  by 
the  moist  and  mild  climate  of  the  former. 

Jungle  and  dense  pestilential  woods  entirely  cover  the  smaller 
islands  and  the  plains  of  the  larger;  the  coasts  are  lined  with 
thickets  of  mangroves,  a  matted  vegetation  of  forest-trees,  bamboos, 
and  coarse  grass,  entwined  with  climbing  and  creeping  plants,  and 
overgrown  by  orchideous  parasites  in  myriads  :  the  gutta-percha  is 
also  a  native  of  these  alluvial  tracts.  The  forest-trees  of  the  Indian 
Archipelago  are  almost  unknown ;  teak  and  many  of  the  continental 
trees  grow  there,  but  the  greater  number  are  peculiarly  their  own. 
The  naturalist  Rumphius  had  a  cabinet  inlaid  with  400  kinds  of 
wood,  the  produce  of  Aniboyna  and  the  Molucca  islands. 

Sumatra,  Java,  [Borneo,]  and  the  adjacent  islands  are  the  region 
of  the  dryobalanops  camphora,  in  the  stems  of  which  solid  lumps 
of  a  remarkable  and  costly  kind  of  camphor  are  found.  All  the 
trees  of  that  order,  and  of  several  others,  are  peculiar  to  these 
islands,  and  78  species  of  trees  and  shrubs  of  the  Melastomaceous 
tribe  grow  there  and  in  continental  India.  There  are  thickets  of 
the  sword-leaved  vaquois-tree  and  of  the  Pandanus  or  screw-pine,  a 
plant  resembling  the  anana,  with  a  blossom  like  that  of  a  bulrush 
very  odoriferous,  and  in  some  species  edible. 


346  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXV. 

This  is  the  region  of  spices,  which  are  very  limited  in  their  dis- 
tribution :  the  myristica  moschata  (the  nutmeg  and  mace-plant)  is 
confined  to  the  Banda  Islands,  but  it  is  said  to  have  been  discovered 
lately  in  New  Guinea.  The  Amboyna  and  the  Molucca  groups  are 
the  focus  of  the  caryophyllus  aromaticus,  a  myrtle,  the  buds  of 
which  are  known  as  cloves.  Various  species  of  cinnamon  and  cassia, 
both  of  the  laurel  tribe,  together  with  varieties  of  pepper,  different 
from  those  in  India  and  Ceylon,  grow  in  this  archipelago.  All  the 
pepper-plants  require  great  heat :  they  are  rare  in  Africa,  but  plen- 
tiful in  America  and  the  Indian  Archipelago;  the  common  black 
pepper  is  peculiar  to  the  hottest  parts  of  Asia,  extending  only  a  few 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator.  In  1842  more  than  30,000,000 
pounds  weight,  of  pepper  were  produced  in  Sumatra  alone.  Some 
of  the  most  excellent  fruits  are  indigenous  here  only,  as  the  dourio, 
the  ayer  ayer,  loquat,  the  choapa  of  Molucca,  peculiar  kinds  of 
orange,  lemon,  and  citron,  with  others  known  only  by  name  else- 
where. Those  common  to  the  continent  of  India  are  the  jambrose, 
rose-apple,  jack,  various  species  of  bread-fruit,  mango,  mangosteen, 
and  the  banana. 

Here  the  nettle  tribe  assumes  the  most  pernicious  character,  as 
the  upas-tree  of  Java,  one  of  the  most  deadly  vegetable  poisons : 
and  even  the  plants  resembling  our  common  nettle  are  so  acrid  that 
the  sting  of  one  in  Java  occasions  not  only  pain  but  illness,  which 
lasts  for  days.  A  nettle  in  the  island  of  Timor,  called  by  the  na- 
tives the  "Devil's  leaf,"  is  so  poisonous  that  it  produces  long  illness 
and  even  death.  The  chelik,  a  shrub  growing  in  the  dense  forests, 
produces  a  poison  even  more  deadly  than  the  upas.  Some  of  the 
fig  genus,  which  belongs  also  to  the  natural  order  of  nettles,  have 
acrid  juices.  Trees  of  the  cacbew  tribe  have  a  milky  sap  :  the  fine 
japan  lacquer  is  made  from  the  juice  of  the  stigmaria  verniciflua. 
Barringtonia  and  palms  are  very  splendid  here,  the  latter  generally 
of  peculiar  species  and  limited  in  their  distribution,  as  the  Nipa. 
No  country  is  richer  in  club-mosses  and  orchideous  plants,  which 
overrun  the  trees  in  thousands  in  the  deep  dark  mountain  forests, 
choked  by  huge  creeping  plants,  an  undergrowth  of  gigantic  grasses, 
through  which  not  a  ray  of  light  penetrates. 

Sir  Stamford  Kaffles  describes  the  vegetation  of  Java  as  "  fearful." 
In  these  forests  the  air  is  heavy,  charged  with  dank  and  deadly 
vapours,  never  agitated  by  a  breath  of  wind  ;  the  soil,  of  the  deepest 
black  vegetable  mould,  always  moist  and  clammy,  stimulated  by  the 
fervid  heat  of  a  tropical  sun,  produces  trees  whose  stems  are  of  a 
spongy  texture  from  their  rapid  growth,  loaded  with  parasites,  par- 
ticularly the  orchideous  tribes,  of  which  no  less  than  300  species  are 
peculiar  to  that  island.  Tree-ferns  are  in  the  proportion  of  one  to 
twenty  of  the  other  plants,  and  form  a  large  portion  of  the  vegeta- 
tion of  Java  and  all  these  islands ;  and  there  are  above  200  tropical 


CHAP.  XXV.  INDIAN    FLORA.  347 

species  of  club-mosses  growing  to  the  length  of  8  feet,  whereas  in 
cold  countries  they  creep  on  the  ground. 

The  Rafflesias,  of  which  there  are  four  species,  are  the  most  sin- 
gular productions  of  this  archipelago.  The  most  extraordinary  one 
is  common  to  Java  and  Sumatra,  where  it  was  discovered  by  Dr. 
Arnold,  and  therefore  is  called  Rafflesia  Arnoldi.  It  is  a  parasitical 
plant,  with  buds  the  size  of  an  ordinary  cabbage,  and  the  flower, 
which  smells  of  carrion,  is  of  a  brick-red  colour,  3|  feet  in  diameter : 
that  found  by  Mr.  Arnold  weighed  15  pounds,  and  the  cup  in  its 
centre  could  contain  12  pints  of  liquid. 

According  to  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  there  are  six  distinct  climates 
in  Java,  from  the  top  of  the  mountains  to  the  sea,  each  having  an 
extensive  indigenous  vegetation.  No  other  country  can  show  an 
equal  abundance  and  variety  of  native  fruit  and  esculent  vegetables. 
There  are  100  varieties  of  rice,  and  of  fragrant  flowers,  shrubs,  and 
ornamental  trees  the  number  is  infinite.  Abundant  as  the  Orchi- 
deae  are  in  Java,  Ceylon,  and  the  Birmese  empire,  these  countries 
possess  very  few  that  are  common  to  all,  so  local  is  their  distribution. 
Ferns  are  more  plentiful  in  this  archipelago  than  elsewhere ;  tree- 
ferns  are  found  chiefly  between  or  near  the  tropics,  in  airless  damp 
places. 

INDIAN  FLORA. 

The  plains  of  Hindostan  are  so  completely  sheltered  from  the 
Siberian  blasts  by  the  high  table-lands  of  Tartary  and  the  Himalaya 
mountains,  that  the  vegetation  at  the  foot  of  that  range  already 
assumes  a  tropical  character.  In  the  jungles  and  lower  ridges  of  the 
fertile  valley  of  Nepal,  and  on  the  dark  and  airless  recesses  of  the 
Silhet  forests,  arborescent  ferns  and  orchideous  plants  are  found  in 
profusion,  scarcely  surpassed  even  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago— indeed  the  marshy  Tariyane  is  full  of  them.  Sekein  is  an 
extremely  rich  botanical  country.  Numerous  beautiful  species  of 
rhododendrons  were  discovered  by  Dr.  Hooker,  between  5000  and 
10,000;  and  the  Arctic  vegetation  between  10,000  and  17,000  feet 
is  also  very  rich.  In  the  Khasaya  country,  south  of  Assam,  at  the 
eastern  extremity  of  Bengal,  the  vegetation  is  extremely  abundant 
and  varied ;  oaks  abound.  The  lowest  ranges  of  the  Himalaya,  the 
pestilential  swamp  of  the  Tariyane,  the  alluvial  ridges  of  the  hills 
that  bound  it  on  the  south,  and  many  parts  of  the  plains  of  the 
Ganges,  are  covered  with  primeval  forests,  which  produce  whole 
orders  of  large  timber-trees,  frequently  overrun  with  parasitical 
loranths. 

The  native  fruits  of  India  are  many :  the  orange  tribe  is  almost 
all  of  Indian  origin,  though  some  of  the  species  are  now  widely 
spread  over  the  warmer  parts  of  the  other  continents  and  the  more 
distant  countries  of  Asia.  Two  or  three  species  are  peculiar  to  Mada- 


348  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXV. 

gascar ;  one  is  found  in  the  forests  of  the  Essequibo,  and  another  in 
Brazil,  which  are  the  only  exceptions  known.  The  liinonia  laureola 
grows  on  the  tops  of  the  high  Asiatic  mountains,  which  are  covered 
with  snow  several  months  in  the  year;  and  the  wampee,  a  fruit 
much  esteemed  in  China  and  the  Indian  Archipelago,  is  produced 
by  a  species  "of  this  order.  The  vine  grows  wild  in  the  forests; 
plantain,  banana,  jambrose,  guava,  mango,  mangosteen,  date,  areca, 
palmyra,  cocoa-nut,  and  gameto  palms  are  all  Indian,  also  the  gourd 
family.  The  Scitaminese,  or  ginger  tribe,  are  so  numerous,  that 
they  form  a  distinguishing  and  beautiful  feature  -of  Indian  botany : 
they  produce  ginger,  cardamons,  and  turmeric.  The  flowers  pecu- 
liar to  India  are  brilliant  in  colours,  but  generally  without  odour, 
except  the  rose  and  some  jessamines. 

The  greater  part  of  the  trees  and  plants  mentioned  belong  also  to 
tropical  India,  where  vegetation  is  still  more  luxuriant ;  a  large  por- 
tion of  that  magnificent  country,  containing  1,000,000  square  miles, 
has  been  cultivated  time  immemorial,  although  vast  tracts  still  re- 
main in  a  state  of  nature.  Those  extensive  mountain-chains  which 
traverse  and  surround  the  Deccan  are  rich  in  primeval  forests  of 
stupendous  growth  with  dense  underwood.  The  most  remarkable 
of  these  trees  are  the  Indian  cotton-tree  and  the  Dombeya,  which  is 
of  the  same  order;  that  which  produces  the  Trincomalee  wood,  used 
for  building  boats  at  Madras;  the  red-wood  tree,  peculiar  to  the 
Coramandel  coast;  the  satin-wood,  the  superb  butea  frondosa,  the 
agallochum  tribe,  which  yields  the  odorous  wood  of  aloes  mentioned 
in  Scripture,  the  melaleuca  leucadendron  and  the  melaleuca  cajepute, 
from  which  the  oil  is  prepared.  The  dragon's-blood  tree  is  a  native 
of  India,  though  not  exclusively,  as  some  of  the  best  specimens 
grow  [in  Brazil  and]  in  Madagascar,  where  it  is  planted  for  hedges. 
Sandal-wood  and  dragon's-blood  are  obtained  from  the  Pterocarpus 
sandalinus  and  draco ;  the  sappan-tree  gives  a  purple  dye  :  these  are 
all  of  the  leguminous  or  bean  tribe,  of  which  there  are  452  Indian 
species :  ebony  grows  in  these  tropical  regions,  in  Mauritius,  and  on 
the  south  coast  of  Africa. 

Trees  of  the  fig  tribe  are  among  the  most  remarkable  vegetable 
productions  of  India  for  gigantic  size  and  peculiarity  of  form,  which 
renders  them  valuable  in  a  hot  climate  from  the  shade  which  their 
broad- spreading  tops  afford.  Some  throw  off  shoots  from  their 
branches,  which  take  root  on  reaching  the  ground,  and,  after  increas- 
ing in  girth  with  wonderful  rapidity,  produce  branches  which  also 
descend  to  form  new  roots,  and  this  process  is  continued  till  a  forest 
is  formed  round  the  parent  tree.  Mr.  Reinwardt  saw  in  the  island 
of  Simao  a  large  wood  of  the  Ficus  Benjamina  which  sprang  from 
one  stem.  The  Ficus  Indica,  or  Banyan  tree,  is  another  instance 
of  this  wide-spreadiug  growth ;  it  is  found  in  the  islands,  but  is  in 
greatest  perfection  around  the  villages  in  the  Circar  mountains : 


CHAP.  XXV.  INDIAN    FLORA.  349 

there  is  a  tree  of  it  on  the  banks  of  the  Nerbudda,  in  the  province 
of  Guzerat,  with  350  main  stems,  occupying  an  area  of  2000  feet  in 
circumference,  independent  of  its  branches,  which  extend  much  far- 
ther. The  camphor  genus  is  mostly  Indian,  as  well  as  many  more 
of  the  laurel  tribe  of  great  size.  The  banana  is  the  most  generally 
useful  tree  in  this  country ;  its  fruit  is  food,  its  leaves  are  applied 
to  many  domestic  purposes,  and  flax  fit  for  making  muslin  is  obtained 
from  its  stem.  Cotton  is  a  hairy  covering  of  the  seeds  of  several 
species  of  the  mallow  tribe  which  grow  spontaneously  in  tropical 
Asia,  Africa,  and  America ;  it  is,  however,  cultivated  in  many  coun- 
tries beyond  these  limits.  That  grown  in  China  and  the  United 
States  of  America  is  an  herbaceous  annual  from  18  inches  to  2  feet 
high;  there  are  also  cotton-trees,  native  and  cultivated,  in  India, 
China,  Africa,  and  America.  Herodotus  mentions  cotton  garments 
445  years  before  the  Christian  era,  and  the  Mexicans  and  Peruvians 
manufactured  cotton  cloth  before  the  discovery  of  America. 
.  ["The  most  important  plants  of  the  family  of  MALVAC^E  are 
the  cotton-trees,  the  fruit  of  which  furnishes  the  textile  (weaveable) 
material,  known  under  the  name  of  cotton.  Many  species  of  this 
genus  are  known ;  one  called  herbaceous  cotton,  varies  much  in  its 
appearance;  sometimes  it  is  an  herbaceous  annual  plant  growing 
scarcely  beyond  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  in  height;  at  other  times 
a  shrub  from  four  to  six  feet  high,  the  stem  of  which  is  ligneous 
and  perennial  at  the  lower  part.  This  cotton-tree  grows  in  Egypt, 
Syria,  and  India,  and  is  also  cultivated  in  Sicily.  The  arborescent 
cotton-tree  was  originally  from  India ;  it  is  now  cultivated  in  Brazil 
and  Peru,  and  constitutes  one  of  the  most  important  products  of  the 
United  States :  it  grows  to  the  height  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet. 
The  leaves  of  these  plants  are  alternate,  petiolate,  and  divided  into 
five  digitate  lobes ;  the  flowers  borne  upon  peduncles  in  the  axils  of 
the  upper  leaves,  are  yellowish,  or  purplish.  The  fruit  is  an  egg- 
shaped  capsule,  divided  into  from  two  to  five  cells,  each  of  which 
contains  several  seeds;  the  cotton  is  found  surrounding  these  seeds."1 

Herbaceous  cotton  grows  from  four  to  six  feet  high,  and  produces 
two  crops  annually ;  the  first  in  eight  months  after  sowing  the  seed ; 
the  second  within  four  months  after  the  first;  and  the  produce  of 
each  plant  is  reckoned  at  about  one  pound  weight. 

According  to  the  census  of  1850,  there  were  1094  manufactories 
of  cotton  in  the  United  States,  which  manufactured  641,240  bales 
of  cotton  into  sheetings,  calicoes,  yarns,  &c.] 

Palms,  the  most  stately  and  graceful  of  the  vegetable  productions 
of  tropical  regions,  are  abundant  in  India,  in  forests,  in  groups,  and 
in  single  trees.  Some  species  grow  near  to  the  limit  of  perpetual 
snow,  some  900  feet  above  the  sea,  others  in  valleys  and  on  the 

['  Ruschenberger's  Elements  of  Natural  History. — Botany.] 
30 


350  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXV. 

shores  of  the  continent  and  islands.  They  decrease  in  number  and 
variety  as  the  latitude  increases,  and  terminate  at  Nice,  in  44°  N. 
lat.,  their  limit  in  the  great  continent.  The  leaves  of  some  are  of 
gigantic  size,  and  all  are  beautiful,  varying  in  height  from  the  slen- 
der Calamus  rotang,  130  feet  high,  to  the  Chamaerops  hninilis,  not 
more  than  15  or  20.  Different  species  yield  wine,  oil,  wax,  flour, 
sugar,  thread,  and  rope ;  weapons  and  utensils  are  made  by  their 
stems  and  leaves;  they  serve  for  the  construction  of  houses;  the 
cocoa-nut  palm  gives  food  and  drink ;  sago  is  made  from  all  except 
the  Areca  catechu,  the  fruit  of  which,  the  betel-nut,  is  used  by  the 
natives  for  its  intoxicating  quality. 

Though  palms  in  general  are  very  limited  in  their  distribution,  a 
few  species  are  very  widely  spread ;  for  example,  the  cocoa-nut 
palm,  which  grows  spontaneously  on  the  southern  coasts  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula  and  the  Sunda  Islands,  from  whence  it  has  been 
carried  to  all  the  intertropical  regions  of  the  globe,  where  it  has  been 
extensively  cultivated  from  its  usefulness.  So  luxuriant  is  its  growth 
in  Ceylon  that  in  one  year  nearly  3,000,000  of  nuts  were  exported ; 
in  parts  of  that  island,  on  the  Malabar  and  Coromandel  coasts,  and 
in  some  districts  in  Bengal,  the  Borassus  flabelliformis  supplies  its 
place. 

The  island  of  Ceylon,  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  southermost 
extremity  of  the  Indian  peninsula,  is  very  mountainous,  and  rivals 
the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago  in  luxuriance  of  vegetable 
productions,  and  in  some  respects  bears  a  strong  resemblance  to 
them.  The  species  of  laurel,  the  bark  of  which  is  cinnamon,  is  in- 
digenous, and  one  of  the  principal  sources  of  the  revenue  of  Ceylon. 
The  taleput  leaves  of  a  species  of  palm  are  of  such  enormous  size, 
that  they  are  applied  to  many  uses  by  the  Cingalese :  in  ancient 
times  strips  of  the  leaf  were  written  upon  with  a  sharp  style,  and 
served  as  books.  The  sandal-wood  of  Ceylon  is  of  a  different  spe- 
cies from  that  of  the  South  Sea  islands,  and  its  perfume  more 
esteemed.  Indigo  is  indigenous,  and  so  is  the  choya,  whose  roots 
give  a  scarlet  dye.  The  mountains  produce  a  great  variety  of  beau- 
tiful woods  used  in  cabinet  work.  It  is  a  remarkable  circumstance 
in  the  distribution  of  plants  that  the  orchidese  are  not  very  numer- 
ous in  this  island. 

ARABIAN  VEGETATION. 

The  third  division  of  the  tropical  flora  of  Asia  is  the  Arabian, 
which  differs  widely  from  the  other  two,  and  is  chiefly  marked  by 
trees  yielding  balsams.  Oceans  of  barren  sand  extend  to  the  south, 
from  Syria  through  the  greater  part  of  Arabia,  varied  only  by  occa- 
sional oases  in  those  spots  where  a  spring  of  water  has  reached  the 
surface;  there  the  prevalent  vegetation  consists  of  the  grasses 


CHAP.  XXV.  ARABIAN     VEGETATION.  351 

holcus  and  panicum  dicotomum  growing  under  the  shade  of  the 
date-palm ;  mimosas  and  stunted  prickly  bushes  appear  here  and 
there  in  the  sand.  There  is  verdure  on  the  mountains,  and  along 
some  of  the  coasts,  especially  in  the  province  of  Yemen,  which  has 
a  flora  of  its  own.  The  keura  odorifera,  a  superb  tree,  with  agree- 
able perfume,  eight  species  of  figs,  the  three  species  of  amyris  gilea- 
densis,  or  balm  of  Gilead,  opobalsamum  also  yielding  balsam,  and 
the  kataf,  from  which  myrrh  is  supposed  to  come,  are  peculiar  to 
Arabia.  Frankincense  is  said  to  be  the  produce  of  the  boswellia 
serrata ;  and  there  are  many  species  of  Acacia,  among  others  the 
acacia  arabica,  which  produces  gum  arabic.  The  arak  and  tamarind 
trees  connect  the  botany  of  Arabia  With  that  of  the  West  Indies, 
while  it  is  connected  with  that  of  the  Cape  of  Gfood  Hope  by  sta- 
pelias,  mesembryanthemums,  and  liliaceous  flowers.  The  character 
of  Arabian  vegetation,  like  that  of  other  dry  hot  climates,  consists 
in  its  odoriferous  plants  and  flowers. 

Arabia  produces  coffee,  which,  however,  is  not  indigenous,  but  is 
supposed  to  have  come  from  the  table-land  of  Ethiopia,  and  to  have 
its  name  from  the  province  of  Kaff'a,  where  it  forms  dense  forests. 
It  was  introduced  into  Arabia  in  the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  grows  luxuriantly  in  Arabia  Felix,  where  the  coffee  is  of  the 
highest  flavour.  Most  of  that  now  used  is  the  progeny  of  plants 
raised  from  seed  and  brought  from  Mocha  to  the  Botanic  Garden  at 
Amsterdam  in  1690,  by  Van  Hoorn,  Governor  of  Batavia.  A  plant 
was  sent  to  Louis  XIV.,  in  1714,  by  the  Magistrates  of  Amsterdam 
—  it  was  from  this  plant  that  the  first  coffee-plants  were  introduced 
in  1717  into  the  West  India  islands.  A  year  afterwards  the  Dutch 
introduced  coffee-trees  into  Surinam,  from  whence  they  spread  rapidly 
over  the  warm  parts  of  America  and  the  West  India  islands.  Many 
thousands  of  people  are  now  employed  in  its  cultivation  there,  in 
Demerara,  Java,  Manilla,  the  isle  of  Bourbon,  and  other  places. 
6,300,000  pounds  of  coffee  beans  were  imported  into  Great  Britain 
in  1849,  and  30,000  tons  of  shipping  were  employed  in  its  transport 
across  the  Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans.  Coffee  was  not  known  till 
many  centuries  after  the  introduction  of  sugar.  The  first  coffee- 
house was  opened  in  London  in  1652,  and  the  first  in  France,  at 
Marseilles,  1671. 

["  The  trunk  of  the  Coffee-tree — Coffea  Arabica — is  cylindrical, 
and  rises  to  from  fifteen  to  twenty  feet  high ;  its  branches  are  some- 
what knotty;  its  leaves  are  lanceolate,  shining,  and  of  a  deep  green; 
its  flowers  are  white  and  almost  sessile ;  and  its  fruit  is  fleshy,  ovoid 
berries,  which  are  at  first  green,  then  red,  and  finally  black;  each 
berry  encloses  two  fleshy  nuts,  each  containing  a  seed  convex  out- 
wardly and  flat  within,  and  marked  on  the  flat  side  by  a  longitudinal 
groove.  This  shrub  ordinarily  flowers  twice  a  year,  but  there  is 
scarcely  an  interval  between  these  periods,  so  that  it  is  always  loaded 


352 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


CHAP.  XXV. 


with  flowers  and  fruit ;  the  latter  generally  ripens  four  months  after 
inflorescence,  and  must  be  gathered  with  care  according  to  its  state 
of  maturity."  *  The  tree  bears  fruit  at  the  age  of  between  two  and 
three  years. 

By  the  Arabians,  who  brought  it,  Niebuhr  states,  from  Abyssinia 
to  Yemen,  coffee  has  been  cultivated  for  ages  in  the  hilly  range  of 
Jabal,  in  a  healthy  temperate  climate,  watered  by  frequent  rains,  and 
abounding  in  wells  and  water-tanks.  A  combination  of  circumstan- 
ces seems  to  favour  the  cultivation  of  coffee  in  Arabia,  which  can 
hardly  be  attained  elsewhere.  Frequent  rains,  and  a  pure  and  cloud- 
less sky  causing  an  almost  uninterrupted  flood  of  light,  communicate 
an  excessive  stimulus  to  all  the  functions  of  vegetation,  and  are 
causes  of  the  perfect  elaboration  of  those  delicate  principles  on  which 
the  aroma  of  the  coffee  is  dependent. 

The  seed  consists  chiefly  of  albumen  and  a  peculiar  or  proximate 
principle  termed  cafeine,  whose  ultimate  constituents  are  identical 
with  those  of  the  proximate  principle  of  tea,  theine,  as  well  as  those 
of  paraguaine,  the  active  principle  of  matt,  or  Paraguay  tea — Ilex 
paraguensis. 

The  commercial  importance  of  this  plant  renders  its  history  inte- 
resting. 

The  consumption  of  coffee  in  Europe,  in  the  year  1848,  by  the 
average  of  various  authorities,  was  400  millions  of  pounds ;  and  in 
the  United  States  and  British  America,  by  estimate,  150  millions 
of  pounds,  making  the  total  consumption  of  those  countries  alone, 
550,000,000  pounds. 

The  consumption  of  coffee,  it  is  estimated,  increases  in  Europe  at 
the  rate  of  2|  per  cent.,  and  in  the  United  States  at  the  rate  of  1\ 
per  cent,  per  annum.  t 

The  quantity  of  coffee  produced  in  several  countries  in  five  differ- 
ent years,  has  been  carefully  estimated  by  comparing  various  autho- 
rities, and  is  stated  in  millions  of  pounds  as  follows : — 


1841. 

1843. 

1848. 

1861. 

1852. 

160 

174 

270 

300 

800 

112 

125 

140 

100 

120 

25 

38 

35 

40 

30 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  

56 

50 

50 

30 

25 

British  West  Indies  

12 

10 

12 

7 

5 

French  and  Dutch  West  Indies  ... 

6 
12 

7 
15 

5 
10 

2 
10 

2 
8 

10 

8 

6 

5 

3 

10 

15 

25 

25 

30 

25 

30 

30 

25 

20 

2 

3 

5 

5 

5 

L_                                     

430 

471 

587 

559 

548 

1  [Ruschenberger's  Elements  of  Natural  History. — Botany.] 


CHAP.  XXVI.  AFRICAN    FLORA.'  353 

The  quantity  of  coffee  produced  has  increased  118  millions  of 
pounds  since  1841.' 

The  annual  average  consumption  of  coffee  to  the  population  of  the 
United  States  is  estimated  at  6£  pounds  per  head.] 


CHAPTER  XXVI. 

African  Flora  —  Flora  of  Australia,  New  Zealand,  Norfolk  Island,  and  of 

Polynesia. 

THE  northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  range  of  the  Atlas  gene- 
rally, may  be  regarded  as  a  zone  of  transition,  where  the  plants  of 
southern  Europe  are  mingled  with  those  peculiar  to  the  country; 
half  the  plants  of  northern  Africa  are  also  found  in  the  other  coun- 
tries on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  Of  60  trees  and  248 
shrubs  which  grow  there,  100  only  are  peculiar  to  Africa,  and  about 
18  of  these  belong  to  its  tropical  flora.  There  are  about  six  times 
as  many  herbaceous  plants  as  there  are  trees  and  shrubs ;  and  in  the 
Atlas  mountains,  as  in  other  chains,  the  perennial  plants  are  much 
more  numerous  than  annuals.  Evergreens  predominate,  and  are  the 
same  as  those  on  the  other  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  pome- 
granate, the  locust-tree,  the  oleander,  and  the  palmetto  abound ;  and 
the  cistus  tribe  give  a  distinct  character  to  the  flora.  The  sanda- 
rach,  or  thuia  articulata,  peculiar  to  the  northern  side  of  the  Atlas 
mountains  and  to  Cyrenaica,  yields  close-grained  hard  timber,  used 
for  the  ceiling  of  mosques,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  shittim  wood 
of  Scripture.  The  Atlas  produces  seven  or  eight  species  of  oak, 
various  pines,  especially  the  pinus  maritima,  and  forests  of  the 
Aleppo  pine  in  Algiers.  The  sweet-scented  arborescent  heath  and 
Erica  scoparia  are  native  here,  also  in  the  Canary  Islands  and  the 
Azores,  where  the  tribe  of  house-leeks  characterises  the  botany. 
There  are  534  phanerogamous  plants,  or  such  as  have  the  parts  of 
fructification  evident,  in  the  Canary  Islands;  of  these  310  are  in- 
digenous, the  rest  African ;  the  pinus  canariensis  is  peculiar,  and 
also  the  Dracsense,  which  grow  in  perfection  here.  The  stem  of  a 
dracaena  draco,  at  the  Villa  Oratava  in  Teneriffe,  measures  46  feet 
in  circumference  at  the  base  of  the  tree,  which  is  75  feet  high. 
It  is  known  to  have  been  an  object  of  great  antiquity  in  the  year 
1402,  and  is  still  alive,  bearing  blossoms  and  fruits.  If  it  be  not  an 
instance  of  the  partial  location  of  plants,  there  must  have  been  in- 
tercourse between  India  and  the  Canary  Islands  in  very  ancient  times 

1  [See  Hunt's  Merchant's  Magazine  for  1852.] 
30* 


354  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVI. 

Plants  with  bluish  green  succulent  leaves  are  characteristic  of 
tropical  Africa  and  its  islands ;  and  though  the  group  of  the  Cana- 
ries has  plants  in  common  with  Spain,  Portugal,  Africa,  and  the 
Azores,  yet  there  are  many  species,  and  even  genera,  which  are 
found  in  them  only ;  and  the  height  of  the  mountains  causes  much 
variety  in  the  vegetation. 

On  the  continent  south  of  the  Atlas  a  great  change  of  soil  and 
climate  takes  place ;  the  drought  on  the  borders  of  the  desert  is  so 
extensive  that  no  trees  can  resist  it,  rain  hardly  ever  falls,  and  the 
scorching  blasts  from  the  south  speedily  dry  up  any  moisture  that 
may  exist;  yet,  in  consequence  of  what  descends  from  the  moun- 
tains, the  date-palm  forms  large  forests  along  their  base,  which  sup- 
ply the  inhabitants  with  food,  and  give  shelter  to  crops  which  could 
not  otherwise  grow.  The  date-palm,  each  tree  of  which  yields  from 
150  to  160  pounds  weight  of  fruit,  grows  naturally,  anxl  is  also  cul- 
tivated, through  northern  Africa.1  It  has  been  carried  to  the  Canary 
Islands,  Arabia,  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  to  Nice,  the  most  northern 
limit  of  the  palm-tribe.  Stunted  plants  are  the  only  produce  of  the 
desert,  yet  large  tracts  are  covered  with  the  pennisetum  dichotomum, 
a  harsh  prickly  grass,  which,  together  with  the  alhagi  maurorum,  is 
the  food  of  Camels. 

The  plants  peculiar  to  Egypt  are,  acacias,  mimosas,  cassias,  tama- 
risks, and  nymphaea  Lotus,  the  blue  Lotus,  the  Papyrus,  from  which 
probably  the  first  substance  used  for  writing  upon  was  made,  and  has 
left  its  name  to  that  we  now  use  :  also  the  zizyphus  or  jujub,  various 
mesembryanthemums,  and  most  of  the  plants  of  Barbary  grow  here. 
The  date-palm  is  not  found  higher  on  the  Nile  than  Thebes,  where 
it  gives  place  to  the  doom-palm,  or  Cucifera  Thebaica,  peculiar  to 
this  district,  and  singular  as  being  the  only  palm  that  has  a  branch 
stem. 

The  eastern  side  of  equatorial  Africa  is  less  known  than  the  west- 
ern, but  the  floras  of  the  two  countries,  under  the  same  latitude,  have 
little  affinity :  on  the  eastern  side  the  Rubiaceae,  the  Euphorbias,  a 
race  peculiarly  African,  and  the  Malvaceae,  are  most  frequent.  The 
genus  Danais  of  the  coffee  tribe  distinguishes  the  vegetation  of  Abys- 
sinia, also  the  Dombeya,  a  species  of  vine,  various  jessamines,  a 
beautiful  species  of  honeysuckle ;  and  Bruce  says  a  caper-tree  grows 
to  the  height  of  the  elm,  with  white  blossoms,  and  fruit  as  large  as 
a  peach.  The  daroo,  or  ficus  sycomorus,  and  the  arak-tree,  are 
native.  The  kollquall,  or  euphorbia  antiquorum,  grows  40  feet  high 
on  the  plain  of  Baharnagach,  in  the  form  of  an  elegant  branched 
candelabrum,  covered  with  scented  fruit.  The  kantuffa,  or  thorny 

'  The  best  dates  are  those  grown  near  Tozzer  in  the  Beled  el  Jerid,  in  lat. 
34°  N.,  a  region  which,  like  that  of  Jericho,  also  celebrated  for  its  dates, 
has  an  extremely  warm  climate,  supposed  to  be  owing  to  its  depression 
below  the  sea  level. 


CHAP.  XXVI.  AFRICAN     FLORA. 

shrub,  is  so  great  a  nuisance  from  its  spines,  that  even  animals  avoid 
it.  The  erythrina  abyssinica  bears  a  poisonous  red  bean  with  a  black 
spot,  used  by  the  Shangella  and  other  tribes  for  ages  as  a  weight  for 
gold  and  by  the  women  as  necklaces.  Mr.  Rochet  d'Hericourt  has 
lately  brought  some  seeds  of  new  grain  from  Shoa,  that  are  likely 
to  be  a  valuable  addition  to  European  cerealia. 

The  vegetation  of  tropical  Africa  on  the  west  is  known  only  along 
the  coast,  where  some  affinity  with  that  of  India  may  be  observed. 
It  consists  of  573  species  of  flower-bearing  plants,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  a  remarkable  uniformity,  not  only  in  orders  and  genera, 
but  even  in  species,  from  the  16th  degree  of  N.  lat.  to  the  river 
Congo  in  6°  S.  lat.  The  most  prevalent  are  the  grasses  and  beau 
tribes,  the  Cyperacese  Ilubiacese,  and  the  Composites.  The  Adan- 
sonia,  or  baobab  of  Senegal,  is  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  vege- 
table productions;,  the  stem  is  sometimes  34  feet  in  diameter,  though 
the  tree  is  rarely  more  than  50  or  60  feet  high  ;  it  covers  the  sandy 
plains  so  entirely  with  its  umbrella-shaped  top,  that  a  forest  of  these 
trees  presents  a  compact  surface,  which  at  some  distance  seems  to  be 
a  green  field.  Cape  Verde  has  its  name  from  the  numbers  that  con- 
ceal the  barren  soil  under  their  spreading  tops ;  some  of  them  are 
very  old,  and,  with  the  dragon-tree  at  Teneriffe,  are  supposed  to  be 
the  most  ancient  vegetable  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  The  pandanus 
candelabrum,  instead  of  growing  crowded  together  in  masses  like  the 
baobab,  stands  solitary  on  the  equatorial  plains,  with  its  lofty  forked 
branches  ending  in  tufts  of  long  stiff  leaves.  Numerous  sedges,  of 
which  the  Papyrus  is  the  most  remarkable,  give  a  character  to  this 
region,  and  cover  boundless  plains,  waving  in  the  wind  like  corn- 
fields, while  other  places  are  overgrown  by  forests  of  gigantic  grasses 
with  branching  stems. 

A  rich  vegetation,  consisting  of  impenetrable  thickets  of  man- 
grove, the  poisonous  machineel,  and  many  large  trees,  cover  the 
deltas  of  the  rivers,  and  even  grow  so  far  into  the  water  that  their 
trunks  are  coated  with  shell-fisb ;  but  the  pestilential  exhalations 
render  it  almost  certain  death  to  botanize  in  this  luxuriance  of  nature. 

Various  kinds  of  the  soap  or  sapodilla  trees  are  peculiar  to  Africa; 
the  butter-tree  of  the  enterprising  but  unfortunate  Mungo  Park,  the 
star-apple,  the  cream-fruit,  the  custard-apple,  and  the  water-vine,  are 
plentiful  in  Senegal  and  Sierra  Leone.  The  ibraculea  is  peculiarly 
African ;  its  seeds  are  used  to  sweeten  brackish  water.  The  safu 
and  bread-fruit  of  Polynesia  are  represented  here  by  the  musanga,  a 
large  tree  of  the  nettle  tribe,  the  fruit  of  which  has  the  flavour  of 
the  hazel-nut.  A  few  palms  have  very  local  habitations,  as  the  elais 
guineaensis,  or  palm-oil  plant,  found  only  on  that  coast.  That  grace- 
ful tribe  is  less  varied  in  species  in  equatorial  Africa  than  in  the 
other  continents.  It  appears  that  a  great  part  of  the  flora  of  this 
portion  of  Africa  is  of  foreign  origin. 


356  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXVI. 

The  flora  of  South  Africa  differs  entirely  from  that  of  the  north- 
ern and  tropical  zones,  and  as  widely  from  that  of  every  other  coun- 
try, with  the  exception  of  Australia  and  some  parts  of  Chile.  The 
soil  of  the  table-land  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  stretching  to  an 
unknown  distance,  and  of  the  Karoo  plains  and  valleys  between  the 
mountains,  is  sometimes  gravelly,  but  more  frequently  is  composed 
of  sand  and  clay ;  in  summer  it  is  dry  and  parched,  and  most  of 
its  rivers  are  dried  up ;  it  bears  but  a  few  stunted  shrubs,  some  suc- 
culent plants  and  mimosas,  along  the  margin  of  the  river-courses. 
The  sudden  effect  of  rain  on  the  parched  ground  is  like  magic :  it 
is  recalled  to  life,  and  in  a  short  time  is  decked  with  a  beautiful  and 
peculiar  vegetation,  comprehending,  more  than  any  other  country, 
numerous  and  distinctly  defined  foci  of  genera  and  species. 

Twelve  thousand  species  of  plants  have  been  collected  in  the  colony 
of  the  Cape  in  an  extent  of  country  about  equal  to  Germany.  Of 
these,  heaths  and  proteas  are  two  very  conspicuous  tribes ;  there  are 
300  species  of  the  former,  and  200  of  the  latter,  both  of  which  have 
nearly  the  same  limited  range,  though  Mr.  Banbury  found  two 
heaths,  and  the  protea  cynaroides,  the  most  splendid  of  the  family 
(bearing  a  flower  the  size  of  a  man's  hat),  on  the  hills  round  Gra- 
ham's Town,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  colony.  These  two  tribes 
of  plants  are  so  limited  that  there  is  not  one  of  either  to  be  seen 
north  of  the  mountains  which  bound  the  Great  Karoo,  and  by  much 
the  greatest  number  of  them  grew  within  100  miles  of  Cape  Town  ; 
indeed  at  the  distance  of  only  40  miles  the  prevailing  Proteacese 
are  different  from  those  at  the  Cape.  The  leucadendron  argenteum, 
or  silver-tree,  which  forms  groves  at  the  back  of  the  table-mountains, 
is  confined  to  the  peninsula  of  the  Cape.  The  beautiful  disa  gran- 
diflora  is  found  only  in  one  particular  place  on  the  top  of  the  table- 
mountain. 

The  dry  sand  of  the  west  coast  and  the  country  northward, 
through  many  degrees  of  latitude,  is  the  native  habitation  of  stape- 
lias,  succulent  plants  with  square  leafless  stems,  and  flowers  like 
star-fish,  with  the  smell  of  carrion,  A  great  portion  of  the  eastern 
frontier  of  the  Cape  colony  and  the  adjacent  districts  is  covered  with 
extensive  thickets  of  a  strong  succulent  and  thorny  vegetation,  called 
by  the  natives  the  bush  :  similar  thickets  occur  again  far  to  the 
west,  on  the  banks  of  the  river  Gauritz.  The  most  common  plants 
of  the  bush  are  aloes  of  many  species,  all  exceedingly  fleshy  and 
some  beautiful :  the  great  red -flowering  arborescent  aloe,  and  some 
others,  make  a  conspicuous  figure  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  colony. 
Other  characteristic  plants  of  the  eastern  districts  are  the  spek-boem, 
or  portulacaria  afra,  schotia  speciosa,  and  the  great  succulent  euphor- 
bias, which  grow  into  real  trees  40  feet  high,  branching  like  a  can- 
delabrum, entirely  leafless,  prickly,  and  with  a  very  acrid  juice. 
The  euphorbia  meloformis,  three  feet  in  diameter,  lies  on  the  ground, 


CHAP.  XXVI.  AFRICAN    FLORA.  357 

to  which  it  is  attached  by  slender  fibrous  roots,  and  is  confined  to 
the  mountains  of  Graaf  Reynet.  Euphorbias,  in  the  Old  World, 
correspond  with  the  Cactus  tribe,  which  belong  exclusively  to  the 
New.  The  Zamia,  a  singular  plant,  having  the  appearance  of  a 
dwarf-palm  without  any  real  similarity  of  structure,  belongs  to  the 
eastern  districts,  especially  to  the  great  tract  of  bush  on  the  Caffir 
frontier. 

Various  species  of  Acacia  are  indigenous  and  much  circumscribed 
in  their  location :  the  acacia  horrida,  or  the  white-thorned  acacia,  is 
very  common  in  the  eastern  districts  and  in  Caffirland.  The  acacia 
cafra  is  strictly  eastern,  growing  along  the  margins  of  rivers,  to 
which  it  is  a  great  ornament.  The  acacia  detinens,  or  hook-thorn, 
is  almost  peculiar  to  Zand  valley. 

It  appears  from  the  instances  mentioned  that  the  vegetation  in  the 
eastern  districts  of  the  colony  differs  from  that  on  the  western,  yet 
many  plants  are  generally  diffused  of  orders  and  genera  found  only 
in  this  part  of  Africa: — Nearly  all  the  800  species  of  the  fleshy 
succulent  tribe  of  mesembryanthemum,  or  Hottentot's  fig ;  a  great 
many  beautiful  species  of  the  Oxalis,  or  wood-sorrel  tribe;  every 
species  of  Gladiolus,  with  the  exception  of  that  in  the  corn-fields  in 
Italy  and  France ;  ixias  innumerable,  one  with  petals  of  apple-green 
colour;  geraniums,  especially  the  genus  Pelargonium,  or  stork's  bill, 
almost  peculiar  to  this  locality ;  many  varieties  of  Gnaphalium  and 
Xeranthemum ;  the  brilliant  Strelitzia;  133  species  of  the  house- 
leek  tribe,  all  fleshy,  attached  to  the  soil  by  a  strong  wiry  root,  and 
nourished  more  or  less  from  the  atmosphere :  Diosmas  are  widely 
scattered  in  great  variety;  shrubbery  Boragineae,  with  flowers  of 
vivid  colours,  and  Orchideae  with  large  and  showy  blossoms.  The 
leguminous  plants  and  the  Cruciferae  of  the  Cape  are  peculiar; 
indeed  all  the  vegetation  has  a  distinct  character,  and  both  genera 
and  species  are  confined  within  narrower  limits  than  anywhere  «lse, 
without  any  apparent  cause  to  account  for  a  dispersion  so  arbitrary. 

Notwithstanding  the  peculiarity  of  character  with  which  the  botany 
of  the  Cape  is  so  distinctly  marked,  it  is  connected  with  that  of  very 
remote  countries  by  particular  plants;  for  example,  of  the  seven 
species  of  bramble  which  grow  at  the  Cape,  one  is  the  common 
English  bramble,  or  blackberry.  The  affinity  with  New  Holland  is 
greater :  in  portions  of  the  two  countries  in  the  same  latitude  there 
are  several  genera  and  species  that  are  identical :  Proteaceae  are  com- 
mon to  both,  so  are  several  genera  of  Irideee,  Leguminosse,  Ficoideae, 
Myrtaceae,  Diosmeae,  and  some  others.  The  botany  of  the  Cape  is 
connected  with  that  of  India,  and  even  that  of  South  America,  by 
a  few  congeners. 

The  vegetation  of  Madagascar,  though  similar  in  many  respects 
to  the  floras  of  India  and  Africa,  nevertheless  is  its  own  :  the  Brex- 
iacece  and  Chlenaceae  are  orders  found  nowhere  else;  there  are  spe- 


358  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVI. 

cies  of  Bignonia,  Cycadese,  and  Zamias,  a  few  of  the  mangosteen 
tribe,  and  in  the  mountains  some  heaths.  The  hydrogeton  fenes- 
tralis  is  a  singular  aquatic  plant,  with  leaves  like  the  dried  skeletons  of 
leaves,  having  no  green  fleshy  substance,  and  the  tanghinia  veneniflua, 
which  produces  a  poison  so  deadly  that  its  seeds  are  used  to  execute 
criminals,  and  one  seed  is  sufficient. 

Some  genera  and  species  are  common  and  peculiar  to  Madagascar, 
the  Isle  of  Bourbon,  and  Mauritius;  yet  of  the  161  known  genera 
in  Madagascar  only  54  grow  on  the  other  two  islands.  The  three 
islands  are  rich  in  ferns.  The  Pandanus,  or  screw-pine  genus, 
abounds  in  Bourbon  and  the  Mauritius,  where  it  covers  the  sandy 
plains,  sending  off  strong  aerial  roots  from  the  stem,  which  strike 
into  the  ground  and  protect  the  plant  from  the  violent  winds.  Of 
290  genera  in  Bourbon  and  Mauritius,  196  also  grow  in  India, 
though  the  species  are  different :  there  is  also  some  resemblance  to 
the  vegetation  of  South  Africa,  and  there  is  a  solitary  genus  in 
common  with  America. 

Eight  or  ten  degrees  north  of  Madagascar  lies  the  group  of  the 
Seychelles  Islands,  in  which  are  groves  of  the  peculiar  palm  which 
bears  the  double  cocoa-nut,  or  coco  de  mer,  the  growth  of  these 
islands  only.  Its  gigantic  leaves  are  employed  in  the  construction 
of  houses,  and  other  parts  of  the  plant  are  applied  to  various  do- 
mestic purposes. 

FLORA  OF  AUSTRALIA. 

The  interior  of  the  Australian  continent  is  so  little  known,  that 
the  flora  which  has  come  under  observation  is  confined  to  a  short 
distance  from  the  coast ;  but  it  is  of  so  strange  and  unexampled  a 
character,  that  it  might  easily  be  mistaken  for  the  production  of 
another  plauet.  Many  entire  orders  of  plants  are  known  only  in 
Australia,  and  the  genera  and  species  of  others  that  grow  elsewhere 
assume  new  and  singular  forms.  Evergreens,  with  hard  narrow 
leaves  of  a  sombre,  melancholy  hue,  are  prevalent,  and  there  are 
whole  shadowless  forests  of  leafless  trees;  the  foot-stalks,  dilated 
and  set  edgewise  on  the  stem,  supply  their  place,  and  perform  the 
functions  of  nutrition ;  their  altered  position  gives  them  a  singular 
appearance.  Plants  in  other  countries  have  glands  on  the  under 
side  of  the  leaves,  but  in  Australia  there  are  glands  on  both  sides 
of  these  substitutes  for  leaves,  which  make  them  dull  and  lustreless, 
and  the  changes  of  the  seasons  have  no  influence  on  the  unvarying 
olive-green  of  the  Australian  forests;  even  the  grasses  are  distin- 
guished from  the  gramineae  of  other  countries  by  a  remarkable 
rigidity.  Torres  Straits,  in  the  north,  only  50  miles  broad,  sepa- 
rates this  dry,  sombre  vegetation  from  the  luxuriant  jungle-clad 
shores  of  New  Guinea,  where  deep  and  dark  forests  are  rich  in  more 


CHAP.  XXVI.  FLORA    OP    AUSTRALIA.  359 

than  the  usual  tropical  exuberance  —  a  more  complete  and  sudden 
change  can  hardly  be  imagined. 

The  peculiarly  Australian  vegetation  is  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  continent  of  New  Holland  distributed  in  distinct  foci  in  the 
same  latitude,  a  circumstance  of  which  the  Proteacese  afford  a  re- 
markable instance.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  known  species  of  these 
beautiful  shrubs  grow  in  the  parallel  of  Port  Jackson,  from  which 
they  decrease  in  number  both  to  the  south  and  the  north.  In  that 
latitude,  however,  there  are  twice  as  many  species  on  the  eastern 
side  of  the  continent  as  there  are  on  the  western,  and  four  times  as 
many  as  in  the  centre.  Although  the  Proteaceae  at  both  extremities 
of  the  continent  have  all  the  characters  peculiar  to  Australia,  yet 
those  on  the  eastern  coast  resemble  the  South  American  species, 
while  those  on  the  western  side  have  a  resemblance  to  African 
forms,  and  are  confined  to  the  same  latitudes. 

Species  of  this  family  are  numerous  in  Van  Diemen's  Land; 
where  they  thrive  at  the  elevation  of  3500  feet,  and  also  on  the 
plains.  The  myrtle  tribe  form  a  conspicuous  feature  in  Australian 
vegetation,  particularly  the  genera  Eucalyptus,  Melaleuca,  Beau- 
fortia,  and  others,  with  splendid  blossoms  —  white,  purple,  yellow, 
crimson :  100  species  of  the  Eucalypti,  most  of  them  large  trees, 
grow  in  Australia;  they  form  great  forests  in  the  colony  of  Port 
Jackson.  The  leafless  acacias,  of  which  there  are  93  species,  are  a 
prominent  feature  in  the  Australian  landscape.  The  leaves,  except 
in  very  young  plants,  are  merely  foliaceous  foot-stalks,  presenting 
their  margin  towards  the  stem ;  yet  these  and  the  Eucalypti  form 
the  densest  shade  of  any  trees  in  the  country.  The  ,genus  Casua- 
rina,  with  its  strange-jointed  drooping  branches,  called  the  marsh 
oak,  holds  a  conspicuous  place ;  it  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  principal 
parallel  of  this  vegetation,  and  produces  excellent  timber ;  it  grows 
also  in  the  Malayan  peninsula  and  South  Sea  islands.  The  oxleya 
xanthoxylon,  or  yellow  wood,  one  of  the  mahogany  tribe,  grows  to 
great  size ;  and  the  podocarpus  aspleniifolia  forms  a  new  genus  of 
the  cone-bearing  tree.  Some  of  the  nettle  tribe  grow  15  or  even 
20  feet  high.  The  Epacrideas,  with  scarlet,  rose,  and  white  blos- 
soms, supply  the  place  of,  and  very  much  resemble,  heaths,  which 
do  not  exist  here.  The  purple  flowering  Tremandreae ;  the  yellow- 
flowering  Dilleniaceae ;  the  doryanthes  excelsa,  the  most  splendid 
of  the  lily  tribe,  24  feet  high,  with  a  brilliant  crimson-  blossom ;  the 
Banksia,  the  most  Australian  of  all  the  Proteaceoe;  with  Zamias  of 
new  species,  are  all  conspicuous  in  the  vegetation  of  Port  Jackson. 

There  is  a  change  on  the  north-eastern  coast  of  Australia.  The 
castanospermum  australe  is  so  plentiful  that  it  furnishes  the  prin- 
cipal food  of  the  natives;  a  caper-tree  of  grotesque  form,  having 
the  colossal  dimensions  of  the  Senegal  baobab,  and  extraordinary 
trees  of  the  fig  genus,  characterize  this  region.  It  sometimes  occurs, 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVI. 

when  the  seeds  of  these  fig-trees  are  deposited  by  birds  on  the  iron- 
bark-tree,  or  euacalyptus  resinifera,  that  they  vegetate  and  enclose 
the  trunk  of  the  tree  entirely  with  their  roots,  whence  they  send  off 
enormous  lateral  branches,  which  so  completely  envelop  the  tree, 
that  at  last  its  top  alone  is  visible  in  the  centre  of  the  fig-tree,  at 
the  height  of  70  or  80  feet.  The  Pandanus  genus  flourishes  within 
the  influence  of  the  sea-air.  There  are  only  six  species  of  palms, 
equally  local  in  their  habitations  as  elsewhere,  not  one  of  which 
grows  on  the  west  side  of  the  continent.  The  Araucaria  excelsa, 
or  Norfolk  Island  pine,  produces  the  best  timber  of  any  tree  in  this 
part  of  Australia :  it,  or  others  of  the  same  genus,  extends  from  the 
parallel  of  29°  on  the  east  coast  towards  the  equator,  and  grows 
over  an  area  of  900  square  miles,  including  New  Norfolk,  New  Cale- 
donia, and  other  islands,  some  of  which  have  no  other  timber-tree  : 
they  are  supposed  to  exist  only  within  the  influence  of  the  sea. 
The  Asphodeleae  abound  and  extend  to  the  southern  extremity  of 
Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  south-western  districts  of  Australia  exhibit  another  focus  of 
vegetation,  less  rich  in  species  than  that  of  Port  Jackson,  but  not 
less  peculiar.  The  kingia  australis,  or  grass-tree,  rises  solitary  on, 
the  sandy  plains,  with  bare  blackened  trunks  as  if  scathed  by  light- 
ning, occasioned  by  the  fires  of  the  natives,  and  tufts  of  long  grassy 
leaves  at  their  extremities;  Banksias,  particularly  the  kind  called 
wild  honeysuckle,  are  numerous ;  the  Stylidium,  whose  blossoms  are 
even  more  irritable  than  the  leaves  of  the  sensitive  mimosa,  and 
plants  with  dry,  everlasting  blossoms,  characterize  the  flora  of  these 
districts.  The  greater  part  of  the  southern  vegetation  vanishes  on 
the  northern  coasts  of  the  continent,  and  what  remains  is  mingled 
with  the  cabbage-palm,  various  species  of  the  nutmeg  tribe;  sandal- 
wood,  and  other  Malayan  forms — a  circumstance  that  may  hereafter 
be  of  importance  to  our  colonists. 

Orchidese,  chiefly  terrestrial,  are  in  great  variety  in  the  extra- tro- 
pical regions  of  Australia,  and  the  grasses  amount  to  one-fourth  of 
the  monocotyledonous  plants.  Reeds  of  gigantic  size  form  forests 
in  the  marshes,  and  kangaroo  grass  covers  the  plains. 

Beautiful  and  varied  as  the  flora  is,  Australia  is  by  no  means  lux- 
uriant in  vegetation.  There  is  little  appearance  of  verdure,  the 
foliage  is  poor,  the  forests  often  shadeless,  and  the  grass  thin ;  but 
in  many  valleys  of  the  mountains,  and  even  on  some  parts  of  the 
plains,  the  vegetation  is  vigorous.  It  is  not  the  least  remarkable 
circumstance  in  this  extraordinary  flora,  that,  with  the  exception  of 
a  few  berries,  there  is  no  edible  fruit,  grain>  or  vegetable  indigenous 
either  in  Australia  or  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

The  plants  of  Australia  prevail  in  every  part  of  Van  Diemen's 
Land ;  yet  the  coldness  of  the  climate  and  the  height  of  the  moun- 
tains permit  genera  of  the  northern  hemisphere  to  be  mixed  with 


CHAP.  XXVI.     BOTANY    OP    NEW    ZEALAND.  361 

the  vegetation  of  the  country.  Butter-cups,  anemones,  and  polygo- 
nums  of  peculiar  species  grow  on  the  mountain-tops,  together  with 
Proteacese  and  other  Australian  plants.  The  plains  glow  with  the 
warm  golden  flowers  of  the  black  wattle,  a  mimosa,  emblematic  of 
the  island,  and  with  the  equally  bright  and  orange  blossom  of  the 
gorse,  which  perfumes  the  whole  atmosphere.  Only  one  tree-fern 
grows  in  this  country ;  it  rises  20  feet  to  the  base  of  the  fronds, 
which  spread  into  an  elegant  top,  producing  a  shadow  gloomy  as 
night-fall,  and  there  are  150  species  of  orchis.  The  southern  ex- 
tremities both  of  Australia  and  Van  Diemen's  Land  are  character- 
ized by  the  prevalence  of  evergreen  plants :  but  the  trees  here,  as 
well  as  in  the  other  parts  of  the  southern  hemisphere,  do  not  shed 
their  leaves  periodically  as  with  us. 

The  botany  of  New  Zealand  appears  to  be  intimately  allied  to 
that  of  Australia,  South  America,  and  South  Africa,  but  chiefly  to 
that  of  the  first.  Noble  trees  form  impenetrable  forests,  60  of 
which  yield  the  finest  timber,  and  many  are  of  kinds  to  which  we 
have  nothing  similar.  Here  there  are  no  representatives  of  our 
oak,  birch,  or  willow,  but  five  species  of  beech  and  ten  of  Coniferse 
have  been  discovered  that  are  peculiar  to  the  country.  They  are 
all  alpine,  and  only  descend  to  the  level  of  the  sea  in  the  southern 
parts  of  the  island.  The  Coniferge  of  the  southern  hemisphere  are 
more  local  than  in  the  northern ;  of  the  ten  species  peculiar  to  New 
Zealand  it  is  not  certain  that  more  than  two  or  three  are  found  in 
the  middle  island,  or  that  any  of  them  grow  south  of  the  40th 
parallel.  The  Kauri  pine,  or  dammara  australis,  is  indigenous  in 
all  the  three  islands ;  but  it  is  the  only  cone-bearing  tree  in  the  North 
Island,  where  it  grows  in  hilly  situations  near  the  sea,  shooting  up 
with  a  clean  stem  60  or  90  feet,  sometimes  30  feet  in  diameter,  with 
a  spreading  but  thin  top,  and  generally  has  a  quantity  of  transparent 
yellow  resin  imbedded  at  its  base.  This  fine  tree  does  not  grow 
beyond  the  38th  degree  of  S.  lat.  The  metrosideros  tomentosa, 
with  rich  crimson  blossoms,  is  one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the 
forests,  and  the  metrosideros  robusta  is  the  most  singular.  It  grows 
to  a  very  great  size,  and  sends  shoots  from  its  trunk  and  branches 
to  the  ground,  which  become  so  massive  that  they  support  the  old 
stem,  which  to  all  appearance  loses  its  vitality;  it  is  in  fact  an  enor- 
mous epiphyte,  growing  to,  and  not  from,  the  ground.  Many  of 
the  smaller  trees  are  of  the  laurel  tribe,  with  poisonous  berries. 
Besides,  there  is  a  cabbage-palm,  the  areca  sapida,  elder,  the  fuchsia 
excorticata,  and  other  shrubs.  This  country  is  probably  the  south- 
ern limit  of  the  orchideous  plants  that  grow  on  trees.  Before  New 
Zealand  was  colonized,  the  natives  lived  chiefly  on  the  roots  of  the 
edible  fern,  pteris  esculenta,  with  which  the  country  is  densely 
covered,  mixed  with  a  shrub  that  grows  like  a  cypress,  and  the  tea- 
plant,  which  is  a  kind  of  myrtle  whose  berries  afford  an  intoxicating 
31 


362  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXVI. 

liquor.  More  than  140  species  of  fern  are  natives  of  these  islands, 
some  of  which  are  arborescent  and  40  feet  high ;  the  country  is 
chiefly  covered  with  these  and  with  the  New  Zealand  flax,  phor- 
mium  tenax,  which  grows  abundantly  both  on  the  mountains  and 
plains.  The  vegetation  is  so  vigorous  on  these  volcanic  islands  that 
it  grows  richly  on  the  banks  of  hot  springs,  and  even  in  water  too 
hot  to  be  touched. 

In  Norfolk  Island  152  species  of  plants  are  already  known,  and 
many,  no  doubt,  are  yet  to  be  discovered.  The  Cape  gooseberry  or 
physalis  edulis,  the  guava-tree,  pepper,  white  and  swamp  oak,  iron, 
blood- wood,  and  lemon  trees,  are  native;  also  the  bread-fruit  tree, 
which  blossoms,  but  does  not  bear  fruit.  The  araucaria  excelsa  and 
some  palms  are  indigenous,  and  there  are  three  times  as  many  ferns 
as  of  all  the  other  plants  together. 

The  multitude  of  islands  of  Polynesia  constitute  a  botanical  region 
apart  from  all  others,  though  it  is  but  little  varied,  and  characterized 
principally  by  the  number  of  syngenesious  plants  with  arborescent 
forms  and  tree-ferns.  In  continental  India  and  the  tropical  parts  of 
Australia  the  proportion  of  ferns  to  conspicuously  flowering  plants 
is  as  1  to  26,  while  on  the  Polynesian  islands  it  is  1  to  4,  and  per- 
haps even  as  1  to  3.2 

The  cocoa-nut  palm  and  the  pandanus  are  common  to  all  the 
islands,  but  the  latter  thrives  only  when  exposed  to  the  sea-air.  This 
archipelago  produces  tacca  pinnatifida,  which  yields  arrow-root;  the 
morus  papyrifera,  whose  bark  is  manufactured  into  paper;  and  one 
of  the  Dracaena  tribe,  from  which  an  intoxicating  liquor  is  made. 
Fifty  varieties  of  the  bread-fruit  tree  are  indigenous,  which  produce 
three  or  four  crops  annually.  It  is  most  abundant  in  the  Friendly, 
Society,  and  Caroline  groups,  from  whence  it  has  been  taken  to 
America,  where  it  thrives  in  very  low  latitudes.  The  Sandwich 
group  is  peculiar  in  the  number  of  Goodenias  and  Lobelias;  while 
the  Coral  islands,  whose  flora  is  entirely  borrowed,  rarely  have  two 
species  belonging  to  the  same  genus ;  the  fragrant  suriana  and  sweet- 
scented  Tournfortia  are  among  their  scanty  vegetation: 

The  two  species  of  banana-trees  which  are  natives  of  southern 
Asia  have  been  introduced  at  an  unknown  and  probably  earlyperiod 
into  the  Polynesian  islands,  and  all  tropical  countries  in  the  eastern 
and  western  hemispheres.  Syria  is  their  northern  limit,  where  the 
Musa  paradisaica  grows  to  34°  N.  lat.  The  sweet  fruit  of  these 
trees  produces,  on  the  same  extent  of  ground,  44  times  as  much 
nutriment  as  the  potato,  and  133  times  more  than  wheat. 

St.  Helena,  the  Sandwich  group,  New  Zealand,  Juan  Fernandez, 
and  above  all  the  Galapagos  islands,  are  more  peculiar  in  their  floras 
than  any  other  tracts  of  their  size.  The  Galapagos  archipelago  con- 
sists of  10  principal  islands  lying  immediately  under  the  equator, 

1  Dr.  Mantel.  »  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker 


CHAP.  XXVII.        AMERICAN    VEGETATION.  363 

600  miles  from  the  coast  of  America.  They  are  entirely  volcanic, 
and  contain  2000  extinct  craters.  The  vegetation  is  so  peculiar  that, 
of  180  plants  which  have  been  collected,  100  are  found  nowhere 
else  j  of  21  species  of  Composite  all  but  one  are  new,  and  belong 
to  10  genera,  8  of  which  are  confined  to  these  islands  exclusively. 

This  flora  has  no  analogy  to  that  of  Polynesia,  but  it  bears  a 
double  relation  to  the  flora  of  South  America.  The  plants  peculiar 
to  the  Galapagos  islands  are  for  the  most  part  allied  to  those  on  the 
cooler  part  of  the  continent  or  in  high  lands,  while  the  others  are 
the  same  with  those  that  abound  in  the  hot  damp  intertropical  regions 
of  the  continent.  The  greatest  number  of  peculiar  plants  grow  on 
the  tops  of  the  islands  where  the  sea  vapour  is  condensed,  and  many 
of  them  are  confined  to  some  one  islet  of  the  group.  Though  this 
flora  is  singular,  it  is  poor  compared  with  that  of  the  Sandwich  group, 
or  the  Cape  de  Verde  Islands.' 


CHAPTER  XXVII. 

American  Vegetation  —  Flora  of  North,  Central,  and  South  America — An- 
tarctic Flora — Origin  and  Distribution  of  the  Cerealia — Ages  of  Trees — 
Marine  Vegetation. 

FROM  similarity  of  physical  circumstances  the  arctic  flora  of  Ame- 
rica bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  that  of  the  northern  regions  of 
Europe  and  Asia.  This  botanical  district  comprises  Greenland,  and 
extends  considerably  to  the  south  of  the  arctic  circle,  especially  at 
the  eastern  and  western  ends  of  the  continent,  where  it  reaches  the 
60th  parallel  of  N.  lat.,  and  even  more ;  it  is  continued  along  the 
tops  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  almost  to  Mexico,  and  it  re-appears  on 
the  White  Mountains  and  a  few  other  parts  of  the  Alleghanies. 

Greenland  has  a  much  more  arctic  flora  than  Iceland ;  the  valleys 
are  entirely  covered  with  mosses  and  marsh-plants,  and  the  gloomy 
rocks  are  cased  in  sombre  lichens  that  grow  under  the  snow,  and  the 
grasses  on  the  pasture-grounds  that  line  the  fiords  are  nearly  four 
times  less  varied  than  those  of  Iceland.  In  some  sheltered  spots 
the  service-tree  bears  fruit,  and  birches  grow  to  the  height  of  a,  few 
feet :  but  ligneous  plants  in  general  trail  on  the  ground. 

1  The  Euphorbia  and  Borreria  are  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  low 
grounds  in  the  Galapagos  islands ;  while  the  Scleria,  croton,  and  Cordia 
mark  the  high  grounds.  Compositse  and  Campanulaceae  distinguish  St. 
Helena  and  Juan  Fernandez.  The  prevailing  plants  in  the  Sandwich  group 
are  the  Goodeniacese  and  Lobeliaceee ;  and  in  New  Zealand  ferns  and  club- 
mosses  prevail,  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  the  grasses. — Dr.  J.  D.  HOOKER. 


364  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVII. 

The  arctic  flora  of  America  has  much  the  same  character  with 
that  of  Europe  and  Asia :  many  species  are  common  to  all ;  still 
more  are  representative,  but  there  is  a  difference  in  the  vegetation 
at  the  two  extremities  of  the  continent ;  there  are  30  species  in  the 
cast  and  20  in  the  west  end  which  grow  nowhere  else.  The  same- 
ness of  character  changes  with  the  barren  treeless  lands  at  the  verge 
of  the  arctic  region,  and  the  distribution  of  plants  varies  both  with 
the  latitude  and  the  longitude.  Taking  a  broad  view  of  the  botani- 
cal districts  of  North  America,  there  are  two  woody  regions,  one  on 
the  eastern,  the  other  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent,  separated 
by  a  region  of  prairies  where  grasses  and  herbaceous  plants  predomi- 
nate. The  vegetation  of  these  three  parts,  so  dissimilar,  varies  with 
the  latitude,  but  not  after  the  same  law  as  in  Europe,  for  the  winter 
is  much  colder  and  the  summer  warmer  on  the  eastern  coasts  of 
America  than  on  the  western  coast  of  Europe,  owing  in  a  great  mea- 
sure to  the  prevalence  of  westerly  winds  which  bring  cold  and  damp 
to  our  shores. 

Boundless  forests  of  black  and  white  spruce,  with  an  undergrowth 
of  reindeer  moss,  cover  the  country  south  of  the  arctic  region,  which 
are  afterwards  mixed  with  other  trees;  gooseberries,  strawberries,, 
currants,  and  some  other  plants  thrive  there.  There  are  vast  forests 
in  Canada  of  pines,  oak,  ash,  hickory,  red  beech,  birch,  the  lofty 
Canadian  poplar,  sometimes  100  feet  high  and  36  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  sugar-maple ;  the  prevailing  plants  are  Kalmias,  azaleas, 
and  asters,  the  former  vernal,  the  latter  autumnal;  solidagos  and 
asters  are  the  most  characteristic  plants  of  this  region. 

The  splendour  of  the  North  American  flora  is  displayed  in  the 
United  States;  the  American  sycamore,  chestnut,  black  walnut, 
hickory,  white  cedar,  wild  cherry,  red  birch,  locust-tree,  tulip-tree, 
or  Liriodendron,  the  glory  of  American  forests,  liquid-ambar,  oak, 
ash,  pine-trees  of  many  species,  grow  luxuriantly,  with  an  under- 
growth of  Rhododendrons,  Azaleas,  Andromedas,  Gerardias,  Caly- 
canthus,  Hydrangea,  and  many  more  of  woody  texture,  with  an  in- 
finite variety  of  herbaceous  and  climbing  plants. 

The  vegetation  is  different  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains ;  the  locust-tree,  Canadian  poplar,  Hibiscus,  and  Hydran- 
gea, are  most  common  on  the  west  side ;  the  American  chestnut  and 
Kalmias  are  so  numerous  on  the  Atlantic  side  as  to  give  a  distinctive 
character  to  the  flora;  here,  too,  aquatic  plants  are  more  frequent; 
among  these  the  Sarracenia  or  side-saddle  flower,  singular  in  form, 
with  leaves  like  pitchers  covered  with  a  lid,  half  full  of  water. 

The  autumnal  tints  of  the  forests  in  the  middle  States  are  beau- 
tiful and  of  endless  variety ;  the  dark  leaves  of  the  evergreen  pine, 
the  red  foliage  of  the  maple,  the  yellow  beech,  the  scarlet  oak,  and 
purple  Nyssa,  with  all  their  intermediate  tints,  ever  changing  with 
the  light  and  distance,  produce  an  effect  at  sunset  that  would  astonish 


CHAP.  XXVII.     FLORA    OF    NORTH   AMERICA.  365 

the  native  of  a  country  with  a  more  sober-coloured  flora  under  a 
more  cloudy  sky. 

In  Virginia,  Kentucky,  and  the  southern  States  the  vegetation 
assumes  a  different  aspect,  though  many  plants  of  more  northern 
districts  are  mixed  with  it.  Trees  and  shrubs  here  are  remarkable 
for  broad  shining  leaves  and  splendid  blossoms,  as  the  Gleditschia, 
Catalpa,  Hibiscus,  and  all  the  family  of  Magnolias,  which  are  natives 
of  the  country,  excepting  a  very  few  found  in  Asia  and  the  Indian 
islands.  They  are  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  flora  from  Vir- 
ginia to  the  Grulf  of  Mexico,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Rocky 
Mountains  :  the  magnolia  grandiflora  and  the  tulip-tree  are  the  most 
splendid  specimens  of  this  race  of  plants;  the  latter  is  often  120 
feet  high.  The  long-leaved  pitch-pine,  one  of  the  most  picturesque 
of  trees,  covers  an  arid  soil  on  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic  of  60,000 
square  miles.  The  swamps  so  common  in  the  southern  States  are 
clothed  with  gigantic  deciduous  cypress,  the  aquatic  oak,  swamp 
hickory,  with  the  magnificent  nelumbium  luteum  and  other  aquatics; 
and  among  the  innumerable  herbaceous  plants  the  singular  dionsea 
muscipula,  or  American  [Venus']  fly-trap :  the  trap  is  formed  by 
two  opposite  lobes  of  the  leaf,  covered  with  spines,  and  so  irritable, 
that  they  instantly  close  upon  the  insect  that  lights  upon  them.  This 
Magnolia  region  corresponds  in  latitude  with  the  southern  shores  of 
the  Mediterranean,  but  the  climate  is  hotter  and  more  humid,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  there  is  a  considerable  number  of  Mexican  plants. 
A  few  dwarf-palms  appear  among  the  Magnolias,  and  the  forests  in 
Florida  and  Alabama  are  covered  with  Tillandsia  usneoides,  an  air- 
plant,  which  hangs  from  the  boughs.1 

Ten  or  twelve  species  of  grass  cover  the  extensive  prairies  or 
steppes  of  the  valley  of  the  Mississippi.  The  forms  of  the  Tarta- 
rian steppes  appear  to  the  north  in  the  Centaurea,  Artemisia,  Astra- 
gali; but  the  Dahlias,  (Enotheras,  with  many  more,  are  their  own. 
The  Helianthus  and  Coreopsis,  mixed  with  some  European  genera, 
mark  the  middle  regions;  and  in  the  south,  towards  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  Clarkia  and  Bartonia  are  mixed  with  the  Mexican  genera 
of  Cactus  and  Yucca.  The  western  forest  is  less  extensive  and  less 
varied  than  the  eastern,  but  the  trees  are  larger.  This  flora  in  high 
latitudes  is  but  little  known :  the  thuia  gigantea  on  the  Rocky 
Mountains  and  the  coast  of  the  Pacific  is  200  feet  high.  Clayto- 
nias  and  currants,  with  plants  of  northern  Asia,  are  found  here. 
[In  his  narrative  of  the  United  States  Exploring  Expedition,  Com- 
mander Wilkes,  U.  S.  Navy,  gives  a  plate  representing  a  portion  of 
a  dense  forest  near  Astoria,  on  the  Columbia  river.  "  The  largest 
tree  of  the  sketch  was  thirty-nine  feet  six  inches  in  circumference, 

1  Of  2981  species  of  flower-bearing  plants  in  the  United  States  of  North 
America,  there  are  385  found  also  in  northern  and  temperate  Europe. 
81* 


366  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVIf. 

eight  feet  above  the  ground,  and  had  a  hark  eleven  inches  thick. 
The  height  could  not  be  ascertained,  but  it  was  thought  to  be  up- 
wards of  250  feet,  and  the  tree  was  perfectly  straight."  —  Vol.  v. 
p.  116.] 

Farther  west  the  pinus  Lambertiana  is  another  specimen  of  the 
stupendous  trees  of  this  flora;  seven  species  of  pine  are  indigenous 
in  California,  some  of  which  have  measured  200  and  even  300  feet 
high,  and  eighty  in  circumference.  Captain  Sir  Edward  Belcher, 
in  his  'Voyage  on  the  Pacific/  mentions  having  measured  an  oak 
27  feet  in  circumference,  and  another  18  feet  girth  at  the  height  of 
60  feet  from  the  ground,  before  the  branches  began  to  spread.  This 
is  the  native  soil  of  the  currant-bushes  with  red  and  yellow  blossoms, 
of  many  varieties  of  lupins,  paeonies,  poppies,  and  other  herbaceous 
plants  so  ornamental  in  our  gardens. 

There  are  332  genera  of  plants  peculiar  to  North  America,  ex- 
clusive of  Mexico,  but  no  family  of  any  great  extent  has  yet  been 
discovered  there.  About  160  large  trees  yield  excellent  timber; 
the  wood  of  the  pine-trees  of  the  eastern  forests  is  of  inferior 
quality  to  that  grown  on  the  other  side  of  the  continent,  and  both 
appear  to  be  less  valuable  than  the  pine-wood  of  Europe,  which  is 
best  when  produced  in  a  cold  climate.  The  Pinus  Cembra  and  the 
Pinus  uncinata  are  the  most  esteemed  in  the  Old  World. 

The  native  fruits  of  North  America  are  mostly  of  the  nut-kind, 
and  there  are  many  of  these,  to  which  may  be  added  the  Florida 
orange,  the  Chicasa  plum,  the  Papaw,  the  Banana,'  the  red  mul- 
berry, and  the  plumlike  fruit  of  the  Persimon.  There  are  seven 
species  of  wild  grapes,  but  good  wine  has  not  hitherto  been  pro- 
duced. Although  America  has  contributed  so  much  to  the  orna- 
ment of  our  pleasure-grounds  and  gardens,  yet  there  are  compara- 
tively few  North  American  plants  which  have  become  an  object  of 
extensive  cultivation,  while  America  has  borrowed  largely  from 
other  parts  of  the  globe ;  the  grapes  cultivated  in  North  America 
are  European.  Tobacco,2  Indian  corn,  and  many  others  of  the  ut- 
most commercial  value  are  strangers  to  the  soil,  having  been  intro- 
duced by  the  earliest  inhabitants  from  Mexico  and  South  America, 
which  have  contributed  much  more  to  general  utility. 

[»  The  Banana,  of  which  there  are  six  or  seven  species,  is  an  herbaceous 
plant,  belonging  to  the  torrid  zone  almost  exclusively.  By  the  Christians  of 
the  East,  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  tree  of  good  and  evil,  with  the  fruit  of 
which  Eve  was  tempted  in  the  garden  of  Eden.] 

[2  According  to  the  census,  the  tobacco  crop  of  the  United  States,  in  the 
year  1850,  amounted  to  199,532,494  pounds.  The  annual  crop,  on  an 
average  of  ten  years,  ending  in  1851,  is  132,010  hogsheads,  valued  at 
$7,834,076.] 


CHAP.  XXVH.  FLORA    OP    MEXICO.  367 


FLORA  OF  MEXICO  AND  THE  WEST  INDIES. 

Mexico  itself  unites  the  vegetation  of  North  and  South  America, 
though  it  resembles  that  of  the  latter  more  nearly.  Whole  pro- 
vinces on  the  table-land  and  mountains  produce  alpine  plants,  oaks, 
chestnuts,  and  pines  spontaneously.  The  Cheirostemon,  or  hand- 
tree,  so  named  from  the  resemblance  its  stigma  bears  to  the  human 
hand,  grows  here,  and  also  in  the  Gruatirnala  forests. 

The  low  lands  of  Mexico  and  Central  America  have  a  very  rich 
flora,  consisting  of  many  orders  and  genera  peculiar  to  them,  and 
species  without  number,  a  great  portion  of  which  is  unknown.  The 
Hymenea  Courbaril,  from  which  the  copal  of  Mexico  is  obtained, 
logwood,  mahogany,  and  many  other  large  trees,  valuable  for  their 
timber,  grow  irr  the  forests;  sugar-cane,  tobacco,  indigo,  American 
aloe,  yam,  capsicum,  and  yucca  are  indigenous  in  Mexico  and  Cen- 
tral America.  It  is  the  native  region  of  the  Malastomas,  of  which 
620  species  are  known;  almost  all  the  pepper  tribe,  the  Passiflorae, 
the  ornament  and  pride  of  tropical  America  and  the  West  Indian 
islands,  begin  to  be  numerous  in  these  regions.  The  pine-apple  is 
entirely  American,  growing  in  the  woods  and  savannahs  :  it  has  been 
carried  to  the  West  Indies,  to  the  East  Indies,  and  China,  and  is 
naturalised  in  all.  This  country  has  also  produced  the  cherimoya, 
said  to  be  the  most  excellent  of  fruits.  All  the  Vanilla  that  is  used 
in  Europe  comes  from  the  states  of  Vera  Cruz  and^Oaxaca,  on  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Cordillera  of  Anahuac  in  Mexico.  It  is  native 
throughout  tropical  America,  growing  in  hot,  damp,  shady  places. 
Hot  arid  tracts  are  covered  with  the  Cactus  tribe,  a  family  of  Central 
America  and  Mexico,  which  is  more  widely  dispersed  than  the 
anana :  some  species  bear  a  considerable  degree  of  cold.  They  are 
social  plants,  inhabiting  sandy  plains  in  thickets,  and  of  many  spe- 
cies :  their  forms  are  various  and  their  blossoms  beautiful.  A  few 
occur  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  tropics,  to  the  north  and 
the  south.  The  night-flowering  Cereus  grows  in  all  its  beauty  in 
the  arid  parts  of  Chile,  filling  the  night  air  with  its  perfume.  The 
cactus  opuntia  grows  in  the  Rocky  Mountains ;  and  Sir  George 
Back  found  a  small  island  in  the  Lake  of  the  Woods  covered  with 
it.  This  species  has  been  brought  to  Europe  and  now  grows  a 
common  weed  on  the  borders  of  the  Mediterranean.  In  Mexico 
the  cochineal  insect  was  collected  from  the  cactus  coccinellifer  long 
before  the  Spanish  conquest.  There  are  large  fields  of  American 
aloe,  from  which  a  fermented  liquor  called  pulque,  and  also  an  ar- 
dent spirit,  are  made.  The  ancient  Mexicans  made  their  hemp  from 
this  plant,  and  also  their  paper.  The  forests  of  Panama  contain  at 
least  97  different  kinds  of  trees,  which  grow  luxuriantly  in  a  climate 


368  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXVII. 

where  the  torrents  of  rain  are  so  favourable  to  vegetation,  and  so 
unfavourable  to  life  that  the  tainted  air  is  deadly  even  to  animals. 

The  sugar-cane  is  a  native  of  both  continents;  Columbus  found 
it  wild  in  many  parts  of  America ;  the  sweet  cane  is  mentioned  by 
the  Prophets,  and  it  has  grown  time  immemorial  on  the  coasts  of 
China  and  in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific.  Its  culture  ranges  through- 
out the  torrid  zone  and  to  latitudes  where  the  mean  temperature  is 
not  under  64°  of  Fahrenheit.  It  grows  on  the  plains  of  Nepaul  at 
an  absolute  elevation  of  4800  feet,  and  at  the  height  of  from  3500 
to  5100  feet  in  the  Cordillera  of  New  Grenada.  It  is  now  scarcely 
cultivated  in  the  southern  provinces  of  New  Spain,  where  it  was 
introduced  by  the  Spaniards,  but  it  is  extensively  raised  in  Guiana, 
Brazil,  the  West  India  islands,  the  Mauritius,  Bourbon,  Bengal, 
Siam,  Java,  the  Philippine  Islands,  and  China. 

[The  following  is  a  statement  of  the  quantity  of  sugar  produced 
in  all  countries  in  the  year  1851,  taken  from  Hunt's  Merchants' 
Magazine. 

Tons. 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico (2000  Ibs.  to  the  ton)  375,000 

European  beet-root 160,000 

British  West  Indian 153,000 

United  States  (including  Maple  sugar) 145,000 

Brazil 117,000 

Java 100,000 

Bengal 78,000 

French  colonies 60,000 

Mauritius 55,000 

Manila,  Siam,  &c 30,000 

Dutch  and  Danish  colonies 22,500 

Total 1,295,500] 

Maize  or  Indian  corn  is  believed  to  have  come  originally  from 
Mexico  and  South  America.  It  is  an  annual  requiring  only  summer 
heat;  its  limit  is  50°  N.  in  the  American  continent,  and  47°  N.  in 
Europe ;  it  ripens  at  an  elevation  of  7600  feet  in  low  latitudes,  and 
in  the  lower  Pyrenees  at  the  height  of  3289  feet.1 

The  flora  of  each  West  Indian  island  is  similar  to  that  of  the 
continent  opposite  to  it.  The  Myrtus  pimento,  producing  allspice, 
is  common  in  the  hills;  custard-apple,  Guava,  the  Alligator  pear, 
and  Tobacco  are  indigenous ;  the  cabbage-palm  grows  to  the  height 
of  150  feet;  the  Palma-real  of  Cuba  is  the  most  majestic  of  that 
noble  family ;  and  in  Barbadoes  there  still  exists  a  tree,  but  wearing 
out  rapidly,  which  has  given  the  island  its  name. 

1  In  the  island  of  Titicaca  in  Peru-Bolivia,  Mr.  Psntland  has  seen  a 
variety  of  maize  ripen  as  high  as  12,800  feet. 


CHAP.  XXVII.    FLORA   OP  TROPICAL  AMERICA.  369 


FLORA  OF  TROPICAL  AMERICA. 

Although  the  flora  of  tropical  America  is  better  explored  than 
that  of  Asia  or  Africa,  there  must  still  be  thousands  of  plants  of 
which  we  have  no  knowledge ;  and  those  which  have  come  under 
observation  are  so  varied  and  so  numerous,  that  it  is  not  possible  to 
convey  an  idea  of  the  peculiarities  of  this  vegetation,  or  of  the  ex- 
tent and  richness  of  its  woodlands.  The  upper  Orinoco  flows  for 
some  hundred  miles  chiefly  through  forests ;  and  the  silvas  of  the 
[country  watered  by  the]  Amazon  are  six  times  the  size  of  France. 
In  these  the  trees  are  colossal,  and  the  vegetation  so  matted  to- 
gether by  underwood,  creeping  and  parasitical  plants,  that  the  sun's 
rays  can  scarcely  penetrate  the  dense  foliage. 

These  extensive  forests  are  by  no  means  uniform ;  they  differ  on 
each  side  of  the  equator,  though  climate  and  other  circumstances 
are  the  same.  Venezuela,  Guiana,  the  banks  of  the  Amazon,  and 
Brazil,  are  each  the  centre  of  a  peculiar  flora.  So  partial  is  this 
splendid  vegetation,  that  almost  each  vegetation  of  the  great  rivers 
has  a  flora  of  its  own ;  particular  families  of  plants  are  so  restricted 
in  their  localities,  and  predominate  so  exclusively  where  they  occur, 
that  they  change  the  appearance  of  the  forest.  Thus,  from  the 
prevalence  of  the  orders  Laurineae,  Sapotaceae,  and  others,  which 
have  leathery,  shining,  and  entire  leaves,  the  forests  through  which 
the  Rio  Negro,  Cassiquiare,  and  Atabapo  flow,  differ  in  aspect  from 
those  in  the  other  affluents  of  the  Amazon.  Even  the  grassy 
llanos,  so  uniform  in  appearance,  have  their  centres  of  vegetation; 
and  only  agree  with  the  pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  in  being  covered 
with  grass  and  herbs.  In  these  tropical  regions  the  flora  varies  with 
the  altitude  also.  On  the  Andes,  almost  at  the  limit  of  vegetation, 
the  ground  is  covered  with  purple,  azure,  and  scarlet  Gentians, 
Drabas,  Alchemillas,  and  many  other  brilliantly  coloured  alpine 
plants.  This  zone  is  followed  by  thickets  of  coriaceous-leaved 
plants,  in  perpetual  bloom  and  verdure ;  and  then  come  the  forest- 
trees.  Arborescent  ferns  ascend  to  7000  feet ;  the  coffee-trees  and 
palms  to  5000 ;  and  neither  indigo  nor  cocoa  can  be  cultivated  lower 
than  2000.  The  tree  yielding  cocoa,  of  which  chocolate  is  made, 
grows  wild  in  Guiana,  Mexico,  in  the  inland  forests  of  Peru  and 
Bolivia,  and  on  the  coast  of  the  Caraccas;  it  is  now  cultivated  in 
Central  and  South  America,  and  in  the  Philippine  islands,  where  it 
was  introduced  by  the  Spaniards.  The  seeds  of  its  fruit,  which  is 
like  a  cucumber,  are  the  cacao  or  chocolate  bean. 

Many  parts  of  the  coast  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana  are  rendered 
pestilential  by  the  effluvia  of  the  Mangrove,  Avicennia,  and  the 
Manchineel,  one  of  the  Euphorbia  family,  consisting  of  562  species 
in  tropical  America,  all  having  milky  juice,  deleterious  in  the  greater 


370  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVII. 

number.  The  well-known  poison  Ourari  is  prepared  by  the  Indians 
of  Guiana  from  the  fruit  and  bark  of  the  Strychnos  toxicaria,  than 
which  nature  has  probably  produced  no  plant  more  deadly.  This 
Ourari  (or  Wourali)  is  a  creeping  planet  which  yields  the  deadly 
juice,  the  powerful  effect  of  which  was  proved  by  Mr.  Waterton's 
experiments. 

The  Cinchona,  or  true  bark-tree,  grows  only  on  the  Cordillera  of 
the  Andes.1  Some  of  its  medicinal  qualities  are  found  in  other 
parts  of  different  genera  in  Guiana,  as  the  Cusparia  carony,  which 
produces  the  Angostura  bark.  The  Sapindus  sapomaria,  or  soap- 
tree,  is  used  by  the  natives  for  washing.  Capsicum,  Vanilla,  the 
incense-plant,  the  dipteryx  odorata,  whose  fruit  is  the  tonquin-bean, 
and  the  cassava  or  mandioc,  are  natives  of  the  country.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  mandioc,  a  shrub  whose  fleshy  roots  yield  a  farina 
eaten  by  the  natives  of  Spanish  America  and  Brazil :  the  root  of 
one  is  harmless,  but  the  other  (the  Mandioca  brava  of  the  Brazil- 
ians) contains  a  poisonous  milky  juice,  the  effects  of  which  are  re- 
moved by  the  washing  or  pressure  of  the  pulp.  It  grows  to  about 
30°  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  and  to  3200  feet  above  the  sea- 
level.  An  acre  of  mandioc  is  said  to  yield  as  much  nourishment 
as  six  acres  of  wheat. 

Arrow-root  is  native  in  South  America ;  it  has  been  transported 
to  the  West  Indies  and  Ceylon.  The  flour  is  the  produce  of  the 
root.  The  plant  is  said  to  owe  its  name  to  the  belief  of  its  being 
an  antidote  to  the  poison  of  the  arrows  of  the  Indians.  The  cow- 
tree,  almost  confined  to  the  coast  of  the  mountains  of  Venezuela, 
yields  such  abundance  of  nutritious  milky  juice  like  that  of  a  cow, 
that  it  is  preserved  in  gourds.  The  chocolate  plant,  or  cacao-tree, 
fruits  of  the  most  excellent  flavour,  plants  yielding  balsam,  resin, 
and  gum,  are  numerous  in  the  tropical  regions.  There  the  laurel- 
tribe  assumes  the  character  of  majestic  trees;  some  are  so  rich  in 
oil,  that  it  gushes  from  a  wound  in  the  bark.  One  of  these  laurels 
produces  the  essential  oil  which  dissolves  caoutchouc,  or  Indian  rub- 
ber, used  in  rendering  cloth  waterproof. 

Palms  are  the  most  numerous  and  the  most  beautiful  of  all  the 
trees  in  these  countries.  There  are  90  species  of  them ;  and  they 
are  so  local  that  a  change  takes  place  every  50  miles.  They  are  the 
greatest  ornament  of  the  upper  Orinoco. 

The  llanos  of  Venezuela  and  Guiana  are  covered  with  high  grass, 

1  Dr.  Weddell,  a  very  distinguished  English  botanist,  employed  by  the 
French  Government,  who  has  recently  returned  from  an  exploration  of  the 
districts  of  the  Andes  which  furnish  the  Peruvian  bark  of  commerce,  has 
discovered  several  new  species  of  Cinchona,  the  total  number  of  which, 
according  to  his  beautiful  monography,  now  amounts  to  21.  —  (Weddell, 
Histoire  Naturelle  des  Quinquinas,  1  Vol.  folio,  avec  34  planches,  Paris, 
1849.) 


CHAP.  XXVH.       FLORA   OP   SOUTH   AMERICA.  371 

mixed  with  lilies  and  other  bulbous  flowers,  sensitive  mimosas  and 
palms  constantly  varying  in  species. 

No  language  can  describe  the  glory  of  the  forests  of  the  Amazon 
and  Brazil,  the  endless  variety  of  form,  the  contrasts  of  colour  and 
size :  there  even  the  largest  trees  bear  brilliant  blossoms ;  scarlet, 
purple,  blue,  rose-colour,  and  golden  yellow,  are  blended  with  every 
possible  shade  of  green.  Majestic  trees,  as  the  bombax  ceiba  (or 
silk-cotton  tree),  the  dark-leaved  mora  with  its  white  blossoms,  the 
fig,  cachew,  and  mimosa  tribes,  which  are  here  of  unwonted  dimen- 
sions, and  a  thousand  other  giants  of  the  forest,  are  contrasted  with 
the  graceful  palm,  the  delicate  acacia,  reeds  of  100  feet  high,  grasses 
of  40,  and  tree-ferns  in  myriads.  Passiflorse  and  slender  creepers 
twine  round  the  lower  plants,  while  others  as  thick  as  cables  climb 
the  lofty  trees,  drop  again  to  the  ground,  rise  anew  and  stretch  from 
bough  to  bough,  wreathed  with  their  own  leaves  and  flowers,  yet 
intermixed  with  the  vividly  coloured  blossoms  of  the  Orchideae.  An 
impenetrable  and  everlasting  vegetation  covers  the  ground;  decay 
and  death  are  concealed  by  the  exuberance  of  life;  the  trees  are 
loaded  with  parasites  while  alive  —  they  become  masses  of  living 
plants  when  they  die. 

One  twenty-ninth  part  of  the  flowering  plants  of  the  Brazilian 
forests  are  of  the  coffee  tribe,  and  the  rose-colouring  and  yellow- 
flowering  bignonias  are  among  their  greatest  ornaments,  where  all 
is  grace  and  beauty.  Thousands  of  herbs  and  trees  must  still  be 
undescribed  where  each  stream  has  its  own  vegetation.  The  palm- 
trees  are  the  glory  of  Ihe  forest :  81  species  of  these  plants  are 
natives  of  the  intertropical  parts  of  Brazil  alone ;  they  are  of  all 
sizes,  from  such  as  have  hardly  any  stem  to  those  that  rise  130 
feet.1  In  those  parts  of  Brazil  less  favoured  by  nature  the  forest 
consists  of  stunted  deciduous  trees,  and  the  boundless  plains  have 
grasses,  interspersed  with  myrtles  and  other  shrubs.2 

The  forests  on  the  banks  of  the  Paraguay  and  Vermejo  are  almost 
aa  rich  as  those  of  the  tropics.  Noble  trees  furnish  timber  and 
fruit ;  the  algaroba,  a  kind  of  acacia,  produces  clusters  of  a  bean, 
of  which  the  Indians  make  bread,  and  also  a  strong  fermented 
liquor;  the  palm  and  immense  forests  of  the  Copernicia  cerifera 
grow  there ;  and  the  yerbamate",  the  leaves  and  twigs  of  which  are 
universally  used  as  tea  in  South  America,  and  Were  in  use  before 
the  Spanish  conquest.  It  is  a  species  of  holly,  [Ilex  paraguensisj~\ 
with  leaves  three  inches  long. 

1  Professor  Martius,  of  Munich,  in  his  great  work  on  Palms,  has  described 
500,  accompanied  with  excellent  coloured  plates.  It  is  supposed  that  the 
number  of  species  throughout  the  world  amounts  to  1000. 

4  There  are  innumerable  points  of  analogy  between  the  vegetation  of  the 
Brazils,  equinoctial  Africa,  and  India  ;  but  the  number  of  species  common 
to  these  three  continents  is  very  small. 


372  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXVII. 

The  sandy  deserts  towards  the  mountains  are  the  land  of  the  cac- 
tus in  all  their  varieties.  Some  larger  species  of  cactus  give  a  light 
and  durable  timber  for  building;  and  the  cochineal  insect,  which 
feeds  on  one  of  them,  is  a  valuable  article  of  commerce. 

Glass,  clover,  and  European  and  African  thistles,  which  have  been 
introduced,  with  a  solitary  Ombu  at  wide  intervals,  are  the  unvary- 
ing features  of  the  pampas ;  and  thorny  stunted  bushes,  character- 
istic to  all  deserts,  are  the  only  vegetation  of  the  Patagonian  shingle. 
But  on  the  mountain  valleys  in  the  far  south  may  be  seen  the  win- 
ter's-bark,  arbutus,  new  species  of  beech-trees,  stunted  berberries 
and  Misodendron,  which  latter  is  a  singular  kind  of  parasitical  plant. 

Large  forests  of  Araucaria  imbricata  grow  on  the  sides  of  the 
Andes  of  Chile  and  Patagonia.  This  tall  and  handsome  pine,  with 
cones  the  size  of  a  child's  head,  supplies  the  natives  with  a  great 
part  of  their  food.  It  is  said  that  the  fruits  of  one  large  tree  will 
maintain  eighteen  persons  for  a/year. 

Nothing  grows  under  these  great  forests ;  and  when  accidentally 
burnt  down  in  the  mountainous  parts  of  Patagonia,  they  never  rise 
again,  but  the  ground  they  grew  on  is  soon  covered  with  an  impene- 
trable brushwood  of  other  plants.  In  Chile  the  violently  stinging 
Loasa  appears  first  in  these  burnt  places,  bushes  grow  afterwards, 
and  then  comes  a  tree-grass,  18  feet  high,  of  which  the  Indians 
make  their  huts.  The  new  vegetation  that  follows  the  burning  of 
primeval  forests  is  quite  unaccountable.  The  ancient  and  undis- 
turbed forests  of  Pennsylvania  have  no  undergrowth,  and  when 
burnt  down  they  are  succeeded  by  a  thick  growth  of  rhododendrons. 

The  southern  coasts  of  Chile  are  very  barren,  and  all  plants  exist- 
ing there,  even  the  herbaceous,  have  a  tendency  to  assume  a  hard 
knotty  texture.  The  stem  of  the  wild  potato,  which  is  indigenous 
in  Chile,  becomes  woody  and  bristly  as  it  grows  old.  It  is  a  native 
of  the  sea-strand,  and  is  never  found  naturally  more  than  400  feet 
above  it.  In  its  wild  state  the  root  is  small  and  bitter;  it  is  one  of 
many  instances  of  the  influence  of  cultivation  in  rendering  unpro- 
mising plants  useful  to  man. 

It  was  cultivated  in  America  at  the  time  of  its  discovery,  and  is 
so  now,  at  the  height  of  from  9800  to  13,000  feet  above  the  sea  on 
the  Andes,  and  as  high  as  4800  feet  on  the  Swiss  Alps ;  it  does  not 
succeed  on  the  plains  in  hot  countries,  nor  farther  north  than  Ice- 
land. It  had  been  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  Spaniards  before 
the  time  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  ;  he  brought  it  to  England  from  Vir- 
ginia in  1586. 

Coca,  the  Erythroxylon  Coca  of  botanists,  is  a  native  of  the  t$o- 
pical  valleys  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Andes  of  Peru  and  Bo- 
livia, where  it  is  extensively  cultivated  for  its  leaf,  of  which  the  tree 
furnishes  3  or  4  crops  annually;  the  cocoa-leaf,  which  possesses 
nutritive  qualities,  is  chewed  by  the  aborigines  mixed  with  an  alka- 


CHAP.  XXVII.        FLORA    OF    SOUTH    AMERICA.  373 

line  substance :  it  allays  hunger,  and  enables  the  Indian  to  undergo 
great  fatigue  without  any  other  nourishment  for  days  together;  it  is 
an  article  of  great  trade,  being  universally  used  by  the  aboriginal 
population  of  the  Andes,  and  absolutely  indispensable  in  the  more 
laborious  professions,  such  as  that  of  the  miner. 

Between  the  southern  parallels  of  88°  and  45°  Chile  is  covered 
with  extensive  forests.  Stately  trees  of  many  kinds,  having  smooth 
and  brightly-coloured  trunks  bound  together  by  parasitical  plants; 
large  and  elegant  ferns  are  numerous,  and  arborescent  grasses  en- 
twine the  trees  to  the  height  of  20  or  30  feet;  palm-trees  grow  to 
the  37th  parallel  of  latitude,  which  appears  to  be  their  southern 
limit. 

Although  the  flora,  at  an  elevation  of  9000  feet  on  the  Chilian 
Andes,  is  almost  identical  with  that  about  the  Straits  of  Magellan, 
yet  the  climate  is  so  mild  in  some  valleys,  that  of  Antuco,  for  ex- 
ample, that  the  vegetation  is  semi-tropical.  In  it  broad-leaved  ana 
bright-coloured  plants,  and  the  most  fragrant  and  brilliant  Orchideae, 
are  mixed  with  the  usual  alpine  genera.  Dr.  Poeppig  says,  that 
whatever  South  Africa  or  New  Holland  can  boast  of  in  beauty,  in 
variety  of  form,  or  brilliancy  of  colour,  is  rivalled  by  the  flora  in 
the  highest  zone  in  this  part  of  the  Andes,  even  up  to  the  region  of 
perpetual  snow;  and,  indeed,  it  bears  a  strong  analogy  to  the  vege- 
tation of  both  these  countries.1 

The  Andes  so  completely  check  the  migration  of  plants,  that 
almost  throughout  their  whole  length  there  is  no  mingling  of  the 
floras  on  their  east  and  west  sides,  except  at  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
where  the  mahogany-tree  crosses  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific 
side,  and  in  the  same  way  many  of  the  plants  on  the  lands  on  the 
east  are  brought  to  the  west,  and  spread  to  California  on  one  side, 
and  as  far  as  the  dry  plains  of  Peru  on  the  other.2 

The  humidity  or  dryness  of  the  prevailing  winds  makes  an  im- 
mense difference  in  the  character  of  the  countries  on  each  side  of 
the  Andes.  Within  the  southern  tropic  the  trade-winds  come  loaded 
with  vapour  from  the  Atlantic,  which  is  partly  precipitated  by  the 
mountains  of  Brazil,  and  supplies  the  noble  forests  of  that  country 

1  The  natural  history  of  Chile  in  all  its  departments,  and  especially  in 
its  botany,  has  been  well  illustrated  in  the  '  Historia  Naturel  de  Chile,'  by 
M.  Claude  Gaye,  a  French  naturalist  of  very  varied  talent  who  resided 
many  years  there,  employed  by  the  Chilian  Government  in  writing  its  poli- 
tical and  natural  history.  This  beautiful  work,  which  is  now  on  the  eve 
of  its  completion,  has  been  published  in  Spanish  at  Paris,  under  the  pat- 
ronage of  and  supported  by  the  President  of  the  Republic ;  and  whilst  it 
reflects  great  credit  on  its  author  and  the  authorities  of  the  prosperous 
state  it  is  destined  to  illustrate,  is  well  worthy  of  imitation  by  the  other 
Spanish  American  Republics,  where  so  little  has  been  hitherto  effected  of 
a  similar  nature. 

a  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker. 
32 


374  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXVII. 

with  never-ceasing  moisture,  while  the  remainder  is  condensed  by 
the  Andes,  so  that  on  their  eastern  side  there  is  an  exuberant  vege- 
tation, while  on  the  western  declivities  and  in  the  space  which  sepa- 
rates them  from  the  Pacific  they  are  almost  barren,  and  on  the  plains 
and  in  the  valleys  of  Peru,  where  rain  very  seldom  falls,  completely 
so,  except  where  artificial  irrigation  is  employed.  Even  on  the  east- 
ern side  of  these  mountains  the  richness  of  the  vegetation  gradually 
disappears  with  the  increasing  height,  till  at  an  elevation  of  about 
15,000  feet  arborescent  plants  vanish,  and  alpine  races,  of  the  most 
vivid  beauty,  succeed ;  which  in  their  turn  give  place  to  the  grasses 
at  the  height  of  16,100  feet.  Above  these,  in  the  dreary  plains  of 
Bonbon,  and  other  lands  of  the  same  altitude,  even  the  thinly-scat- 
tered mosses  are  sickly ;  and  at  a  height  exceeding  20,000  feet  the 
enow-lichen  forms  the  last  show  of  vegetable  life  on  the  rocky  peaks 
projecting  from  the  snow ;  confirming  the  observation  of  Don  [Juan 
de]  Ulloa,  that  the  produce  of  the  soil  is  the  thermometer  of  the 
Peruvian  Andes. 

ANTARCTIC  FLORA. 

Kerguelen's  Land  and  Terra  del  Fuego  are  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  antarctic  lands,  which  are  scattered  round  the  south  pole  at 
immense  distances  from  one  another.  On  these  the  vegetation 
decreases  as  the  latitude  increases,  till  at  length  utter  desolatation 
prevails ;  not  a  lichen  covers  the  dreary  storm-beaten  rocks ;  and, 
with  the  exception  of  a  few  microscopic  marine  plants,  not  a  sea- 
weed lives  in  the  gelid  waves.  In  the  arctic  regions,  on  the  con- 
trary, no  land  has  yet  been  discovered  that  is  entirely  destitute  of 
vegetable  life.  This  remarkable  difference  does  not  so  much  depend 
on  a  greater  degree  of  cold  in  winter  as  on  the  want  of  warmth  in 
summer.  In  the  high  northern  latitudes  the  power  of  the  summer 
sun  is  so  great  as  to  melt  the  pitch  between  the  planks  of  the  ves- 
sels ;  while  in  corresponding  southern  latitudes  Fahrenheit's  thermo- 
meter does  not  rise  above  14°  at  noon  at  a  season  corresponding  to 
our  August.  The  perpetual  snow  comes  to  a  much  lower  latitude 
in  the  southern  lands  than  it  does  in  the  north.  Fundwich  Land, 
in  a  latitude  corresponding  to  that  of  the  north  of  Scotland,  is  per- 
petually covered  with  many  fathoms  of  snow.  A  single  species  of 
frass,  the  Aira  antarctica,  is  the  only  flowering  plant  in  the  South 
hetland  group  which  are  no  less  ice-bound ;  and  Cockburn  Island, 
which  forms  a  part  of  it,  in  the  60th  parallel,  contains  the  last  ves- 
tiges of  vegetation ;  while  the  Shetlands  in  our  hemisphere,  in  an 
equally  high  latitude  to  the  north  of  Scotland,  are  inhabited  and 
cultivated  :  nay,  South  Georgia,  in  a  latitude  similar  to  that  of  York- 
shire, is  always  clad  in  frozen  snow,  and  only  produces  some  mosses, 
lichens,  and  wild  burnet;  while  Iceland,  10  degrees  nearer  the  pole, 
has  870  species,  more  than  half  of  which  are  flower-bearing. 


CHAP.  XXVII.  ANTARCTIC    FLORA.  375 

The  forest-covered  islands  of  Terra  del  Fuego  are  only  360  miles 
from  the  desolate  South  Shetland  group.  Such  is  the  difference 
that  a  few  degrees  of  latitude  can  produce  in  these  antarctic  regions, 
combined  with  an  equable  climate  and  excessive  humidity.  The 
prevalence  of  evergreen  plants  is  the  most  characteristic  feature  in 
the  Fuegian  flora.  Densely  entangled  forests  of  winter's  bark,  and 
two  species  of  Beech-trees,  grow  from  the  shore  to  a  considerable 
height  on  the  mountains.  Of  these  the  Fagus  betuloides,  which 
never  loses  its  brownish-green  leaves,  prevails  almost  to  the  exclu- 
sion of  the  ever-green  winter's  bark  and  the  deciduous  beech,  which 
is  very  beautiful.  There  are  d,warf  species  of  arbutus,  the  Myrtus 
nummularia,  which  is  used  instead  of  tea,  besides  berberry,  currant, 
and  fuchsia ;  peculiar  species  of  Ranunculi,  Calceolarias,  Caryophyl- 
lese,  cruciform  plants  and  violets.  Wild  celery  and  scurvy-grass 
are  the  only  edible  plants ;  and  a  bright  yellow  fungus,  which  grows 
on  the  beech-trees,  forms  a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  natives. 
There  is  a  great  number  of  plants  in  Terra  del  Fuego,  either  iden- 
tical with  those  in  Great  Britain,  or  representatives  of  them,  than 
exists  in  any  other  country  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  The  sea- 
pink,  or  thrift,  the  common  sloewort,  a  primula  farinosa,  and  at  least 
30  other  flowering  plants,  with  almost  all  the  lichens,  48  mosses, 
and  many  other  plants  of  the  cryptogamous  kinds,  are  identically 
the  same,  while  the  number  of  genera  common  to  both  countries  is 
still  greater,  and,  though  unknown  in  the  intermediate  latitudes, 
reappear  here.  Hermite  Island,  west  from  Cape  Horn,  is  a  forest- 
land,  covered  with  winter's  bark  and  the  Fuegian  beeches ;  and  is 
the  most  southern  spot  on  earth  on  which  arborescent  vegetation  is 
found.  An  alpine  flora,  many  of  the  species  of  European  genera, 
grows  on  the  mountains,  succeeded  higher  up  by  the  mosses  and 
lichens.  Mosses  are  exceedingly  plentiful  throughout  Fuego;  but 
they  abound  in  Hermite  Island  more  than  in  any  other  country,  and 
are  of  singular  and  beautiful  £inds. 

Although  the  Falkland  Islands  are  in  a  lower  latitude  than  Terra 
del  Fuego,  not  a  tree  is  to  be  seen.  The  Veronica  elliptica,  resem- 
bling a  myrtle,  which  is  extremely  rare,  and  confined  to  West  Falk- 
land, is  the  only  large  shrub.  A  white-flowering  plant  like  the 
Aster,  about  four  feet  high,  is  common ;  while  a  bramble,  a  crow- 
berry,  and  a  myrtle,  bearing  no  resemblance,  however,  to  the  Euro- 
pean species,  trail  on  the  ground,  and  afford  edible  fruit.  The  bog 
balsam,  or  Bolax  globaria,  and  grasses,  form  the  only  conspicuous 
feature  in  the  botany  of  these  islands;  and  together  with  rushes 
and  the  dactylis  caespitosa,  or  tussack  grass,  cover  them,  almost  to 
the  exclusion  of  other  plants.  The  Bolax  grows  in  tufted  hemi- 
spherical masses,  of  a  yellow-green  colour,  and  very  firm  substance, 
often  four  feet  high,  and  as  many  in  diameter,  from  whence  a  strong- 
smelling  resinous  substance  exudes  perceptibly  at  a  distance.  This 


376  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVII. 

plant  has  umbelliferous  flowers,  and  belongs  to  the  carrot  order,  but 
forms  an  alpine  and  antarctic  genus  quite  peculiar. 

The  Tussack  grass  is  the  most  useful  and  the  most  singular  plant 
in  this  flora.  It  covers  all  the  small  islands  of  the  group,  like  a 
forest  of  miniature  palm-trees,  and  thrives  best  on  the  shores  exposed 
to  the  spray  of  the  sea.  Each  Tussack  is  an  isolated  plant,  occupy- 
ing about  two  square  yards  of  ground.  It  forms  a  hillock  of  matted 
roots,  rising  straight  and  solitary  out  of  the  soil,  often  six  feet  high 
and  four  or  five  in  diameter;  from  the  top  of  which  it  throws  out  a 
thick  grassy,  foliage  of  blades,  six  feet  long,  drooping  on  all  sides, 
and  forming  with  the  leaves  of  the  Adjacent  plants  an  arch  over  the 
ground  beneath,  which  yields  shelter  to  sea-lions,  penguins,  and 
petrels.  Cattle  are  exceedingly  fond  of  this  grass,  which  yields 
annually  a  much  greater  supply  of  excellent  fodder  than  the  same 
extent  of  ground  would  do  either  of  common  grass  or  clover.  Both 
the  tussack  grass '  and  the  bolax  are  found,  though  sparingly,  in 
Terra  del  Fuego;  indeed,  the  vegetation  of  the  Falkland  Islands 
consists  chiefly  of  the  mountain  plants  of  that  country,  and  of  those 
that  grow  on  the  arid  plains  of  Patagonia;  but  it  is  kept  close  to 
the  ground  by  the  fierceness  of  the  terrific  gales  that  sweep  over 
these  antarctic  islands.  Peculiar  species  of  European  genera  are 
found  here,  as  a  calceolaria,  wood-sorrel,  and  a  yellow  violet ;  while 
the  shepherd's  purse,  cardamine  hirsuta,  and  the  primula  farinosa, 
appear  to  be  identical  with  those  at  home.  In  all,  there  are  scarcely 
120  flowering  plants,  including  grasses.  Ferns  and  mosses  are  few, 
but  lichens  are  in  great  variety  and  abundance,  among  which  many 
are  identical  with  those  in  Britain. 

In  the  same  hemisphere,  far,  far  removed  from  the  Falkland 
group,  the  Auckland  Islands  lie  in  the  boisterous  ocean  south  of 
New  Zealand.  They  are  covered  with  dense  and  all  but  impene- 
trable thickets  of  stunted  trees,  or  rather  shrubs,  about  20  or  30 
feet  high,  gnarled  by  gales  from  a  stormy  sea.  There  is  nothing 
analogous  to  these  shrubs  in  the  northern  hemisphere;  but  the 
veronica  elliptica,  a  native  of  Terra  del  Fuego  and  New  Zealand,  is 
one  of  them.  Fifteen  species  of  ferns  find  shelter  under  these 
trees,  and  their  fallen  trunks  are  covered  with  mosses  and  lichens. 
Eighty  flowering  plants  were  found  during  the  stay  of  the  discovery 
ships,  of  which  56  are  new;  and  half  of  the  whole  number  are 
peculiar  to  this  group  and  to  Campbell's  Island.  Some  of  the  most 
beautiful  flowers  grow  on  the  mountains,  others  are  mixed  with  the 
ferns  in  the  forests.  A  beautiful  plant  was  discovered,  like  a  purple 
aster,  a  veronica,  with  large  spikes  of  ultramarine  colour ;  a  white 

1  The  cultivation  of  this  useful  plant  has  been  recently  introduced  into 
some  of  the  western  islands  of  Scotland,  especially  Lewis,  by  the  praise- 
worthy efforts  of  its  proprietor,  Sir  James  Matheson,  M.P. 


CHAP.  XXVII.  ANTARCTIC    FLORA.  377 

one,  with  a  perfume  like  jessamine ;  a  sweet-smelling  alpine  Hiero- 
chloe ;  and  in  some  of  the  valleys  the  fragrant  and  bright-yellow 
blossoms  of  a  species  of  asphodel  were  so  abundant  that  the  ground 
looked  like  a  carpet  of  gold.  A  singular  plant  grows  on  the  sea- 
shore, having  bunches  of  green  waxy  blossoms  the  size  of  a  child's 
head.  There  are  also  antarctic  species  of  European  genera,  as  beau- 
tiful red  and  white  gentians,  geraniums,  &c.  The  vegetation  is 
characterized  by  an  exuberance  of  the  finer  flowering  plants,  and  an 
absence  of  grasses  and  sedges;  but  the  landscape,  though  picturesque, 
has  a  sombre  aspect,  from  the  prevalence  of  brownish-leaved  plants 
of  the  myrtle  tribe. 

Campbell's  Island  lies  120  miles  to  the  south  of  the  Auckland 
group,  and  is  much  smaller,  but  from  the  more  varied  form  of  its 
surface  it  is  supposed  to  produce  as  many  species  of  plants.  During 
the  two  days  the  discovery  ships,  under  the  command  of  Sir  James 
Ross,  remained  there,  between  200  and  300  were  collected;  of 
these  66  were  flowering  plants,  14  were  peculiar  to  the  country. 
Many  of  the  Auckland  Island  plants  were  found  here,  yet  a  great 
change  had  taken  place;  84  species  had  disappeared  and  were  re- 
placed by  20  new,  all  peculiar  to  Campbell's  Island  alone,  and  some 
were  found  that  hitherto  had  been  supposed  to  belong  to  Antarctic 
America  only.  In  the  Auckland  group  only  one-seventh  of  the 
plants  are  common  to  other  Antarctic  lands,  whilst  in  Campbell's 
Island  a  fourth  are  natives  of  other  longitudes  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean.  The  flora  of  Campbell's  Island  and  the  Auckland  group  is 
so  intimately  allied  to  that  of  New  Zealand,  that  it  may  be  regarded 
as  the  continuation  of  the  latter,  under  an  Antarctic  character, 
though  destitute  of  the  beech  and  pine  trees.  There  is  a  conside- 
rable number  .of  Fuegian  plants  in  the  islands  under  consideration, 
though  4000  miles  distant;  and  whenever  their  flora  differs  in  the 
smaller  plants  from  that  of  New  Zealand,  it  approximates  to  that 
of  Antarctic  America :  but  the  trees  and  shrubs  are  entirely  dis- 
similar. The  relation  between  this  vegetation  and  that  of  the 
northern  regions  is  but  slight.  The  Auckland  group  and  Camp- 
bell's Island  are  in  a  latitude  corresponding  to  that  of  England,  yet 
only  three  indigenous  plants  of  our  island  have  been  found  in  them, 
namely,  the  Cardamine  hirsuta,  Montia,  and  Callltriche.  This  is 
the  utmost  southern  limit  of  tree-ferns. 

Perhaps  no  spot  in  either  hemisphere,  at  the  same  distance  from 
the  Pole,  is  more  barren  than  Kerguelen  Land :  lying  in  a  remote 
part  of  the  South  Polar  Ocean.  Only  18  species  of  flowering  plants 
were  found  there,  which  is  less  than  the  number  in  Melville  Island, 
in  the  Arctic  Seas,  and  three  times  less  than  the  number  even  in 
Spitzbergen.  The  whole  known  vegetation  of  these  islands  only 
amounts  to  150,  including  sea-weeds.  The  Pringlea,  a  kind  of  cab- 
bage, acceptable  to  those  who  have  been  long  at  sea,  is  peculiar  to 
32* 


378  PHYSICAL   GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVII. 

the  island,  and  grass,  together  with  a  plant  similar  to  the  Bolax  of 
the  Falkland  Islands,  covers  large  tracts.  About  20  mosses,  lichens, 
&c.,  only  are  found  in  these  islands,  but  many  of  the  others  are 
also  native  in  the  European  Alps  and  north  polar  regions.  It  is  a 
very  remarkable  circumstance  in  the  distribution  of  plants,  that 
there  should  be  so  much  analogy  between  the  floras  of  places  so  far 
apart  as  Kerguelen  Land,  the  groups  south  from  New  Zealand,  the 
Falkland  Islands,  South  Georgia,  and  Terra  del  Fuego. 


ORIGIN  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  CEREALIA. 

The  plants  which  the  earth  produces  spontaneously  are  thus  con- 
fined within  certain  districts,  and  few  of  them  would  survive  a  change 
of  circumstances;  nevertheless  Providence  has  endowed  those  most 
essential  to  man  with  a  greater  flexibility  of  structure,  so  that  the 
limits  of  their  production  can  be  extended  by  culture  beyond  what 
have  been  assigned  to  them  by  nature.  The  grasses  yielding  the 
grains  are  especially  favoured  in  this  respect,  though  their  exten- 
sion depends  upon  the  knowledge  and  industry  of  man  ;  no  grain 
will  be  cultivated  where  it  can  be  procured  from  a  foreign  market 
at  less  expense ;  so  that  with  regard  to  useful  plants  there  is  an  arti- 
ficial as  well  as  a  natural  boundary.  The  cultivation  of  plants  in 
gardens  and  hot-houses  is  entirely  artificial  and  depends  on  luxury 
and  fashion. 

Tartary  and  Persia  are  presumed  to  have  been  the  original  coun- 
tries of  wheat,  rye,  and  oats ;  but  these  grains  have  been  so  long  in 
use  that  it  is  impossible  to  trace  their  origin  with  certainty.  Barley 
grows  spontaneously  in  Tartary  and  Sicily,  probably  of  different 
species.  Those  plants  which  produce  the  grains  mnst  have  had  a 
more  extended  location  than  any  other,  and  they  can  endure  the 
greatest  extremes  of  heat  and  cold.  In  high  northern  latitudes 
wheat  is  protected  from  the  inclemency  of  winter  by  sowing  it  in 
spring,  or  if  sown  in  autumn  a  coat  of  snow  defends  it:  the  polar 
limit  is  the  isothermal  line  of  57°  2',  and  wheat  will  not  form  seed 
within  the  tropics,  except  at  a  considerable  height  above  the  sea.  In 
America  the  northern  limit  is  unknown,  the  country  being  uninha- 
bited; but  at  Cumberland  House,  in  the  very  middle  of  the  conti- 
nent, one  of  the  stations  of  the  Hudson's  Bay  Company,  in  54°  N. 
lat.,  there  are  fields  of  wheat,  barley,  and  maize.  Wheat  thrives 
luxuriantly  in  Chile  and  Peru,1  and  at  elevations  of  8500  and  10,000 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  even  produces  grain  on  the  banks  of  the 
Lake  Titicaca,  in  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes,  at  the  height  of  12,900 

f*  There  is  not  wheat  enough  produced  in  Peru  for  the  consumption  of 
the  country ;  wheat  is  imported  from  Chile,  and  flour  from  the  United 
States.] 


CHAP.  XXVII.  AGES    OP    TREES.  379 

feet  in  sheltered  situations,  and  good  crops  of  barley  are  raised  in 
that  elevated  region. 

Barley  bears  cold  better  than  any  other  grain,  yet  neither  it  nor 
any  other  will  grow  in  Iceland.  It  is  successfully  cultivated  in  the 
Feroe  Islands,  near  Cape  North,  the  extreme  point  of  Norway,  near 
Archangel  on  the  White  Sea,  and  in  Central  Siberia  to  between  58° 
and  59°  N.  lat. 

Rye  is  only  cultivated  where  the  soil  is  very  poor,  and  agriculture 
little  understood ;  yet  a  third  of  the  population  of  Europe  lives  oil 
tye  bread,  chiefly  inhabitants  of  the  middle  and  especially  of  the 
northern  parts :  its  limit  is  about  the  67th  parallel  of  N.  latitude. 

Oats  are  scarcely  known  in  middle  and  southern  Europe ;  in  the 
north  they  are  extensively  cultivated  to  the  65th  degree  of  N.  lati- 
tude. 

Rice  is  the  food  of  a  greater  number  of  human  beings  than  any 
other  grain :  it  has  been  cultivated  from  such  high  antiquity  that 
all  traces  of  its  origin  are  lost.  It  contains  a  greater  proportion  of 
nutritious  matter  than  any  of  the  Cerealia,  but,  since  it  requires  ex- 
cessive moisture,  and  a  temperature  of  73°  4'  at  least,  its  cultivation 
is  limited  to  countries  between  the  equator  and  the  45th  parallel. 

Indian  corn  and  millet  are  much  cultivated  in  Europe  south  of 
the  45th  and  47th  parallels,  and  forms  an  important  article  of  food 
in  France,  Italy,  Africa,  India,  and  America.  Buckwheat  is  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  Northern  Europe  and  Siberia,  and  the  table- 
lands of  central  Asia;  it  is  a  native  of  Asia,  from  whence  it  was 
brought  into  Europe  in  the  15th  century. 

The  Cerealia  afford  one  of  the  most  remarkable  examples  of  num- 
berless varieties  arising  from  the  seed  of  one  species.  In  Ceylon 
alone  there  are  160  varieties  of  rice,  and  at  least  30  of  panicum. 
The  endless  varieties  which  may  be  raised  from  the  seed  of  one  plant 
is  more  conspicuous  in  the  flower-garden  :  the  rose  affords  above 
1400 ;  the  varieties  of  the  pansy,  calceolaria,  tulip,  auricula,  and 
primrose  are  without  end,  and  often  differ  so  much  from  the  parent 
plant  that  it  seems  almost  impossible  they  should  have  had  a  com- 
mon origin  :  it  seems  difficult  to  believe  that  red  cabbage,  cauliflower, 
and  many  others  should  have  sprung  from  the  sea-kale  or  Brassica 
oleracea,  so  totally  dissimilar  from  any  of  them,  with  its  bitter  sea- 
green  curly  leaves.  Fashion  changes  so  much  with  regard  to  plants, 
that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  form  even  an  approximation  to  the 
number  known  to  be  in  cultivation  :  new  plants  are  introduced  from 
a  foreign  country,  and  are  apt  to  take  the  place  of  some  of  the  older, 
which  are  neglected  and  sometimes  lost;  of  120,000  plants  which 
are  known  to  exist  on  the  earth,  not  more  than  15,000  are  believed 
to  be  in  cultivation. 

It  is  supposed  that  plants  capable  of  bearing  a  great  range  of 
temperature  would  exist  through  longer  geological  periods  than  those 


380  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVII. 

more  limited  in  their  endurance  of  vicissitudes  of  heat  and  cold, 
and  it  appears  that  in  many  instances  at  least  the  existence  of  vari- 
eties depends  on  the  life  of  the  plant  from  whence  they  originated ; 
the  actual  duration  of  individuals  is  a  subject  which  has  not  been 
sufficiently  studied,  though  the  progress  of  physiological  botany  has 
given  the  means  of  doing  so  without  destroying  the  plant. 

Since  forest-trees  increase  by  coatings  from  without,  the  growth 
of  each  year  forming  a  concentric  circle  of  wood  round  the  pith  or 
centre  of  the  stem,  the  age  of  a  tree  may  be  ascertained  by  counting 
the  number  of  rings  in  a  transverse  section  of  the  trunk,  each  ring 
representing  a  year.  Moreover,  the  progress  of  the  growth  is  known 
by  comparing  the  breadth  of  the  rings,  which  are  broader  in  a  fa- 
vourable than  in  an  unfavourable  season,  though  this  may  depend 
also  in  some  measure  on  the  quality  of  the  soil  which  the  roots  have 
come  to  in  their  downward  growth.  If  the  number  of  concentric 
rings  in  a  transverse  section  has  shown  the  age  of  a  tree,  and  its 
girth  has  been  ascertained  by  measurement,  an  approximation  to  the 
age  of  any  other  tree  of  the  same  kind  still  growing,  under  similar 
circumstances,  may  be  determined  by  comparison.  In  this  way  the 
age  of  many  remarkable  trees  has  been  ascertained.  The  yew  at- 
tains a  greater  age  than  any  other  tree  in  Europe.  According  to 
M.  Decandolle  this  tree  increases  in  girth  the  twelfth  part  of  an 
inch  in  a  year  during  the  first  150  years,  and  rather  less  in  the  next 
hundred,  the  increase  probably  decreasing  progressively.  By  that 
estimate  a  yew  at  Fountain's  Abbey  was  reckoned  to  be  1214  years 
old;  one  at  Crowhurst,  in  Surrey,  was  1400  years  old  when  mea- 
sured by  Evelyn ;  it  has  been  shown  by  the  same  method  that  a 
yew  at  Fortingal,  in  Scotland,  was  between  2500  and  2600  years 
old ;  and  one  at  Bra.burn,  in  Kent,  must  have  been  3000  years  old  : 
these  are  the  veterans  of  European  vegetation.1 

The  cypress  rivals  the  yew  in  longevity,  and  may  perhaps  surpass 
it.  There  is  a  cypress  in  the  palace  garden  at  Granada  which  had 
been  celebrated  in  the  time  of  the  Moors,  and  was  still  known,  in 
the  year  1776,  as  Cipres  della  Regina  Sultana,  because  a  sultana 
met  with  Abencerrages  under  its  shade.  M.  Alphonse  Decandolle 
estimates  a  deciduous  cypress  in  the  churchyard  of  Santa  Maria  de 
Tecla,  near  Oaxaca  in  Mexico,  to  be  6000  years  old,  Zuccarina  3572, 
and  Dr.  Lindley  only  870.  Oaks  come  next  in  order :  they  are 
supposed  to  live  1500  or  1600  years.  One  in  Welbeck  Lane,  men- 
tioned by  Evelyn,  was  computed  to  be  1400  years  old.  Chestnut- 
trees  are  known  to  live  900  years;  lime-trees  have  attained  500  or 

1  It  is  worthy  of  remark  that  the  trees  which  in  our  temperate  latitudes 
attain  the  greatest  age,  belong  to  the  family  of  the  Coniferae,  which  have 
furnished  the  most  ancient  vegetable  remains  imbedded  in  the  strata  which 
form  the  earth's  surface,  the  oldest  fossil  plants  of  the  Devonian  and  Car- 
boniferous series  belonging  to  trees  nearly  allied  to  Araucaria. 


CHAP.  XXVII.    ANTIQUITY   OP  VEGETABLES.  381 

600  years  in  France ;  and  birches  are  supposed  to  be  equally  du- 
rable. Some  of  the  smaller  and  less  conspicuous  European  plants 
perhaps  rival  these  giants  of  the  forest  in  age ;  heaths,  and  the  al- 
pine willow,  which  covers  the  ground  with  its  leaves,  although  it  is 
really  a  subterranean  tree  spreading  to  a  vast  distance,  are  long 
lived.  Ivy  is  another  example  of  this;  there  is  one  near  Mont- 
pellier,  six  feet  in  girth,  which  must  be  485  years  old.  A  lichen 
was  watched  for  forty  years  without  the  appearance  of  change. 

The  antiquity  of  these  European  vegetables  sinks  into  insignifi- 
cance when  compared  with  the  celebrated  Baobab,  or  Adansonia 
digitata,  in  Senegal :  taking  as  a  measure  the  number  of  concentric 
rings  counted  on  a  transverse  incision  made  for  the  purpose  in  the 
trunk  of  that  enormous  tree,  it  was  calculated  to  be  5150  years  old;1 
yet  Baron  Humboldt  considers  a  cypress  in  the  garden  of  Chapul- 
tepec  to  be  still  older;  it  had  already  reached  a  great  age  when 
Montezuma  was  on  the  throne  of  Mexico,  in  1520.  These  two 
trees  are  probably  the  most  aged  organized  beings  on  the  face  of  the 
earth.  Eight  olive-trees  on  the  Mount  of  Olives  are  supposed  to 
be  800  years  old ;  it  is  at  least  certain  that  they  existed  prior  to  the 
taking  of  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  the 
age  of  the  largest  cedar  on  Lebanon ;  it  is  nine  feet  in  diameter,  and 
has  probably  existed  800  or  900  years. 

The  age  of  palms  and  other  monocotyledonous  plants  is  ascer- 
tained by  a  comparison  of  their  height  with  the  time  which  each 
kind  takes  to  grow.  M.  Decandolle  thus  estimates  that  the  Cocos 
oleracea,  or  cabbage-palms,  may  live  600  or  700  years,  while  the 
cocoa-nut  palm  lives  from  80  to  330  years. 

Mr.  Babbage  has  made  an  approximation  to  the  age  of  peat-mosses 
from  the  concentric  rings  of  the  trees  found  in  them. 

1  Doubts  have  been  expressed  by  some  eminent  botanists  regarding  the 
great  age  of  the  Adansonia  digitata :  the  opinion  given  in  the  text  is  that 
of  one  of  the  most  eminent  physiological  botanists  of  the  age,  Decandolle, 
"who  says,  "the  baobab  is  the  most  celebrated  instance  of  extreme  lon- 
gevity which  has  hitherto  been  noticed  with  any  degree  of  accuracy ;  in  its 
own  country  it  bears  a  name  which  signifies  one  thousand  years,  and,  con- 
trary to  what  is  usual,  this  name  expresses  what  in  reality  is  short  of  the 
truth."  Adanson  has  noticed  one  in  the  Cape  Verd  Islands  which  had 
been  observed  by  two  English  travellers,  three  centuries  earlier ;  he  found 
within  its  trunk  the  inscription  they  had  engraved  covered  over  by  300 
woody  layers,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  estimate  the  bulk  this  enormous 
plant  had  increased  in  three  centuries ;  it  was  on  such  data  that  Decan- 
dolle formed  his  opinion,  which  has  been  adopted  by  Humboldt  and  other 
eminent  naturalists,  and  which  we  see  no  reason  to  differ  from.  —  See,  for 
a  very  learned  view  of  the  contrary  opinion,  the  Gardener's  Chronicle  for 
1349,  p.  340.  [Also,  see  Hurnboldt's  Aspects  of  Nature.] 


382  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXVII. 


MARINE  VEGETATION. 

A  vegetable  world  lies  hid  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ocean,  alto- 
gether unlike  that  on  land,  and  existing  under  circumstances  totally 
different  with  regard  to  light,  heat,  and  pressure,  jet  sustained  by 
the  same  means.  Carbonic  acid  is  as  essential,  and  metallic  oxides 
are  as  indispensable,  to  marine  vegetation  as  they  are  to  land-plants. 
Sea-water  contains  a  minute  proportion  of  carbonic  acid  gas,1  and 
something  more  than  a  twelve-thousandth  part  of  its  weight  of  car- 
bonate of  lime,  yet  that  is  sufficient  to  supply  all  the  shell-fish  and 
coral-insects  in  the  sea  with  materials  for  their  habitations,  as  well 
as  food  for  vegetation.  Marine  plants  are  more  expert  chemists  than 
we  are,  for  the  water  of  the  ocean  contains  rather  less  than  a  mil- 
lionth part  of  its  weight  of  iodine,  which  they  collect  in  quantities 
impossible  for  us  to  obtain  otherwise  than  from  their  ashes. 

Sea-weeds  fix  their  roots  to  anything; — to  stone,  wood,  and  to 
other  sea-weeds ;  they  must  therefore  derive  all  their  nourishment 
from  the  water,  and  the  air  it  contains ;  and  the  vital  force  or  chemi- 
cal energy  by  which  they  decompose  and  assimilate  the  substances 
fit  for  their  maintenance  is  the  sun's  light. 

Marine  plants,  which  are  very  numerous,  consist  of  two  groups — 
a  jointed  kind,  which  include  the  Confervse,  or  plants  haying  a 
thread-like  form ;  and  a  jointless  kind,  to  which  belong  dulse,  laver, 
the  kinds  used  for  making  kelp,  iodine,  vegetable  glue,  that  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  of  which  Hirundo  esculenta,  a  species  of  swal- 
low, make  their  edible  nests,  and  all  the  gigantic  species  which  grow 
in  submarine  forests,  or  float  like  green  meadows  in  the  open  sea. 
Flower-bearing  sea-weeds  are  very  limited  in  their  range,  which  de- 
pends upon  the  depth  of  water  and  the  nature  of  the  coasts ;  but 
the  cryptogamic  kinds  are  widely  dispersed — some  species  are  even 
found  in  every  climate  from  pole  to  pole.  No  doubt  the  currents  at 
the  surface,  and  the  stratum  of  uniform  temperature  lower  down, 
are  the  highways  by  which  these  cosmopolites  travel.2 

There  are  fewer  vegetable  provinces  in  the  seas  than  on  shore, 
because  the  temperature  is  more  uniform,  and  the  dispersion  of  the 
plants  is  not  so  much  interfered  with  by  the  various  causes  which 
disturb  it  on  land.8 

1  M.  Laurens  has  found  -g^^^  part  of  this  gas  in  the  water  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. 

3  The  cosmopolite  ulvse  are  the  Enteromorpha,  Codium,  &c. 

8  Dr.  J.  D.  Hooker  has  divided  the  marine  vegetation  into  ten  provinces : 
— the  Northern  Ocean,  from  the  Pole  to  the  60th  parallel  of  north  latitude ; 
— the  North  Atlantic,  between  the  60th  and  40th  parallels,  which  is  the 
province  of  the  delessarise  and  focus  proper ;  —  the  Mediterranean,  which 
is  a  sub-region  of  the  warmer  temperate  zone  of  the  Atlantic,  lying  be- 


CHAP.  XXVIT.  MARINE   VEGETATION.  383 

Marine  vegetation  varies  both  horizontally,  and  vertically  with 
the  depth,  and  it  seems  to  be  a  general  law  throughout  the  ocean 
that  the  light  of  the  sun  and  vegetation  cease  together;  it  conse- 
quently depends  on  the  power  of  the  sun  and  the  transparency  of 
the  water;  so  different  kinds  of  sea-weeds  affect  different  depths, 
where  the  weight  of  the  water,  the  quantity  of  light  and  heat  suit 
them  best.  One  great  marine  zone"  lies  between  the  high  and  low 
water  marks,  and  varies  in  species  with  the  nature  of  the  coasts,  but 
exhibits  similar  phenomena  throughout  the  northern  hemisphere. 
In  the  British  seas,  where,  with  two  exceptions,  the  whole  flora  is 
cryptogamic,'  this  zone  does  not  extend  deeper  than  30  fathoms,  but 
is  divided  into  two  distinct  provinces,  one  to  the  south  and  another 
to  the  north.  The  former  includes  the  southern  and  eastern  coasts 
of  England,  the  southern  and  western  coasts  of  Ireland,  and  both 
the  channels;  while  the  northern  flora  is  confined  to  the  Scottish 
seas  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  England  and  Ireland.  The  second 
British  zone  begins  at  low-water  mark,  and  extends  below  it  to  a 
depth  from  7  to  15  fathoms.  It  contains  the  great  tangle  sea-weeds, 
growing  in  miniature  forests,  mixed  with  fuci,  and  is  the  abode  of  a 
host  of  animals.  A  coral-like  sea-weed  is  the  last  plant  of  this  zone, 
and  the  lowest  in  these  seas,  where  it  does  not  extend  below  the 
depth  of  60  fathoms,  but  in  the  Mediterranean  it  is  found  at  70  or 
80  fathoms,  and  is  the  lowest  plant  in  that  sea.  The  same  law  pre- 
vails in  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  where  one  set  of  sea-weeds  is  never  found 
lower  than  20  feet  below  the  surface ;  another  only  in  the  zone  be- 
tween the  depths  of  5  and  30  feet;  and  another  between  15  and  35 
feet.  In  these  two  last  zones  they  are  most  numerous ;  at  a  greater 
depth  the  kinds  continue  to  vary,  but  their  numbers  decrease.  The 
seeds  of  each  kind  float  at  the  depth  most  genial  to  the  future  plant : 
they  must  therefore  be  of  different  weights.  The  distribution  in  the 
Egean  Sea  was  found  by  Professor  E.  Forbes  to  be  perfectly  similar, 
only  that  the  vegetation  is  different,  and  extends  to  a  greater  depth 
in  the  Mediterranean  than  in  more  northern  seas.2  He  also  observed 

tween  the  40th  and  23d  northern  parallels ; — the  tropical  Atlantic,  in  which 
sargassum,  rhodomelia,  corallinia,  and  siphinea  abound ;  —  the  antarctic 
American  region,  from  Chile  to  Cape  Horn ; — the  Falkland  Islands ; — and 
the  whole  circumpolar  ocean  south  of  the  50th  southern  parallel; — the 
Australian  and  New  Zealand  province,  which  is  very  peculiar,  being  cha- 
racterized, among  other  generic  forms,  by  cystoseiriae  and  fucese ;  —  the 
Indian  Ocean  and  the  Red  Sea ; — and  the  last,  which  comprises  the  Japan 
and  China  Seas.  There  are  several  undetermined  botanical  marine  pro- 
vinces in  the  Pacific  and  elsewhere. 

1  The  British  flowering  sea-weeds  are  the  Zostera  and  Zanichellia. 

a  The  vegetation  at  different  depths  in  the  Egean  Sea  is  as  distinctly 
marked  as  that  at  different  heights  on  the  declivity  of  a  mountain.  The 
coast  plants  are  the  padina  pavonia  and  dictyota  dichotoma.  A  greater 
depth  is  characterized  by  the  vividly  green  and  elegant  fronds  of  the 


384  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.XXVII. 

that  sea-weeds  growing  near  the  surface  are  more  limited  in  their 
distribution  than  those  that  grow  lower  down,  and  that  with  regard 
to  vegetation  depth  corresponds  with  latitude,  as  height  does  on  land. 
Thus  the  flora  at  great  depths,  in  warm  seas,  is  represented  by  kin- 
dred forms  in  higher  latitudes.  There  is  every  reason  to  believe 
that  the  same  laws  of  distribution  prevail  throughout  the  ocean  and 
every  sea. 

Sea-weeds  adhere  firmly  to  the  rocks  before  their  fructification, 
but  they  are  easily  detached  afterwards,  which  accounts  for  some  of 
the  vast  fields  of  floating  weeds;  but  others,  of  gigantic  size  and 
wide  distribution,  are  supposed  to  grow  unattached  in  the  water 
itself.  There  are  permanent  bands  of  sea-weed  in  the  British 
Channel  and  in  the  North  Sea,  of  the  kind  called  fucus  filum,  which 
grow  abundantly  on  the  western  coasts  of  the  Channel ;  they  lie  in 
the  direction  of  the  currents,  in  beds  15  or  20  miles  long,  and  not 
more  than  600  feet  wide.  These  bands  must  oscillate  with  the  tides 
between  two  corresponding  zones  of  rest,  one  at  the  turn  of  the 
flood,  and  the  other  at  the  turn  of  the  ebb.  It  is  doubtful  whether 
the  fucus  natans  or  sargassum  bacciferum  grows  on  rocks  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  Atlantic,  between  the  parallels  of  40°  north  and  south 
of  the  equator,  and,  when  detached,  is  drifted  uniformly  to  particular 
spots  which  never  vary,  or  whether  it  is  propagated  and  grows  in  the 
water;  but  the  mass  of  that  plant,  west  of  the  Azores,  occupies  an 
area  equal  to  that  of  France,  and  has  not  changed  its  place  since 
the  time  of  Columbus.  Fields  of  the  same  kind  cover  the  sea  near 
the  Bahama  Islands  and  other  places,  and  two  new  species  of  it 
were  discovered  in  the  Antarctic  seas. 

The  macrocystis  pyrifera  and  the  laminaria  radiata  are  the  most 
remarkable  of  marine  plants  for  their  gigantic  size  and  the  extent 
of  their  range.  They  were  met  with  on  the  Antarctic  coasts  two 
degrees  nearer  the  south  pole  than  any  other  vegetable  production, 
forming,  with  one  remarkable  exception,  the  utmost  limit  of  vege- 
table life  in  the  south  polar  seas.  The  macrycostis  pyrifera  exists 
in  vast  detached  masses,  like  green  meadows,  in  every  latitude  from 
the  south  polar  ocean  to  the  45th  degree  N.  lat.  in  the  Atlantic, 
and  to  the  shores  of  California  in  the  Pacific,  where  there  are  fields 

caulerpa  prolifera,  probably  the  prasium  of  the  ancients ;  associated  with 
it  are  the  curious  sponge-like  codium  bursa,  and  four  or  five  others.  The 
codium  flabelliforme,  and  the  rare  and  curious  vegetable  net  called  micro- 
dictyon  umbilicatum,  characterize  depths  of  30  fathoms.  The  Dictyomenia, 
•with  stiff  purple  corkscrew-like  fronds,  and  some  others,  go  as  low  as  50 
fathoms,  beyond  which  no  flexible  sea-weeds  have  been  found.  The  coral- 
like  millepora  polymorpha  take  their  place,  and  range  to  the  depth  of  100 
fathoms,  beyond  which  there  is  no  trace  of  vegetable  life,  unless  some  of 
the  minute  and  microscopic  infusorial  bodies  living  there  be  regarded  as 
plants. — '  Travels  in  Lycia,"  by  Lieutenant  Spratt,  R.N.,  and  Professor  E. 
Forbes. 


CHAP.  XXVII.  MARINE    VEGETATION.  385 

of  it  so  impenetrable,  that  it  has  saved  vessels  driven  by  the  heavy 
swell  towards  that  shore  from  shipwreck.  It  is  never  seen  where 
the  temperature  of  the  water  is  at  the  freezing-point,  and  is  the 
largest  of  the  vegetable  tribe,  being  occasionally  300  or  400  feet 
long.  The  Laminaria  abounds  off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  in 
the  Antarctic  Ocean.  These  two  species  form  great  part  of  a  band 
of  sea-weed  which  girds  Kerguelen  Land  so  densely,  that  a  boat  can 
scarcely  be  pulled  through  it ;  they  are  found  in  great  abundance  on 
the  coasts  of  the  Falkland  group,  and  also  in  vast  fields  in  the  open 
sea,  hundreds  of  miles  from  any  land :  had  it  ever  grown  on  the 
distant  shores,  it  must  have  taken  ages  to  travel  so  far,  drifted  by 
the  wind,  currents,  and  the  sand  of  the  seas.  The  red,  green,  and 
purple  lavers  of  Great  Britain  are  found  on  the  coasts  of  the  Falk- 
land Islands;  and,  though  some  of  the  northern  sea-weeds  are  not 
met  with  in  the  intervening  warm  seas,  they  reappear  here.  The 
Lessonia  is  the  most  remarkable  marine  plant  in  this  group  of  islands. 
Its  stems,  much  thicker  than  a  man's  leg,  and  from  8  to  10  feet 
long,  fix  themselves  by  clasping  fibres  to  the  rocks  above  high-water 
mark.  Many  branches  shoot  upwards  from  these  stems,  from  which 
long  leaves  droop  into  the  water  like  willows.  There  are  immense 
submarine  forests  off  Patagonia  and  Terra  del  Fuego,  attached  to  the 
rocks  at  the  bottom.  These  plants  are  so  strong  and  buoyant,  that 
they  bring  up  large  masses  of  stone ;  and,  as  they  grow  slanting, 
and  stretch  along  the  surface  of  the  sea,  they  are  sometimes  800 
feet  long.  The  quantity  of  living  creatures  which  inhabit  these 
marine  forests  and  the  parasitical  weeds  attached  to  them  is  incon- 
ceivable ;  they  absolutely  teem  with  life.  Of  the  species  of  marine 
plants  which  are  strictly  antarctic,  including  those  in  the  seas  of  Van 
Diemen's  Land  and  New  Zealand,  Dr.  Hooker  has  identified  one- 
fifth  with  the  British  Algffi. 

The  high  latitudes  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  are  not  so  destitute  of 
vegetation  as  was  at  first  believed.  Most  minute  objects,  altogether 
invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  except  in  mass,  and  which  were  taken 
for  silicious  shelled  animalcules  of  the  infusoria  kind,  prove  to  be 
vegetable.  They  are  a  species  of  Diatomaceaj,  which,  from  their 
multitudes,  give  the  sea  a  pale  ochreous  brown  colour.  They  increase 
in  numbers  with  the  latitude,  up  to  the  highest  point  yet  attained 
by  man,  and  no  doubt  afford  food  to  many  of  the  minute  animals  in 
the  antarctic  seas.  Genera  and  species  of  this  plant  exist  in  every 
sea  from  Victoria  Land  to  Spitzbergen.  It  is  one  of  the  remarkable 
instances  of  a  great  end  being  effected  by  small  means ;  for  the 
death  of  this  antarctic  vegetation  is  forming  a  submarine  bank  be- 
tween the  70th  and  78th  parallels  of  south  latitude,  and  from  the 
165th  to  the  160th  western  meridian. 

Great  patches  of  Conferva;  are  occasionally  met  with  in  the  open 
seas.     Bands  several  miles  long,  of  a  reddish-brown  species,  like 
33 


386  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.    CHAP.  XXVIII. 

chopped  hay,  occur  off  Bahia,  on  the  coast  of  Brazil;  the  same 
plant  is  said  to  have  given  the  name  to  the  Red  Sea ;  and  different 
species  are  common  in  the  South  Pacific  Ocean. 


CHAPTER   XXVIII. 

Distribution  of  Insects  —  [Geographical  Distribution  of  Animals.] 

[To  form  a  general  idea  of  the  animal  kingdom,  it  is  not  enough 
to  know  the  principal  phenomena  by  which  life  is  manifest  in  ani- 
mate creatures,  and  to  have  studied  the  structure  of  their  bodies, 
and  the  mechanism  of  their  functions ;  we  must  also  look  at  the 
manner  in  which  animals  are  distributed  over  the  face  of  the  earth, 
and  endeavour  to  appreciate  the  influence  which  the  different  cir- 
cumstances in  which  they  are  placed  may  exercise  over  them. 

When  we  look  at  the  manner  of  distribution  of  anitnals  on  the 
globe,  we  are  struck  at  first  with  the  difference  of  the  media  they 
inhabit.  Some,  as  every  body  knows,  always  live  under  water  and 
quickly  die  when  withdrawn  from  it ;  others  can  only  exist  in  the 
air  and  almost  immediately  perish  when  submerged.  Some  in  fact 
are  destined  to  inhabit  the  waters,  and  others  to  live  upon  the  land ; 
and  when  we  compare  aquatic  and  terrestrial  animals,  in  their 
physiological  and  anatomical  relations,  we  find,  at  least  in  part,  the 
causes  of  the  differences  in  their  mode  of  existence. 

In  studying  respiration,  it  may  be  observed,  there  is  a  constant  re- 
lation between  the  intensity  of  this  function  and  vital  energy. 
Animals  consume  in  a  given  time  a  quantity  of  oxygen,  increasing  in 
proportion  to  the  activity  of  their  motions  and  rapidity  of  their  nutri- 
tion :  now,  they  can  obtain  this  oxygen  only  from  the  fluids  sur- 
rounding them ;  in  a  gallon  of  air  there  are  about  84  cubic  inches 
of  this  vivifying  principle,  while  in  a  gallon  of  water  we  ordinarily 
find  only  about  five  cubic  inches.  It  is  evident  then  that  the  degree 
of  activity  in  the  respiratory  function,  indispensable  to  the  exercise 
of  the  faculties  belonging  to  superior  animals,  must  be  of  more  easy 
attainment  in  air  than  in  water,  and  on  account  of  this  difference 
alone,  the  creatures  highest  in  the  animal  series  cannot  dwell  in 
water.  We  comprehend,  indeed,  that  an  animal  which,  in  order  to 
exist,  must  appropriate  a  considerable  quantity  of  oxygen  every  in- 
stant, does  not  find  it  in  sufficient  quantity  when  plunged  into  water, 
and  therefore  perishes  of  asphyxia.  But  at  first  sight,  it  is  not  easy 
to  explain  why  an  aquatic  animal  cannot  continue  to  live  when  taken 
from  the  water  and  placed  in  the  air,  for  then  we  supply  it  with  a 


CHAP.  XXVIII.  DISTRIBUTION   OF  ANIMALS.  387 

fluid  richer  in  oxygen  than  that,  the  vivifying  action  of  which  was 
sufficient  for  all  its  wants.  There  are,  however,  various  circum- 
stances which,  to  a  certain  degree,  explain  this  phenomenon. 
Physics  teach  us  that  a  body  carefully  weighed  in  air  and  in  water, 
is  lighter  in  the  last  than  in  the  first,  and  that,  to  sustain  it  in  equi- 
librium, there  is  then  only  required  a  weight  equal  to  its  weight 
in  air,  less  that  of  the  bulk  of  water  it  displaces.  Hence  it  follows 
that  animals  whose  tissues  are  too  soft  to  sustain  themselves  in  air, 
and  are  compressed  to  such  an  extent  as  to  become  unfit  to  perform 
their  functions  in  the  organism,  can  nevertheless  live  very  well  in 
water,  where  these  same  tissues,  being  not  much  more  dense  than 
the  surrounding  fluid,  are  required  to  possess  only  a  feeble  power  of 
resistance  to  preserve  their  forms  and  to  prevent  the  several  parts 
of  the  body  from  falling  together  on  each  other.  This  considera- 
tion alone  is  sufficient  to  show  us  why  gelatinous  animals,  such  as 
infusoria;  or  medusae,  are  necessarily  inhabitants  of  the  water;  for, 
when  we  observe  one  of  these  delicate  creatures  while  still  in  this 
fluid,  we  perceive  that  all  the  parts,  even  the  most  slender  tissues, 
are  sustained  in  their  proper  position  and  float  easily  in  the  sur- 
rounding medium ;  but  the  moment  they  are  withdrawn,  their  body 
is  almost  entirely  effaced,  offering  to  the  eye  only  a  confused  and 
shapeless  mass.  The  influence  of  the  density  of  the  surrounding 
medium  upon  the  mechanical  play  of  these  instruments  of  life  is 
also  felt  in  animals  of  a  more  perfect  structure,  in  which,  however, 
respiration  is  still  carried  on  by  means  of  ramified  membranous  ap- 
pendages, resembling  diminutive  shrub-branches  or  plumes.  For 
example,  in  annelidans,  or  even  in  fishes,  the  branchiae  or  gills  are 
composed  of  flexible  filaments,  which  easily  sustain  themselves  in 
water,  and  therefore  permit  the  respirable  fluid  to  reach  and  renew 
itself  at  all  points  of  their  surface ;  but,  in  air,  these  same  mem- 
branous filaments  are  in  a  measure  effaced  by  their  own  weight, 
falling  one  on  another,  and,  in  this  way,  exclude  the  oxygen  from 
the  greater  part  of  the  respiratory  apparatus.  It  results  that  this 
function  is  then  embarrassed,  and  the  animal  may  die  of  asphyxia 
in  the  air,  although  it  found  in  water  all  it  required  for  free  respira- 
tion. To  convince  ourselves  of  the  importance  of  these  variations 
in  the  physical  state  of  organs  placed  in  air  or  in  water,  it  is  only 
necessary  to  be  reminded  of  what  is  seen  in  dissecting-rooms :  an 
anatomist  desirous  of  studying  the  structure  of  a  very  delicate  part, 
would  succeed  very  indifferently  if  he  made  his  dissection  in  air; 
but  by  placing  the  subject  of  investigation  in  water,  he  much  more 
easily  succeeds  in  distinguishing  all  the  parts ;  because  these  parts, 
sustained  in  a  measure  by  this  liquid,  then  preserve  their  natural 
relations  just  as  if  they  were  of  a  consistent  and  stiffer  tissue.  An- 
other circumstance  which  influences  the  possibility  of  living  in  air 
or  in  water  is  the  evaporation  which  always  takes  place  from  the 


388  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVIII. 

surface  of  organized  bodies  placed  in  the  air,  but  which  cannot  take 
place  in  water.  A  certain  degree  of  desiccation  causes  all  organic 
tissues  to  lose  their  distinguishing  physical  properties,  and  we  find 
that  losses  by  evaporation  always  produce  death  in  animals  when 
they  exceed  certain  limits.  It  follows  that  creatures  whose  organ- 
ization is  not  calculated  to  preserve  them  against  the  injurious  effects 
of  evaporation,  can  only  live  in  water  and  quickly  perish  in  air. 
Now  the  animal  economy  is  equal  to  this  exigence  only  when  it 
possesses  a  very  complicated  structure.  In  fact,  if  an  active  respi- 
ration be  requisite,  the  respiratory  surface  must  be  deeply  lodged  in 
some  internal  cavity  where  the  air  can  be  renewed  only  in  proportion 
as  it  is  required  for  the  support  of  life.  To  secure  this  renovation, 
the  respiratory  apparatus  must  be  furnished  with  proper  motive  or- 
gans; to  prevent  the  desiccation  or  drying  of  any  portion  of  the 
surface  of  the  body,  the  diffusion  of  the  liquids  to  the  different  parts 
of  the  body  must  be  easily  carried  on,  and  there  must  be  an  active 
circulation,  or  the  surface  must  be  invested  by  a  tunic  or  covering 
that  is  scarcely  permeable.  This  is  so  true,  that  even  in  fishes,  in 
which  the  circulation  is  very  complete,  although  slowly  carried  on, 
and  the  capillary  net-work  not  very  dense,  death  speedily  takes  place 
in  consequence  of  desiccation  of  a  part  of  the  body,  of  the  posterior 
portion,  for  example,  even  when  this  portion  alone  is  exposed  to  the 
air,  while  the  rest  of  the  animal  remains  under  water. 

We  may  add,  too,  that  in  water,  feeding  may  be  effected  with  less 
perfect  instruments  of  prehension  than  in  air,  where*  the  transporta- 
tion of  the  food  required  by  the  animal  is  more  difficult.  In  all  its 
most  essential  relations,  life  is  in  a  manner,  more  easily  maintained 
in  the  midst  of  the  waters  than  on  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  in  the 
atmosphere  it  demands  more  perfect  and  more  complicated. physiolo- 
gical instruments :  the  water  is  the  natural  element  of  animals  lowest 
in  the  zoological  series ;  and  if  the  productions  of  the  creation  have 
succeeded  each  other  in  the  same  order  as  the  transitory  states 
through  which  every  animal  passes,  during  the  period  of  its  develop- 
ment, we  may  conclude  that  animate  creatures  first  appeared  in  the 
midst  of  the  waters,  a  conclusion  in  accordance  with  the  observations 
of  geologists  and  the  text  of  the  Scriptures. 

In  this  manner  the  physiologist  can  account  for  the  division  of 
animals  between  the  two  geological  elements  of  the  globe,  water  and 
earth ;  but  these  fundamental  differences  are  not  the  only  ones  ob- 
served in  the  geographical  distribution  of  animate  creatures.  If  a 
naturalist  familiar  with  the  fauna1  of  his  own  country,  visit  distant 
regions,  he  sees,  as  he  advances,  that  the  land  becomes  inhabited  by 

1  Fauna,  from  the  Latin,  faunus,  the  name  of  a  rural  deity  among  the 
Romans.  The  animals  of  all  kinds  peculiar  to  a  country  constitute  its 
Fauna. 


CHAP.  XXVIII.  DISTRIBUTION    OF   ANIMALS.  389 

animals  new  to  his  eyes ;  then  these  species  disappear,  in  their  turn 
to  give  place  to  species  equally  unknown. 

If,  after  leaving  France,  for  example,  he  land  in  the  south  of 
Africa,  he  will  find  there  only  a  small  number  of  animals  similar  to 
those  he  saw  in  Europe,  and  he  will  remark  especially  the  Elephant, 
with  big  ears;  the  Hippopotamus;  the  Rhinoceros,  with  two  horns; 
the  Giraffe;  innumerable  herds  of  Antelopes;  the  Zebra;  the  Cape 
Buffalo,  the  widened  base  of  whose  horns  covers  the  front ;  the  black- 
maned  Lion ;  the  Chimpanzee,  which  of  all  animals  most  resembles 
man;  the  Cynocephalus,  or  dog-faced  Monkey;  Vultures  of  parti- 
cular species;  a  multitude  of  birds  of  brilliant  plumage,  strangers 
to  Europe ;  insects,  also  different  from  those  of  the  north ;  for  ex- 
ample, the  fatal  Termite,  which  lives  in  numerous  societies,  and 
builds,  in  common,  its  habitation  of  earth,  which  is  very  curious  in 
its  arrangement  and  of  considerable  height. 

If  our  zoologist  leave  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  penetrate  into 
the  interior  of  the  great  island  of  Madagascar,  he  will  there  find  a 
different  fauna.  He  will  see  none  of  the  large  quadrupeds  he  met 
in  Africa ;  in  place  of  the  family  of  monkeys,  he  will  find  other 
mammals  equally  well  formed  for  climbing  trees,  but  more  resembling 
the  carnaria,  designated  by  naturalists  under  the  name  of  makis; 
he  will  meet  the  ai-ai,  or  sloth,  a  most  singular  animal,  which 
appears  to  be  a  sort  of  object  of  veneration  among  the  inhabitants, 
and  partakes  of  the  nature  of  both  monkey  and  squirrel;  Tenrecs 
(a  kind  of  hedge-hog),  small  insectivorous  mammals,  which  have 
spiny  backs  like  hedge-hogs,  but  do  not  roll  themselves  in  a  ball ; 
the  Cameleon,  with  forked  nose,  and  many  curious  reptiles  not 
found  elsewhere,  as  well  as  insects  not  less  characteristic  of  that 
region. 

Still  pursuing  his  route  and  arriving  in  India,  our  traveller  sees 
an  elephant  different  from  that  of  Africa;  oxen,  bears,  rhinoceros, 
antelopes,  stags,  different  from  those  of  Africa  and  Europe;  the 
ourang-outang,  and  a  multitude  of  other  monkeys  peculiar  to  those 
countries;  the  royal  tiger,  the  argus,  the  peacock,  pheasants,  and  an 
almost  innumerable  host  of  birds,  reptiles,  and  insects,  unknown 
elsewhere. 

If  he  now  visit  New  Holland,  all  will  be  there  again  new  to  him, 
and  the  aspect  of  this  fauna  will  appear  to  him  still  more  strange  than 
the  various  zoological  populations  he  has  passed  in  review.  He  will 
no  longer  meet  with  species  analogous  to  our  oxen,  horses,  bears, 
and  large  carnaria ;  large-sized  quadrupeds  are  almost  entirely  want- 
ing; he  will  find  kangaroos,  flying-phalangers,  and  the  ornithoryn- 
chus. 

Finally,  if  our  traveller,  to  get  back  to  his  own  country,  traverses 
the  vast  continent  of  America,  he  will  discover  a  fauna  analogous  to 
that  of  the  Old  World,  but  composed  almost  entirely  of  different 
33* 


390  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVIII. 

species;  he  will  there  see  monkeys  with  a  prehensile  tail,  large  car- 
naria  similar  to  our  lions  and  tigers,  bisons,  llamas,  armadillos ;  birds, 
reptiles,  and  insects,  equally  remarkable,  and  equally  new  to  him. 

Differences  not  less  great  in  the  species  of  animals  peculiar  to 
different  regions  of  the  globe,  are  observed,  when,  instead  of  con- 
fining our  observations  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  land,  we  examine 
the  myriads  of  animated  creatures  that  dwell  in  the  midst  of  the 
waters.  Passing  from  the  coasts  of  Europe  to  the  Indian  Ocean, 
and  from  the  latter  into  the  American  seas,  we  meet  with  fishes, 
mollusks,  crustaceans,  and  zoophytes,  peculiar  to  each  of  these 
regions.  This  limitation  or  colonization  of  species,  whether  aquatic 
or  terrestrial,  is  so  marked,  that  a  slightly  experienced  naturalist 
cannot  mistake,  even  at  first  sight,  the  original  localities  of  zoological 
collections  that  may  have  been  gathered  in  one  or  the  other  of  the 
great  geographical  divisions  of  the  globe,  and  submitted  to  his  exami- 
nation. The  fauna  of  each  of  these  divisions  is  peculiar  to  it,  and 
may  be  easily  characterized  by  the  presence  of  certain  more  or  less 
remarkable  species. 

Naturalists  have  formed  many  theories  to  account  for  this  mode 
of  distribution  of  animals  over  the  surface  of  the  globe;  but,  in  the 
present  state  of  science,  it  is  impossible  to  give  a  satisfactory  expla- 
nation, without  admitting  that,  in  the  beginning,  the  different  spe- 
cies had  their  origin  in  the  different  regions  where  they  are  found, 
and  that  by  degrees  they  afterwards  spread  afar  and  occupied  a  more 
or  less  considerable  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  earth.  In  short, 
the  presence  of  a  particular  animal  within  narrow  limits  on  the  earth, 
necessarily  supposes,  when  this  animal  is  found  nowhere  else,  that 
it  had  its  origin  on  this  spot,  or  that  it  immigrated  there  from  a  more 
or  less  remote  region,  and  that  subsequently  it  was  entirely  destroyed 
where  its  race  commenced,  that  is,  exactly  at  the  place  where,  ac- 
cording to  every  probability,  all  circumstances  most  favourable  to  its 
existence  were  found  in  combination.  There  is  nothing  strongly  in 
favour  of  this  last  hypothesis,  and  it  is  repugnant  to  common  sense 
to  believe  that,  in  the  beginning,  the  same  country  saw  the  birth  of 
the  horse,  the  giraffe,  bison,  and  kangaroo,  for  instance,  but  that 
these  animals  left  it  afterwards,  without  leaving  any  trace  of  their 
passage,  to  colonize,  one  on  the  steppes  of  central  Asia,  another  in 
the  interior  of  Africa,  a  third  in  the  New  World,  and  another  again 
in  the  great  islands  of  Australia.  It  is  much  more  natural  to  sup- 
pose that  every  species  was  placed,  from  the  beginning,  by  the  Author 
of  all  things,  in  the  region  where  it  was  destined  permanently  to 
live,  and  that  by  extending  from  a  certain  number  of  these  distinct 
centres  of  creation,  different  animals  have  spread  throughout  those 
portions  of  the  globe  now  forming  the  domain  of  each  kind.  In 
the  present  condition  of  the  earth,  it  is  impossible  to  recognise  all 
those  zoological  centres :  for  we  can  conceive  the  possibility  of  ex- 


CHAP.  XXVIII.  DISTRIBUTION   OP  ANIMALS.  391 

changes  so  multiplied  between  two  regions,  the  faunas  of  which  were 
primitively  distinct,  that  they  present  species  common  to  both,  and 
nothing  now  points  out  to  the  eyes  of  the  naturalist  their  original 
separation ;  but  when  a  country  is  inhabited  by  a  considerable  num- 
ber of  species  which  are  not  seen  elsewhere,  even  where  local  circum- 
stances are  most  similar,  we  are  warranted  in  the  supposition  that 
this  region  was  the  theatre  of  a  peculiar  zoological  creation,  and  we 
must  regard  it  as  a  distinct  region. 

What  the  naturalist  should  ask,  is,  not  how  different  portions  of 
the  earth  have  come  now  to  be  inhabited  by  different  species,  but 
how  animals  could  be  so  far  extended  over  the  surface  of  the  globe, 
and  how  nature  placed  variable  limits  to  this  dissemination  according 
to  species.  The  latter  question  especially  presents  itself  to  the  mind 
when  we  consider  the  unequal  extent  now  occupied  by  this  or  that 
group  of  animated  creatures  :  for  example,  the  ourang-outang  is  con- 
fined to  the  island  of  Borneo  and  the  neighbouring  lands;  the  musk-ox: 
is  colonized  in  the  most  northern  part  of  America,  and  the  llama  in 
the  elevated  regions  of  Peru  and  Chile,  while  the  wild-duck  is  seen 
everywhere,  from  Lapland  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  and  from  the 
United  States  to  China  and  Japan. 

The  circumstances  which  favour  the  dissemination  of  species  are 
of  two  kinds  :  the  one  pertains  to  the  animal  itself,  and  the  other  is 
foreign  to  it.  Among  the  first  is  the  development  of  the  locomotive 
power,  all  things  being  equal  in  other  respects ;  the  species  which 
live  attached  to  the  earth,  or  which  possess  only  imperfect  instru- 
ments of  locomotion,  occupy  a  very  limited  extent  of  the  earth's 
surface,  compared  to  those  species  whose  moving  powers  are  rapid 
and  energetic  :  among  terrestrial  animals,  birds  present  us  with  most 
examples  of  cosmopolite  species,  and,  among  aquatic  animals,  the 
cetaceans,  and  fishes.  Reptiles,  on  the  contrary,  are  restricted  to 
narrow  limits,  and  the  same  is  true  of  most  molusks  and  crustaceans. 
The  instinct  possessed  by  certain  animals  to  change  their  climate 
periodically,  also  contributes  to  the  dissemination  of  species;  and 
this  instinct  exists  in  a  great  number  of  these  creatures. 

Among  the  circumstances  foreign  to  the  animal,  and  in  a  measure 
accidental,  we  place  first  the  influence  of  man ;  and  to  illustrate  this 
point,  a  few  examples  will  suffice.  The  horse  is  originally  from  the 
steppes  of  Central  Asia,  and,  at  the  time  of  the  discovery  of  Ame- 
rica, no  animal  of  this  species  existed  in  the  New  World ;  the  Spa- 
niards carried  it  with  them  there  not  more  than  three  centuries  back, 
and  now,  not  only  do  the  inhabitants  of  this  vast  continent,  from 
Hudson's  Bay  to  Terra  del  Fuego,  possess  horses  in  abundance,  but 
these  animals  have  become  wild,  and  are  found  in  almost  countless 
herds.  The  same  is  true  of  the  domestic  ox :  carried  from  the  Old 
to  the  New  World,  they  have  multiplied  there  to  such  an  extent 
that  in  some  parts  of  South  America  they  are  actively  hunted  for 


392  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXVITT. 

their  hides  only,  for  the  manufacture  of  leather.  The  dog  has  been 
everywhere  the  companion  of  man,  and  we  could  instance  a  great 
many  animals  that  have  become  cosmopolite  by  following  us ;  the 
rat,  which  appears  to  be  originally  from  America,  overran  Europe 
in  the  middle  ages,  and  is  now  met  with  even  on  the  islands  of 
Oceanica. 

In  some  cases,  animals  have  been  able  to  break  through  natural 
barriers,  seemingly  insurmountable,  and  spread  themselves  over  a 
more  or  less  considerable  portion  of  the  surface  of  the  globe,  by  the 
assistance  of  circumstances  whose  importance  at  first  sight  seems 
very  trifling,  such  as  the  movement  of  a  fragment  of  ice  or  wood, 
often  carried  to  considerable  distances  by  currents :  nothing  is  more 
common  than  to  meet  at  sea,  hundreds  of  miles  from  land,  fucus 
floating  on  the  surface  of  the  water  and  serving  as  a  resting-place 
for  small  crustaceans  incapable  of  transporting  themselves,  by  swim- 
ming, far  from  the  shores  where  they  were  born.  The  great  mari- 
time current,  the  gulf-stream,  commencing  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
coasts  North  America  to  Newfoundland,  then  directs  its  course  to 
Iceland,  Ireland,  and  returns  towards  the  Azores,  often  bearing  to 
the  coasts  of  Europe,  trunks  of  trees  which  were  conveyed  by  the 
waters  of  the  Mississippi  from  the  most  interior  parts  of  the  New 
World,  to  the  sea;  it  frequently  happens  that  these  masses  of  wood 
are  perforated  by  the  larvae  of  insects,  and  they  may  aiford  attach- 
ment to  the  eggs  of  mollusks,  and  of  fishes,  &c.  Finally,  even 
birds  contribute  to  the  dispersion  of  living  creatures  over  the  surface 
of  the  globe,  and  that,  too,  in  a  most  singular  manner :  frequently 
they  do  not  digest  the  eggs  they  swallow,  but,  evacuating  them  at 
places  far  from  where  they  were  picked  up,  carry  to  great  distances 
the  germs  of  races  unknown  till  then  in  the  countries  where  they 
were  deposited. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  means  of  transportation  and  other  cir- 
cumstances favouring  the  dissemination  of  species,  there  are  very 
few  animals  that  are  really  cosmopolites,  the  most  of  these  creatures 
being  colonized  within  limited  regions.  That  such  should  be  the 
case,  we  can  comprehend  if  we  study  the  circumstances  which  may 
oppose  their  progress.  But  this  study  is  far  from  furnishing  us  a 
satisfactory  explanation  of  all  the  cases  of  limited  circumspection 
of  a  species,  and  it  is  often  impossible  to  divine  why  certain  animals 
remain  restricted  to  a  locality,  when  nothing  seems  to  oppose  their 
propagation  in  neighbouring  situations. 

Whatever  may  be  the  reason,  the  obstacles  to  the  geographical 
distribution  of  species  are  sometimes  mechanical,  and  at  others, 
physiological ;  among  the  first  are  seas  and  chains  of  lofty  moun- 
tains. To  terrestrial  animals  seas  of  much  extent  are  in  general  an 
impassable  barrier,  and  we  perceive,  all  things  being  equal,  the  mix- 
ture of  two  distinct  faunae  is  always  most  intimate  in  proportion  as 


CHAP.  XXVIII.          DISTRIBUTION   OP   ANIMALS.  393 

the  regions  to  which  they  belong  are,  geographically,  most  approxi- 
mated, or  in  communication  with  each  other,  by  intermediate  lands. 
The  Atlantic  Ocean  prevents  species  peculiar  to  tropical  America, 
from  extending  to  Africa,  Europe,  or  Asia ;  and  the  fauna  of  the 
New  World  is  entirely  distinct  from  that  of  the  old  continent,  ex- 
cept in  the  highest  latitudes,  towards  the  north  pole.  But  there  the 
land  of  the  two  continents  is  approximated,  America  being  separated 
from  Asia  only  by  Behring's  Straits,  and  is  connected  to  Europe  by 
Greenland  and  Iceland :  on  this  account  zoological  exchanges  can  be 
more  easily  effected,  and  we  find  there  species  common  to  both 
worlds ;  for  example,  the  white  bear,  the  reindeer,  the  castor,  the 
ermine,  the  bald  eagle,  &c.  Chains  of  lofty  mountains  also  consti- 
tute natural  barriers,  which  arrest  the  dispersion  of  species,  and 
prevent  the  admixture  of  faunae,  proper  to  neighbouring  zoological 
regions.  For  instance,  the  opposite  declivities  of  the  Cordillera  of 
the  Andes  are  inhabited  by  species  which  are  for  the  most  part  dif- 
ferent j  the  insects  of  the  Brazilian  side,  for  example,  are  almost  all 
distinct  from  those  found  in  Peru  and  New  Grenada. 

The  dispersion  of  marine  animals  living  near  coasts  is  prevented 
in  the  same  manner  by  the  geographical  configuration  of  the  earth ; 
but  here  it  is  sometimes  a  continuation  of  a  long  chain  of  land,  and 
sometimes  a  vast  extent  of  open  sea,  which  opposes  the  dissemina- 
tion of  species.  Thus  most  animals  of  the  Mediterranean  are  also 
found  in  the  European  portion  of  the  Atlantic,  but  they  do  not  ex- 
tend to  the  seas  of  India,  from  which  the  Mediterranean  is  separated 
by  the  isthmus  of  Suez,  nor  can  they  traverse  the  ocean  to  gain  the 
shores  of  the  New  World. 

The  physiological  circumstances  which  tend  to  limit  the  different 
faunae  are  more  numerous ;  and  without  doubt,  the  first  in  considera- 
tion is  the  unequal  temperature  of  different  regions  of  the  earth. 
There  are  species  which  can  bear  an  intense  cold  and  tropical  heat 
equally  well ;  man  and  the  dog,  for  example ;  but  there  are  others 
which,  in  this  respect,  are  less  favoured  by  nature,  and  which  do  not 
flourish,  or  even  cannot  exist,  except  under  the  influence  of  a  deter- 
mined temperature.  For  instance,  monkeys,  which  thrive  in  tropical 
regions,  almost  always  die  of  phthisis,  when  exposed  to  the  cold  and 
humidity  of  our  climate ;  while  the  reindeer,  formed  to  support  the 
rigours  of  the  long  and  severe  winter  of  Lapland,  suffers  from  the 
warmth  of  St.  Petersburgh,  and  generally  succumbs  to  the  influence 
of  a  temperate  climate.  Hence  it  is  that,  in  a  great  number  of 
cases,  the  difference  of  climate  is  alone  sufficient  to  arrest  species  ia 
their  march  from  high  latitudes  towards  the  equator,  or  from  the 
equatorial  regions  towards  the  poles.  The  influence  of  temperature, 
on  the  animal  economy,  also  explains  why  certain  species  remain 
within  a  chain  of  mountains,  without  being  able  to  extend  beyond 
it  to  analogous  localities.  We  know,  in  fact;  that  temperature  de- 


394  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXIII. 

creases  in  proportion  to  the  elevation  of  the  land,  and  consequently, 
animals  that  live  at  considerable  heights  cannot  descend  on  to  the 
low  plains,  to  reach  other  mountains,  without  traversing  countries 
in  which  the  temperature  is  much  higher  than  that  of  their  ordinary 
.dwelling.  The  llama,  for  example,  abounds  on  the  pastures  of  Peru 
and  Chile,  situated  at  a  height  of  from  twelve  to  fifteen  thousand 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  extending  southwards  to  the  extre- 
mity of  Patagonia,  but  is  not  seen  either  in  Brazil  or  Mexico,  because 
it  cannot  reach  those  countries  without  descending  to  regions  too 
warm  for  its  constitution. 

The  nature  of  the  vegetation,  and  of  the  previously  existing  fauna, 
in  a  region  of  the  globe,  also  exerts  an  influence  on  its  invasion  by 
exotic  species.  Thus,  the  dispersion  of  the  silk-worm  is  limited  by 
the  disappearance  of  the  mulberry,  beyond  a  certain  degree  of  lati- 
tude ;  the  cochineal  cannot  spread  beyond  the  region  in  which  the 
cactus  grows;  and  the  large  carnaria,  except  those  that  live  on 
fishes,  cannot  exist  in  the  polar  regions,  where  vegetable  productions 
are  too  poor  to  nourish  any  considerable  number  of  herbivorous 
quadrupeds. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  examples  of  these  necessary  rela- 
tions between  the  existence  of  an  animal  species,  in  a  particular 
place,  and  the  existence  of  certain  climatic,  phytological,  or  zoologi- 
cal conditions;  but  our  limits  do  not  permit  these  details,  and  the 
considerations  we  have  already  presented,  appear  to  be  sufficient  to 
give  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  nature  has  effected  the  disse- 
mination of  animal  species,  on  different  parts  of  the  earth's  surface ; 
and,  to  attain  the  end  we  proposed  to  ourselves  in  commencing  the 
subject,  it  only  remains  for  us  to  glance  at  the  results  brought  about 
by  the  different  circumstances  we  have  just  mentioned,  that  is, 
the  present  state  of  the  geographical  distribution  of  animated 
creatures. 

When  we  compare  with  each  other  the  different  regions  of  the 
globe,  in  respect  to  their  zoological  population,  we  are  at  first  struck 
by  the  extreme  inequality  remarked  in  the  number  of  species.  In 
one  country  we  find  a  great  diversity  in  the  form  and  structure  of 
the  animals  composing  its  fauna,  while  in  another  place,  there  is 
great  uniformity  in  this  respect;  and  it  is  easy  to  perceive  a  certain 
relation  existing  between  the  different  degrees  of  zoological  richness, 
and  the  more  or  less  considerable  elevation  of  temperature.  In 
fact,  the  number  of  species,  both  marine  and  terrestrial,  augments, 
in  general,  as  we  descend  from  the  poles  towards  the  equator.  The 
most  remote  lands  of  the  polar  regions  offer  little  to  the  observation 
of  the  traveller  but  some  insects,  and  in  the  glacial  seas  the  fishes 
and  mollusks  are  but  little  varied ;  in  temperate  climates  the  fauna 
becomes  more  numerous  in  species;  but  it  is  in  tropical  regions 
that  nature  has  displayed  the  greatest  prodigality  in  this  respect,  and 


CHAP.  XXVIII.         DISTRIBUTION   OP   ANIMALS.  395 

the  zoologist  cannot  behold  without  astonishment  the  endless  diver- 
sity of  animals  that  he  there  finds  assembled. 

It  is  also  remarked  that  there  is  a  singular  coincidence  between 
the  elevation  of  temperature  in  different  zoological  regions,  and  the 
degree  of  organic  perfection  of  the  animals  which  inhabit  them. 
Those  animals  which  most  nearly  resemble  man,  and  also  those  in 
the  great  zoological  divisions  which  possess  the  most  complicated 
organization,  and  the  most  developed  faculties,  live  in  the  warmest 
climates,  while  in  the  polar  regions  we  meet  with  creatures  occupy- 
ing a  low  rank  in  the  zoological  series.  Monkeys,  for  example,  are 
confined  to  the  warm  parts  of  the  two  continents;  the  same  is  true 
of  parrots  among  birds,  of  crocodiles  and  tortoises  among  reptiles, 
and  of  land-crabs  among  crustaceans,  all  of  them  the  most  perfect 
animals  of  their  respective  classes. 

It  is  also  in  warm  countries  that  we  find  animals  the  most  re- 
markable for  the  beauty  of  their  colours,  their  size,  and  the  strange- 
ness of  their  forms. 

Indeed  there  seems  to  exist  a  certain  relation  between  the  climate 
and  the  tendency  of  nature  to  produce  this  or  that  animal  form. 
We  observe  a  very  great  resemblance  between  most  animals  inhab- 
iting the  extreme  northern  and  southern  regions ;  the  faunas  of  the 
temperate  regions  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  are  very 
analogous  in  their  general  aspect,  and  in  the  tropical  regions  of  the 
two  worlds  similar  forms  predominate.  It  is  not  identical  species 
that  we  meet  in  distinct  and  nearly  isothermal  regions,  but  species 
more  or  less  approximating  to  each  other,  which  seem  to  be  the  re- 
presentatives of  one  and  the  same  type.  For  example,  the  monkeys 
of  India  and  of  Central  Africa  are  represented  in  tropical  America 
by  other  monkeys  easily  distinguishable  from  the  first;  the  lion, 
tiger,  and  panther,  of  the  old  continent,  correspond  to  the  cougar, 
jaguar,  and  ounce,  of  the  New  World.  The  mountains  of  Europe, 
Asia,  and  North  America,  nourish  bears  of  distinct  species,  but  dif- 
fering very  little  from  each  other.  Seals  abound  especially  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  polar  circles;  and  if  we  seek  the  proofs  of 
this  tendency,  not  among  the  highest  classes  of  the  animal  kingdom, 
but  among  the  inferior  creatures,  they  will  be  found  not  less  evident : 
cray-fishes,  for  example,  appear  to  be  confined  to  the  temperate  re- 
gions of  the  globe,  and  are  found  throughout  Europe,  in  a  species 
common  to  European  streams;  in  the  South  of  Russia,  there  is  a 
different  species;  in  North  America,  there  are  two  species,  distinct 
from  the  preceding;  in  Chile,  there  is  a  fourth  species;  in  the  south 
of  New  Holland,  a  fifth ;  in  Madagascar,  a  sixth ;  and  at  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  a  seventh. 

A  comparison  of  the  faunae  peculiar  to  the  different  zoological 
regions  of  the  globe  leads  to  other  results  for  which  it  is  mere  diffi- 
cult to  account;  when  we  examine  successively  the  assemblage  of 


396  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXVIII. 

species  inhabiting  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  we  remark  that  the 
fauna  of  the  New  World  is  characterized  by  inferiority,  a  fact  which 
did  not  escape  the  celebrated  Buffon.  In  a  word,  there  are  no 
mammals  existing  now  in  the  New  World  as  large  as  those  of  the 
old ;  it  is  true,  we  find,  in  America,  a  considerable  number  of  mon- 
keys, but  among  them  there  is  none  equal  to  the  ourang-outang,  or 
chimpanzee  ;  the  rodentia  and  edentata  abound  most,  which,  of  all 
ordinary  mammals,  are  the  least  intelligent.  Finally,  in  America, 
we  find  opossums,  animals  belonging  to  an  inferior  type  of  ordinary 
mammals,  which  have  no  representative,  neither  in  Europe,  nor 
Asia,  nor  Africa.  If  we  pass  from  the  New  World  to  the  still 
newer  region  of  Australia,  we  shall  there  see  a  fauna  whose  inferi- 
ority is  still  more  decided,  for  there  the  class  of  mammals  is  scarcely 
represented  by  the  Marsupials  and  Monotremata. 

As  to  the  limitation  of  the  different  zoological  regions  into  which 
the  globe  is  divided,  and  the  composition  of  the  faunae  proper  to 
each,  we  cannot  treat  without  exceeding  our  limits ;  but  we  regret 
this  less,  because,  in  the  present  state  of  science,  these  questions  are 
far  from  being  settled. — Ruschenberger — Elements  of  Nat.  Hist^\ 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  INSECTS.' 

Nearly  one  hundred  and  twenty  thousand  insects  are  known : 
some  with  wings,  others  without;  some  are  aquatic,  others  are 

1  The  great  division  of  the  animal  kingdom  of  the  Articulata,  to  which 
insects  belong,  consists  of  the  following  four  classes ;  the  three  first  breath- 
ing air  by  air-vessels  (trachea)  or  air-pouches. 

1.  Insects. — Head  distinct;  three  divisions  of  the  body,  viz.  head,  thorax, 

and  abdomen ;  three  pairs  of  legs,  and  wings  in  general. 

2.  Myriapoda. — Head  distinct ;  24  or  more  pairs  of  legs,  no  wings. 

3.  Arachnida  or  Spiders. — Four  pairs  of  legs,  head  and  thorax  united,  no 

antennae  or  feelers,  on  wings. 

4.  Crustacea,  as  Crabs,  Lobsters,  &c. — Respiration  by  means  of  branchiae 

or  gills,  and  in  general  aquatic,  five  or  seven  pairs  of  legs. 
Insects  properly  so  called  are  divided  into"  eight  families : — 

1.  Coleoptera  or  Beetles,  &c.,  which  have  four  wings,  two  hard  or  wing 

covers  called  Elytra,  and  two  soft  or  membranaceous  used  for  flying, 
and  folded  under  the  latter ;  Cantharides,  the  Egyptian  Scarabseus, 
and  the  Ladybird  belong  to  this  family,  which  numbers  upwards  of 
thirty  thousand  species. 

2.  Orthoptera,  which  have  also  four  wings,  but  the  wing  covers  are  like 

parchment :  the  imperfect  insect,  instead  of  resembling  a  grub  as  in 
the  coleoptera,  only  differs  from  the  perfect  one  by  the  want  of  wings ; 
.such  are  the  locust,  grasshopper,  cricket,  &c. 

3.  Neuroptera,  with  four  pairs  of  transparent  or  membranaceous  wings, 

body  soft,  and  in  general  elongated,  as  Dragon-flies,  May-flies,  Four- 
mileons,  &c. 

4    Hymenoptera :    4  membranaceous   wings ;   instead  of  being  provided 
with  jaws  for  grinding  or  mastication,  have  a  proboscis  by  means  of 


CHAP.  XXVIII.          DISTRIBUTION   OP  INSECTS.  397 

aquatic  only  in  the  first  stage  of  their  existence,  and  many  are  para- 
sitical. Some  land  insects  are  carnivorous,  others  feed  on  vegeta- 
bles; some  of  the  carnivorous  tribe  live  on  dead,  others  on  living 
animals,  but  they  are  not  half  so  numerous  as  those  that  live  on 
vegetables.  Some  change  as  they  are  developed ;  in  their  first  stage 
they  eat  animal  food,  and  vegetables  when  they  arrive  at  their  per- 
fect state. 

Insects  maintain  the  balance  among  the  species  of  the  vegetable 
creation  by  preventing  the  tendency  that  plants  have  to  encroach  on 
one  another.  The  stronger  would  extirpate  the  weaker,  and  the 
larger  would  destroy  the  smaller,  were  they  not  checked  by  insects 
which  live  on  vegetables.  On  the  other  hand,  many  plants  would 
be  extirpated  by  insects  were  these  not  devoured  by  other  insects 
and  spiders.1 

Of  the  8000  or  9000  British  insects,  the  greater  part  are  carni- 
vorous, and  therefore  keep  the  others  within  due  bounds. 

•which  they  suck  their  nourishment ;  in  most  of  this  family  the  female 
has  a  sting.  The  humblebee,  wasp,  ichneumon,  are  examples  of  this 
family. 

5.  Lepidoptera,  having  four  wings  covered  with  minute  scales  or  feathers, 

whence  their  name ;  they  derive  their  food  by  a  proboscis,  and  their 
first  state  of  development  is  that  of  a  caterpillar :  such  are  butterflies, 
sphinxes,  moths,  &c. 

6.  Herniptera  or  halfwings :  in  general  four  wings,  but  the  upper  pair  are 

only  in  their  four  parts  membranaceous  or  transparent ;  hence  their 
name  of  half  wing :  some  are  entirely  deprived  of  them,  as  the  com- 
mon bug  and  flea ;  they  have  a  kind  of  beak,  instead  of  proboscis  as 
in  the  three  preceding  families.  The  cicada,  the  wood-bug,  common 
b"ug,  flea,  &c.,  belong  to  the  Hemiptera. 

7.  Rhipiptera,  having  also  a  single  pair  of  wings  folding  longitudinally  in 

a  fan  shape :  only  two  small  genera  constitute  this  family,  the  stylops 
and  zenos. 

8.  Diptera,  with  a  single  pair  of  wings,  the  mouth  entirely  adapted  for 

suction,  with  a  long  retractile  proboscis  :  the  common  fly  is  one  of  the 

most  abundant  species  of  this  family. 

Some  entomologists  have  recently  added  two  families  to  the  class  of  in- 
sects, the  Parasitic®  and  the  Thysanoura :  the  first  live  on  the  bodies  of 
other  animals ;  to  one  of  its  commonest  genera  belongs  the  human  louse. 
[See,  Entomology,  in  Ruschenberger's  Elements  of  Natural  History.  ] 

1  Perhaps  one, of-  the  greatest  checks  on  the  propagation  of  insect  life 
is  from  insects  themselves,  many  species  depositing  their  eggs  on  the  larvaa 
of  others,  which  in  their  development  destroy  the  animal  on  which  they 
have  been  deposited  ;  that  most  destructive  insect  to  the  vine,  the  Pyralis 
Vitis,  is  a  very  remarkable  instance  of  this,  some  dozen  species  of  insects 
depositing  their  eggs  on  it  in  its  incomplete  state,  thus  keeping  down  the 
number  of  one  of  the  greatest  plagues  in  wine-producing  countries.  A 
celebrated  entomologist  is  of  opinion  that  of  insects  destroyed  in  Europe 
by  other  animals,  indeed  by  all  causes — one  half  owe  their  destruction  to 
other  insects.  - 

84 


398  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXVIII. 

Insects  increase  in  kinds  and  in  numbers  from  the  poles  to  the 
equator :  in  a  residence  of  11  months  in  Melville  Island,  Sir  Edward 
Parry  found  only  6  species,  because  lichens  and  mosses  do  not  afford 
nourishment  for  the  insect  tribes,  though  it  is  probable  that  every 
other  kind  of  plant  gives  food  and  shelter  to  more  than  one  species; 
it  is  even  said  that  40  different  insects  are  quartered  upon  the  com- 
mon nettle. 

The  increase  of  insects  from  the  poles  to  the  equator  does  not 
take  place  at  the  same  rate  everywhere.  The  polar  regions  and 
New  Holland  have  very  few  specifically  and  individually ;  they  are 
more  abundant  in  Northern  Africa,  Chile,  and  in  the  plains  west  of 
the  Brazils ;  North  America  has  fewer  species  than  Europe  in  the 
same  latitude,  and  Asia  has  few  varieties  of  species  in  proportion  to 
its  size;  Caffraria,  the  African  and  Indian  islands,  possess  nearly 
the  same  number  of  species ;  but  by  far  the  richest  of  all,  both  in 
species  and  numbers,  are  central  and  intertropical  America.  Beetles 
are  an  exception  to  the  law  of  increase  towards  the  equator,  as  they 
are  infinitely  more  numerous  in  species  in  the  temperate  regions  of 
the  northern  hemisphere  than  in  tropical  countries.  The  location 
of  insects  depends  upon  that  of  the  plants  which  yield  their  food ; 
and,  as  almost  each  plant  is  peopled  with  inhabitants  peculiar  to 
itself,  insects  are  distributed  over  the  earth  in  the  same  manner  as 
vegetables;  the  groups,  consequently,  are  often  confined  within 
narrow  limits,  and  it  is  extraordinary  that,  notwithstanding  their 
powers  of  locomotion,  they  often  remain  within  a  particular  compass, 
though  the  plants,  and  all  other  circumstances  in  their  immediate 
vicinity,  appear  equally  favourable  for  their  habitation. 

The  insects  of  eastern  Asia  and  China  are  different  from  those  in 
Europe  and  Africa;  those  in  the  United  States  differ  specifically 
from  the  British,  though  they  often  approach  very  near;  and  in 
South  America  the  equinoctial  districts  of  New  Grenada  and  Peiu 
have  distinct  groups  from  those  in  Guiana;  in  fact,  under  the  same 
parallel  of  latitude,  countries  similar  in  soil,  climate,  and  all  other 
circumstances,  present  the  most  striking  differences  in  their  insect 
tribes,  even  in  those  that  live  on  animal  substances. 

Though  insects  are  distributed  in  certain  limited  groups,  yet  most 
of  the  families  have  representatives  in  all  the  great  regions  of  the 
globe,  and  some  identical  species  are  inhabitants  of  countries  far 
from  one  another.  The  vanessa  cardui,  or  "Painted  Lady  But- 
terfly," is  found  in  all  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe  and  in  Aus- 
tralia; and  one,  which  never  could  have  been  conveyed  by  man,  is 
native  in  southern  Europe,  the  coast  of  Barbary,  and  Chile.1  It  is 
evident  from  these  circumstances  that  not  only  each  group,  but  also 

1  Some  doubts  have  been  raised  whether  this  species  is  identically  the 
same  in  the  widely  extended  habitat  described  in  the  text. 


CHAP.  XXVIII.  DISTRIBUTION    OF   INSECTS. 

each  particular  species,  must  have  been  originally  created  in  the 
places  they  now  inhabit. 

Mountain-chains  are  a  complete  barrier  to  insects,  even  more  so 
than  rivers;  not  only  lofty  mountains  like  the  Andes  divide  the 
kinds,  but  they  are  even  different  on  the  two  sides  of  the  Col  de 
Tende  in  the  Alps.  Each  soil  has  kinds  peculiar  to  itself,  whether 
dry  or  moist,  cultivated  or  wild,  meadow  or  forest.  Stagnant  water 
and  marshes  are  generally  full  of  them ;  some  live  in  water,  some 
run  on  its  surface,  and  every  water-plant  affords  food  and  shelter  to 
many  different  kinds.  The  east  wind  seems  to  have  considerable 
effect  in  bringing  the  insect  or  in  developing  the  eggs  of  certain 
species ;  for  example,  the  aphis,  known  as  the  blight  in  our  country, 
lodges  in  myriads  on  plants,  and  shrivels  up  their  leaves  after  a  con- 
tinued east  wind.  They  are  almost  as  destructive  as  the  locust,  and 
sometimes  darken  the  air  by  their  numbers.  Caterpillars  are  also 
very  destructive ;  the  caterpillar  of  the  Y  moth  would  soon  ruin  the 
vegetation  of  a  country  were  it  not  a  prey  to  some  other.  Insects 
sometimes  multiply  suddenly  to  an  enormous  extent,  and  decrease 
as  rapidly  and  as  unaccountably. 

Temperature,  by  its  influence  on  vegetation,  has  an  indirect  effect 
on  the  insects  that  are  to  feed  upon  plants,  and  extremes  of  heat 
and  cold  have  more  influence  on  their  locality  than  the  mean  annual 
temperature.  Thus  in  the  polar  regions  the  mosquito  tribes  are 
more  numerous  and  more  annoying  than  in  temperate  countries,  be- 
cause they  pass  their  early  stages  of  existence  in  water,  which  shel- 
ters them,  and  the  short  but  hot  summer  is  genial  to  their  brief 
span  of  life. 

In  some  instances  height  produces  the  same  effect  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  insect  life  as  difference  of  latitude.  The  parnassius  Apollo, 
a  butterfly  native  in  the  plains  of  Sweden,  is  also  found  in  the  Alps, 
the  Pyrenees,  and  a  closely  allied  species  in  the  Himalaya.  The 
parnassius  smyntheus,  true  to  the  habitat  of  the  genus,  has  recently 
been  found  on  the  Rocky  Mountains  of  North  America.  Some  in- 
sects require  several  years  to  arrive  at  their  full  development;  they 
lie  buried  in  the  ground  in  the  form  of  grubs :  the  cockchafer  takes 
3  years  to  reach  its  perfect  state,  and  some  American  species  require 
a  much  longer  time.  [For  example,  the  Cicada  septcndecem,  or 
seventeen-year  locust,  whose  appearance  about  Philadelphia  was  first 
recorded  in  May  1715;  and  since  that  date,  "punctually  in  the 
same  month,  every  seventeenth  year,  now  certainly  for  nearly  one 
hundred  and  fifty  years,  has  this  extraordinary  insect  been  known 
to  make  its  visit.  No  causes  have  affected  it  during  that  period, 
not  even  so  far  a.s  relates  to  the  month  in  which  it  appears."1  This 

1  John  Cassin — in  the  "Proceedings  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences 
of  Philadelphia,"  for  September  1851. 


400  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXVIII. 

insect  passes  seventeen  years  in  the  earth,  near  the  roots  of  fruit  and 
other  trees,  and  lives  a  few  weeks  in  the  air,  only  long  enough  to  pro- 
vide for  the  continuation  of  the  species  by  depositing  its  eggs,  beneath 
the  tender  bark  of  the  smaller  branches  or  twigs  of  plants.  Very  soon 
after  the  animal  emerges  from  the  egg,  it  plunges  into  the  earth  to 
assume  its  state  of  torpidity  for  seventeen  years. 

This  animal  appeared  in  and  around  Philadelphia,  in  May  1851 ; 
but  in  other  localities  at  different  dates ;  in  Ohio  it  was  present  in 
1846,  and  will  appear  there  again  in  1863;  and  not  before,  and  it 
will  recur  at  Philadelphia  in  1868.] 

Insects  do  not  attain  their  perfect  state  till  the  plants  they  are  to 
feed  upon  are  ready  for  them.  Hence  in  cold  and  temperate  cli- 
mates their  appearance  is  simultaneous  with  vegetation ;  and  as  the 
rainy  and  dry  seasons  within  the  tropics  correspond  to  our  winter 
and  summer,  insects  appear  there  after  the  rains  and  vanish  in  the 
heat;  the  rains,  if  too  violent,  destroy  them;  and  in  countries 
where  that  occurs  there  are  two  periods  in  the  year  in  which  they 
are  most  abundant — one  before  and  one  after  the  rains.  It  is  also 
observed  in  Europe  that  insects  decrease  in  the  heat  of  summer  and 
become  more  numerous  in  autumn :  the  heat  is  thought  to  throw 
some  into  a  state  of  torpor,  but  the  greater  number  perish. 

It  is  not  known  that  any  insect  depends  entirely  upon  only  one 
species  of  plant  for  its  existence,  or  whether  it  may  not  have  re- 
course to  congeners  should  its  habitual  plant  perish.  When  par- 
ticular species  of  plants  of  the  same  family  occur  in  places  widely 
apart,  insects  of  the  same  genus  will  be  found  on  them,  so  that  the 
existence  of  the  plant  may  often  be  inferred  from  that  of  the  insect, 
and  in  several  instances  the  converse. 

When  a  plant  is  taken  from  one  country  to  another  in  which  it 
has  no  congeners,  it  is  not  attacked  by  the  insects  of  the  country : 
thus  our  cabbages  and  carrots  in  Cayenne  are  not  injured  by  the  in- 
sects of  that  country,  and  the  tulip-tree  and  other  magnolias  are  not 
molested  by  our  insects ;  but  if  a  plant  has  congeners  in  its  new 
country,  the  insect  inhabitants  will  soon  find  their  way  to  the 
stranger. 

The  common  fly  is  one  of  the  most  universal  of  insects,  yet  it 
was  unknown  in  some  of  the  South  Sea  islands  till  it  was  carried 
there  from  Europe  by  ships,  where  it  has  now  become  a  plague. 

Mosquitoes  and  culices  [gnats]  are  spread  over  the  world  more 
generally  than  any  other  tribe :  they  are  the  torment  of  men  and 
animals  from  the  poles  to  the  equator,  by  night  and  by  day;  the 
species  are  numerous  and  their  location  partial.  In  the  arctic  re- 
gions the  Culex  pipiens,  which  passes  two-thirds  of  its  existence  in 
water,  swarms  during  the  summer  in  myriads :  the  lake  Myvatr,  in 
Iceland,  has  its  name  from  the  legions  of  these  tormentors  that 
cover  its  surface.  They  are  less  numerous  in  central  Europe,  though 


CHAP.  XXVJIT.  DISTRIBUTION  OF  INSECTS.  401 

one  species  of  mosquito,  the  simulium  columbaschense,  which  is 
very  small,  appears  in  such  clouds  in  parts  of  Hungary,  especially 
the  Bannat  of  Temeswar,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  breathe  without 
swallowing  many :  even  cattle  and  children  have  died  from  them. 
In  Lapland  there  is  a  plague  of  the  same  kind.  Of  all  places  on 
earth  the  Orinoco  and  other  great  rivers  of  tropical  America  are  the 
most  obnoxious  to  this  plague.  The  account  given  by  Baron  Hum- 
boldt  is  really  fearful :  at  no  season  of  the  year,  at  no  hour  of  the 
day  or  night,  can  rest  be  found ;  whole  districts  in  the  upper  Ori- 
noco are  deserted  on  account  of  these  insects.  Different  species 
follow  one  another  with  such  precision,  that  the  time  of  day  or  night 
may  be  known  accurately  from  their  humming  n\>ise,  and  from  the 
different  sensations  of  pain  which  the  different  poisons  produce. 
The  only  respite  is  the  interval  of  a  few  minutes  between  the  depar- 
ture of  one  gang  and  the  arrival  of  their  successors,  for  the  species 
do  not  mix.  On  some  parts  of  the  Orinoco,  the  air  is  one  dense 
cloud  of  poisonous  insects  to  the  height  of  20  feet.  It  is  singu- 
lar that  they  do  not  infest  rivers  that  have  dark  water,  and  each 
clear  stream  is  peopled  with  its  own  kinds;  though  ravenous  for 
blood,  they  can  live  without  it,  as  they  are  found  where  no  animals 
exist. 

In  Brazil  the  quantity  of  insects  is  so  great  in  the  woods,  that 
their  noise  is  often  heard  in  a  ship  anchored  some  distance  from  the 
shore. 

Various  genera  of  btterflies  and  moths  are  very  limited  in  their 
habitations,  others  are  dispersed  over  the  world,  but  the  species  are 
almost  always  different.  Bees  and  wasps  are  equally  universal,  yet 
each  country  has  its  own.  The  common  honey-bee  is  the  European 
insect  most  directly  useful  to  man ;  it  was  introduced  into  North 
America  not  many  years  ago,  and  is  now  spread  over  the  new  conti- 
nent :  and  is  naturalized  over  Australia  and  New  Zealand.  European 
bees,  of  which  there  are  many  species,  generally  have  stings;  the 
Australian  bee,  like  a  black  fly,  is  without  one ;  and  in  Brazil  there 
are  30  species  of  stingless  bees. 

Fire-flies  are  mostly  tropical,  yet  there  are  four  species  in  Europe ; 
in  South  America  there  are  three  species,  and  so  brilliant  that  their 
pale  green  light  is  seen  at  the  distance  of  200  paces  :  a  Scolopendra, 
or  centipede  in  Asia,  is  as  luminous  as  the  glow-worm,  and  one  in 
France  is  so  occasionally. 

The  silk-worm  came  originally  from  China,  and  the  cochineal 
insect  is  a  native  of  tropical  America :  there  are  many  species  of  it 
in  other  countries.  The  coccus  lacca  is  Indian,  the  coccus  ilicis  lives 
in  Southern  Europe,  and  there  is  one  in  Poland,  but  neither  of  these 
have  been  cultivated. 

Scorpions  under  various  forms  are  in  all  warm  climates ;  2  or  3 
species  are  peculiar  to  Europe,  but  they  are  small  in  comparison 
34* 


402  PHYSICAL    GEOGEAPHY.        CHAP.  XXVIII. 

m 

with  those  in  tropical  countries :  one  in  Brazil  is  six  inches  long. 
As  in  mosquitoes,  the  poison  of  the  same  species  is  more  active  in 
some  situations  than  in  others.  At  Gumana  the  sting  of  the  scor- 
pion is  little  feared,  while  that  of  the  same  species  in  Carthagena 
causes  loss  of  speech  for  many  days. 

Ants  are  universally  distributed,  but  of  different  kinds.  Near 
great  rivers  they  build  their  nests  above  the  line  of  the  annual  inun- 
dations. The  insects  called  white  ants,  belonging  to  a  different  genus 
and  family,  are  so  destructive  in  South  America,  that  Baron  Hum- 
boldt  says  there  is  not  a  manuscript  in  that  country  a  hundred  years 
old.  [This  assertion  is  probably  inaccurate :  the  public  library  at 
Lima,  Peru,  contains  more  than  one  MS.  of  greater  age.] 

There  are  upwards  of  1200  species  of  spiders  and  their  allies 
known  ;  each  country  has  its  own,  varying  in  size,  colour,  and  habits, 
from  the  huge  bird-catching  spider  of  South  America  to  the  almost 
invisible  European  gossamer  floating  in  the  air  on  its  silvery  thread. 
Many  of  this  ferocious  family  are  aquatic ;  and  spiders,  with  some 
other  insects,  are  said  to  be  the  first  inhabitants  of  new  islands. 

The  migration  of  insects  is  one  of  the  most  curious  circumstances 
relating  to  them :  they  sometimes  appear  in  great  flights  in  places 
where  they  never  were  seen  before,  and  they  continue  their  course 
with  perseverance  which  nothing  can  check.  This  has  been  observed 
in  the  migration  of  crawling  insects :  caterpillars  have  attempted  to 
cross  a  stream.  Countries  near  deserts  are  most  exposed  to  the 
invasion  of  locusts,  which  deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sand,  and  when 
the  young  are  hatched  by  the  sun's  heat  they  emerge  from  the  ground 
without  wings;  but  as  soon  as  they  attain  maturity,  they  obey  the 
impulse  of  the  first  wind,  and  fly,  under  the  guidance  of  a  leader, 
in  a  mass,  whose  front  keeps  a  straight  line,  so  dense  that  it  forms 
a  cloud  in  the  air,  and  the  sound  of  their  wings  is  like  the  murmur 
of  the  distant  sea.  They  take  immense  flights,  crossing  the  Mozam- 
bique Channel  from  Africa  to  Madagascar,  which  is  120  miles  broad  : 
they  come  from  Barbary  to  Italy,  and  a  few  have  been  seen  in  Scot- 
land. Even  the  wandering  tribes  of  locusts  differ  in  species  in  dif- 
ferent deserts,  following  the  universal  law  of  organized  nature.  In- 
sects not  habitually  migratory,  sometimes  migrate  in  great  flocks.  In 
1847,  lady-birds  or  coccinellte  and  the  bean  aphis  arrived  in  immense 
numbers  at  Ramsgate  and  Margate  from  the  continent  in  fine  calm 
weather,  and  a  mass  of  the  Vanessa  cardui  flew  over  a  district  in  a 
column  from  10  to  15  yards  wide,  for  2  hours  successively.  Why 
these  butterflies  should  simultaneously  take  wing  in  a  flock  is  unac- 
countable, for  had  it  been  for  want  of  food  they  would  probably  have 
separated  in  quest  of  it.  In  1847  the  cabbage  butterfly  came  in 
clouds  from  the  coast  of  France  to  England.  Dragon-flies  migrate 
in  a  similar  manner.  Professor  Ehrenberg  has  discovered  a  new 
world  of  creatures  in  the  Infusoria,  so  minute  that  they  are  invisible 


CHAP.  XXVIII.      DISTRIBUTION   OF   PISHES.  403' 

to  the  naked  eye.  He  found  them  in  fog,  rain,  and  snow,  in  the 
ocean,  in  stagnant  water,  in  animal  and  vegetable  juices,  in  volcanic 
ashes  and  pumice,  in  opal,  in  the  minute  dust  that  sometimes  falls 
on  the  ocean;  and  he  detected  18  species  20  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground  in  peat-bog,  which  was  full  of  microscopic  live  ani- 
mals :  they  exist  in  ice,  and  are  not  killed  by  boiling  water.  While 
inquiring  into  the  causes  of  the  cholera  which  prevailed  at  Berlin 
in  1848,  M.  Ehrenberg  discovered  400  species  of  living  microscopic 
animalcules  in  different  strata  of  the  atmosphere,  so  that  the  air  is 
analogous  in  the  distribution  of  its  inhabitants  to  the  ocean,  which 
has  marine  animals  peculiar  to  different  depths.  This  lowest  order 
of  animal  life  is  much  more  abundant  than  any  other,  and  new  spe- 
cies are  found  every  day.  Magnified,  some  of  them  seem  to  consist 
of  a  transparent  vesicle,  and  some  have  a  tail :  they  move  with  great 
rapidity,  and  show  a  certain  instinct  by  avoiding  obstacles  in  their 
course :  others  have  silicious  shells.  Language,  and  even  imagina- 
tion, fails  in  the  attempt  to  describe  the  inconceivable  myriads  of 
these  invisible  inhabitants  of  the  ocean,  the  air,  and  the  earth :  they 
no  doubt  become  the  prey  of  larger  creatures,  and  perhaps  carnivo- 
rous insects  may  have  recourse  to  them  when  other  prey  is  wanting. 


CHAPTER  XXIX. 

Distribution  of  Marine  Animals  in  general — Fishes — the  Marine  Mammalia 
—  Phocae,  Dolphins,  and  Whales. 

BEFORE  Sir  James  Ross's  voyage  to  the  antarctic  regions,  the 
profound  and  dark  abysses  of  the  ocean  were  supposed  to  be  entirely 
destitute  of  animal  life ;  now  it  may  be  presumed  that  no  part  of  it 
is  uninhabited,  since  during  that  expedition  live  creatures  were 
fished  up  from  a  depth  of  6000  feet.  But  as  most  of  the  larger  fish 
usually  frequent  shallow  water  near  the  coasts,  deep  seas  must  form 
barriers  as  impassable  to  the  greater  number  of  them  as  mountains 
do  to  land  animals.  The  polar,  the  equatorial  ocean,  and  the  inland 
seas  have  each  their  own  particular  inhabitants ;  almost  all  the  spe- 
cies and  some  of  the  genera  of  the  marine  creation  are  different  in 
the  two  hemispheres,  and  even  in  each  particular  sea ;  and  under 
similar  circumstances  the  species  are  for  the  most  part  representa- 
tive, though  not  the  same.  Identity  of  species,  however,  does  occur, 
even  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  globe,  for  living  animals  were 
brought  up  from  the  profound  depths  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean  which 
Sir  James  Ross  recognised  to  be  the  very  same  species  which  ho  had 


,404  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXIX. 

often  met  with  in  the  Arctic  seas.  "  The  only  way  they  could  have 
got  from  the  one  pole  to  the  other  must  have  been  through  the  tro- 
pics ;  but  the  temperature  of  the  sea  in  these  regions  is  such  that 
they  could  not  exist  in  it  unless  at  a  depth  of  nearly  2000  fathoms. 
At  that  depth  they  might  pass  from  the  Arctic  to  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  without  a  variation  of  5  degrees  of  temperature;  whilst  any 
land  animal,  at  the  most  favourable  season,  must  experience  a  dif- 
ference of  50  degrees,  and,  if  in  winter,  no  less  than  150  degrees 
of  Fahrenheit's  thermometer;" — a  strong  presumption  that  marine 
creatures  can  exist  at  the  depth  and  under  the  enormous  pressure  of 
12,000  feet  of  water.  The  stratum  of  constant  temperature  in  the 
ocean  may  indeed  afford  the  means  of  migration  from  pole  to  pole 
to  those  which  live  in  shallower  water,  as  they  would  only  have  to 
descend  to  a  depth  of  7200  feet  at  the  equator.  The  great  currents, 
no  doubt,  offer  paths  for  fish  without  any  sudden  change  of  tempera- 
ture :  the  inhabitants  of  the  Antarctic  Sea  may  come  to  the  coasts 
of  Chile  and  Peru  by  the  cold  stream  that  flows  along  them  from 
the  South  Polar  Ocean,  and  on  the  contrary,  tropical  fish  may  travel 
by  the  Gulf-stream  to  the  middle  and  high  latitudes  in  the  Atlantic, 
but  few  will  leave  either  one  or  other  to  inhabit  the  adjacent  seas, 
on  account  of  the  difference  of  heat.  Nevertheless,  quantities  of 
medusae  or  sea-nettles  are  brought  by  the  Gulf-stream  to  feed  the 
whales  at  the  Azores,  though  the  whales  themselves  seldom  enter 
the  stream,  on  account  of  its  warmth. 

The  form  and  nature  of  the  coasts  have  great  influence  on  the 
distribution  of  fishes;  when  they  are  uniformly  of  the  same  geo- 
logical structure,  so  as  to  afford  the  same  food  and  shelter,  the  fish 
are  similar.  Their  distribution  is  also  determined  by  climate,  the 
depth  of  the  sea,  the  nature  of  the  bottom,  and  the  influx  of  fresh 
water. 

The  ocean,  the  most  varied  and  most  wonderful  part  of  the  crea- 
tion, absolutely  teems  with  life:  "things  innumerable,  both  great 
and  small,  are  there."  The  forms  are  not  to  be  numbered  even  of 
those  within  our  reach ;  yet,  numerous  as  they  are,  few  have  been 
found  exempt  from  the  laws  of  geographical  distribution. 

The  discoloured  portions  of  the  ocean  generally  owe  the  tints  they 
assume  to  myriads  of  insects.  In  the  Arctic  seas,  where  the  water 
is  pure  transparent  ultramarine  colour,  parts  of  20  or  30  square 
miles,  1500  feet  deep,  are  green  and  turbid  from  the  quantity  of 
minute  animalcules.  Captain  Scoresby  calculated  that  it  would 
require  80,000  persons,  working  unceasingly  from  the  creation  of 
man  to  the  present  day,  to  count  the  number  of  insects  contained  in 
2  miles  of  the  green  water.  What,  then,  must  be  the  amount  of 
animal  life  in  the  polar  regions,  where  one-fourth  part  of  the  Green- 
land Sea,  for  10  degrees  of  latitude,  consists  of  that  water !  These 
animalcules  are  of  the  medusa  tribe,  or  of  others  of  the  family  of 


CHAP.  XXIX.  MARINE    INFUSORIA.  405 

zoophytes.  Some  medusas  are  very  large,  floating  like  a  mass  of 
jelly ;  and  although  apparently  carried  at  random  by  the  waves, 
each  species  has  its  definite  location,  and  its  peculiar  organs  of  loco- 
motion. One  species  comes  in  spring  from  the  Greenland  seas  to 
the  coast  of  Holland ;  and  Baron  Humboldt  met  with  an  immense 
shoal  of  them  in  the  Atlantic,  migrating  at  a  rapid  rate. 

Dr.  Poeppig  mentions  a  stratum  of  red  water  near  Cape  Pilares, 
24  miles  long  and  7  broad,  which  seen  from  the  mast-head  appeared 
dark-red,  but  on  proceeding  it  became  a  brilliant  purple,  and  the 
wake  of  the  vessel  was  rose-colour.  The  water  was  perfectly  trans- 
parent, but  small  red  dots  could  be  discerned  moving  in  spiral  lines. 
The  vermilion  sea  off  California  is  no  doubt  owing  to  a  similar 
cause,  as  Mr.  Darwin  found  red  and  chocolate-coloured  water  which 
had  been  before  observed  by  Ulloa  on  the  coast  of  Chile  over  spaces 
of  several  square  miles  full  of  microscopic  animalcules,  darting  about 
in  every  direction,  and  sometimes  exploding.  Infusoria  are  not  con- 
fined to  fresh  water;  the  bottom  of  the  sea  swarms  with  them. 
Silicious-coated  infusoria  are  found  in  the  mud  of  the  coral  islands 
under  the  equator ;  and  68  species  were  discovered  in  the  mud  in 
Erebus  Bay,  near  the  Antarctic  pole.  These  minute  forms  of  organ- 
ised life,  invisible  to  the  naked  eye,  are  intensely  and  extensively 
developed  in  both  of  the  polar  oceans,  and  serve  for  food  to  the 
higher  orders  of  fish  in  latitudes  beyond  the  limits  of  the  larger 
vegetation,  though  they  themselves  probably  live  on  the  microscopic 
plant  already  mentioned,  which  abounds  in  all  seas.  Some  are  pecu- 
liar to  each  of  the  polar  seas,  and  a  few  are  distributed  extensively 
throughout  the  ocean. 

The  enormous  prodigality  of  animal  life  supplies  the  place  of 
vegetation,  so  scanty  in  the  ocean  in  comparison  with  that  which 
clothes  the  land,  and  which  probably  would  be  insufficient  for  the 
supply  of  the  marine  creation,  were  the  deficiency  not  made  up  by 
the  superabundant  land  vegetation  and  insects  carried  to  the  sea  by 
rivers.  The  fish  that  live  on  sea-weed  must  bear  a  smaller  propor- 
tion to  those  that  are  predaceous  than  the  herbivorous  land  animals 
do  to  the  carnivorous.  Fish  certainly  are  most  voracious ;  none  are 
without  their  enemies;  they  prey  and  are  preyed  upon;  and  there 
are  two  which  devour  even  the  live  coral,  hard  as  its  coating  is ;  nor 
does  the  coat  of  mail  of  shell-fish  protect  them.  Whatever  the  pro- 
portion may  be  which  predatory  fish  bear  to  herbivorous,  the 
quantity  of  both  must  be  enormous,  for,  besides  the  infusoria,  the 
great  forests  of  fuci  and  sea-weed  are  everywhere  a  mass  of  infinitely 
varied  forms  of  being,  either  parasitical,  feeding  on  them,  seeking 
shelter  among  them,  or  in  pursuit  of  others. 

The  observations  of  Professor  E.  Forbes  in  the  Egean  Sea  show 
that  depth  has  great  influence  in  the  geographical  distribution  of 
marine  animals.  From  the  surface  to  the  depth  of  230  fathoms 


406  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIX. 

there  are  eight  distinct  regions  in  that  sea,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
vegetation  and  inhabitants.  The  number  of  shell-fish  or  Mollusca 
and  other  marine  animals  is  greater  specifically  and  individually 
between  the  surface  and  the  depth  of  2  fathoms  than  in  all  the 
regions  below  taken  together,  and  both  decrease  downwards  to  the 
depth  of  105  fathoms ;  between  which  and  the  depth  of  230  only 
eight  shells  were  found ;  and  animal  life  ceases  in  that  part  of  the 
Mediterranean  at  300  fathoms.  The  changes  in  the  different  zones 
are  not  abrupt ;  some  of  the  creatures  of  an  under  region  always 
appear  before  those  of  the  region  above  vanish ;  and  although  there 
are  a  few  species  the  same  in  some  of  the  eight  zones,  only  two  are 
common  to  all.  Those  near  the  surface  have  forms  and  colours 
more  resembling  those  of  the  inhabitants  of  southern  latitudes, 
while  those  lower  down  are  more  analogous  to  the  animals  of  north- 
ern seas;  so  that  in  the  sea  depth  corresponds  with  latitude,  as 
height  does  on  land.  Moreover,  the  extent  of  the  geographical  dis- 
tribution of  any  species  is  proportional  to  the  depth  at  which  it  lives; 
consequently,  those  living  near  the  surface  are  less  widely  dispersed 
than  those  inhabiting  deep  water.  Professor  Forbes  also  discovered 
several  shells  living  in  the  Mediterranean  that  have  hitherto  only 
been  known  as  fossils  of  the  tertiary  strata ;  and  also  that  the  spe- 
cies least  abundant  as  fossils  are  most  numerous  alive.  These  im- 
portant observations,  it  is  true,  were  confined  to  th«  Mediterranean ; 
but  analogous  results  have  been  obtained  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and 
in  the  British  seas.  There  are  four  zones  of  depth  in  our  seas, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  inhabitants,  consisting  of  shell-fish,  crus- 
tacese,  corallines,  and  other  marine  creatures.  The  first  zone  lies 
between  high  and  low  water  marks,  consequently  it  is  shallow  in 
some  places  and  30  feet  deep  in  others.  In  all  parts  of  the  north- 
ern hemisphere  it  presents  the  same  phenomena ;  but  the  animals 
vary  with  the  nature  of  the  coast,  according  as  it  is  of  rock,  gravel, 
sand,  or  mud.  In  the  British  seas  the  animals  of  this  littoral  or 
coast  zone  are  distributed  in  three  groups  that  differ  decidedly  from 
one  another,  though  many  are  common  to  all.  One  occupies  the 
seas  on  the  southern  shores  of  our  islands  and  both  channels ;  a 
middle  group  has  its  centre  in  the  Irish  seas ;  and  the  third  is  con- 
fined to  the  Scottish  seas,  and  the  adjacent  coasts  of  England  and 
Ireland.  The  second  zone  extends  from  the  low-water  mark  to  a 
depth  be"low  it  of  from  7  to  15  fathoms,  and  is  crowded  with  ani- 
mals living  on  and  among  the  sea-weeds,  as  radiated  animals,  shell- 
fish, and  many  zoophytes.  In  the  third  zone,  which  is  below  that 
of  vegetable  life,  marine  animals  are  more  numerous  and  of  greater 
variety  than  in  any  other.  It  is  particularly  distinguished  by  arbo- 
rescent creatures,  that  seem  to  take  the  place  of  plants,  carnivorous 
mollusca,  together  with  large  and  peculiar  radiata.  It  ranges  from 
the  depth  of  15  to  50  fathoms.  The  last  zone  is  the  region  of 


CHAP.  XXIX.     PROVINCES    OP    MARINE  LIFE.  407 

stronger  corals,  peculiar  mollusca,  and  of  others  that  only  inhabit 
deep  water.  This  zone  extends  to  the  depth  of  100  fathoms  or 
more. 

Except  in  the  Antarctic  seas,  the  superior  zone  of  Mollusca  is 
the  only  one  of  which  anything  is  known  in  the  great  oceans,  which 
have  numerous  special  provinces.  Many,  like  the  Harp,  are  tropi- 
cal ;  others,  as  the  Nautilus  and  the  pearl-oyster,  are  nearly  so ;  the 
latter  (Meleayrina  Margaritiferd)  abounds  throughout  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  on  the  coasts  of  Borneo  and  Ceylon,  and  is  supposed  to 
produce  the  finest  pearls.  There  are  others  in  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  in  the  Pacific,  and  especially  in  the  Bay  of  Panama,  but  whether 
the  species  are  the  same  is  not  well  ascertained.  Some  shells  are 
exceedingly  limited  in  their  distribution,  as  the  Haliotis  gigantea, 
which  is  peculiar  to  the  seas  around  Van  Diemen's  Land. 

According  to  Sir  Charles  Lyell,  nearly  all  the  species  of  mollus- 
cous animals  in  the  seas  of  the  two  temperate  zones  are  distinct, 
yet  the  united  species  when  compared  with  each  other  have  a  strong 
analogy  of  type ;  both  differ  widely  from  those  in  the  tropical  and 
arctic  oceans ;  and,  under  the  same  latitude,  species  vary  with  the 
longitude.  The  east  and  west  coasts  of  tropical  America  have  only 
one  shell-fish  in  common ;  and  those  of  both  differ  from  the  Mol- 
lusca in  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  and  the  Galapagos  Archipelago, 
which  form  a  distinct  region.  Notwithstanding  the  many  definite 
marine  provinces,  the  same  species  are  occasionally  found  in  regions 
widely  separated.  A  few  of  the  shell-fish  of  the  Galapagos  Archi- 
pelago are  analogous  with  those  of  the  Philippine  islands,  though 
so  far  apart.  The  east  coast  of  America,  which  is  poor  in  mollusca, 
has  a  number,  however,  in  common  with  the  coasts  of  Europe. 

The  Cyprsea  moneta  lives  in  the  Mediterranean,  the  seas  of  South 
Africa,  the  Mauritius,  the  East  Indies,  China,  and  the  South  Pacific 
even  as  far  as  Tahiti  j  and  the  Janthina  fragilis,  the  animal  of  which 
is  of  a  beautiful  violet-colour,  floats  on  the  surface  in  every  tropical 
and  temperate  sea.  Mollusca  have  a  greater  power  of  locomotion 
than  is  generally  believed.  Some  migrate  in  their  state  of  larva, 
being  furnished  with  lobes  which  enable  them  to  swim  freely.  The 
larva  of  the  scalop  is  capable  of  migrating  to  distant  regions;  the 
Argonauta  spreads  its  sail  and  swims  along  the  surface. 

The  numerous  species  of  Zoophytes  which  construct  the  extensive 
coral  banks  and  atolls  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  tropical  seas  of 
Polynesia,  the  East  and  "West  Indies  :  the  family  is  represented  by 
a  very  few  species  in  our  seas,  and  in  the  Mediterranean  they  are 
smaller  and  different  generally  from  those  in  the  torrid  zone. 

Fishes1  properly  so  called,  advance  in  the  water  by  means  of  their 

1  The  skeletons  of  fishes  are  composed  either  of  bone  or  cartilage,  hence 
Cuvier's  division  of  the  finny  tribe  into  osseous  or  bony,  and  cartilaginous 


408  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIX. 

flexible  bodies ;  the  fins  and  tail  serve  chiefly  to  balance  them  and 
direct  their  motion.  These  larger  and  more  active  inhabitants  of 
the  waters  obey  the  same  laws  with  the  rest  of  the  creation,  though 
the  provinces  are  in  some  instances  very  extensive.  Dr.  Richardson 
observes  that  there  is  one  vast  province  in  the  Pacific,  extending  42 
degrees  on  each  side  of  the  equator,  between  the  meridians  including 
Australia,  New  Zealand,  the  Malay  Archipelago,  China,  and  Japan, 
in  which  the  genera  are  the  same ;  but  at  its  extremities  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  genera  are  mingled  with  the  tropical  forms.  Many 
species  however  which  abound  in  the  Indian  Ocean  range  as  far 
north  as  Japan,  from  which  circumstance  it  is  presumed  that  a  cur- 
rent sets  in  that  direction.  The  middle  portion  of  this  province  is 
vastly  extended  in  lopgitude,  for  very  many  species  of  the  Red  Sea, 
the  eastern  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Mauritius  range  to  the  Indian 
and  China  Seas,  to  those  of  northern  Australia  and  all  Polynesia; 
so  in  this  immense  belt,  which  embraces  three-fourths  of  the  cir- 
cumference of  the  globe  and  60  degrees  of  latitude,  the  fish  are  very 
nearly  alike,  the  continuous  chains  of  islands  in  the  Pacific  being 
favourable  to  their  dispersion.  Few  of  the  Pacific  fish  enter  the 
Atlantic;1  and  from  the  depth  and  want  of  islands  in  it  the  great 
bulk  of  species  is  different  on  its  two  sides.  North  of  the  44th 
parallel  however  the  number  common  to  both  shores  increases.  The 
salmon  of  America  is  identical  with  that  of  the  British  isles,  the 
coasts  of  Norway  and  Sweden ;  the  cod-fish  is  identical,  as  well  as 
several  others  of  the  same  family.  The  Cottus  or  bullhead  genus 
are  also  the  same  on  both  sides  of  the  North  Atlantic,  and  they  in- 
crease in  numbers  and  variety  on  approaching  the  Arctic  seas.  The 
same  occurs  in  the  northern  Pacific,  though  the  generic  forms  differ 

fishes.  The  fins  are  formed  of  spines  or  rays  of  bone  united  more  or  less 
by  a  thin  web  or  membrane ;  some  are  hard  and  others  soft ;  the  bony 
fishes  are  subdivided  into  hard  finned  or  acanthopterygians,  as  the  perch, 
sea-bream,  mullet,  mackerel,  &c.,  and  the  soft-finned  or  malacopterygians, 
as  the  salmon,  herring,  pike,  carp,  cod,  flat-fish,  eels,  &c.  The  cartilagi- 
nous fishes,  or  Chondropterygians,  include  the  families  of  the  sturgeon, 
shark,  ray,  or  skate,  lamprey,  sun-fish,  diodons,  &c. 

M.  Agassiz  has  more  recently  divided  fishes  into  four  great  orders  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  their  scales;  the  first  includes  sharks,  rays,  &c., 
•which  are  covered  with  solid  plates  of  enamel ;  the  second  sturgeon  and 
siluri,  which  are  partially  covered  with  the  same;  third  perch,  &c.,  covered 
with  toothed  scales  ;  fourth,  salmon,  mullet,  &c.,  covered  with  simple  thin 
plates. 

1  The  Notochanthus  and  Macrourus  are  deep-water  fish  in  the  Arctic  re- 
gions ;  they  also  inhabit  the  seas  of  New  Zealand.  The  Pacific  fish  that 
enter  the  Atlantic  are  some  of  the  mackerel  tribe,  sharks,  and  lopho- 
branches.  The  genera  most  prevalent  in  the  southern  hemisphere  are  the 
Notothemia,  Borichthys,  and  Harpagifer.  The  same  species  of  these  ge- 
nera are  found  in  the  seas  of  the  Falkland  Islands,  Cape  Horn,  the  Auck- 
land Islands,  and  Kerguelen's  Land. — Dr.  Richardson. 


CHAP.  XXIX.  PROVINCES   OP   MARINE  LIFE.  409 

from  those  in  the  Atlantic.  From  the  near  approach  of  the  Ame- 
rican and  Asiatic  coasts  at  Behring's  Straits,  the  fish  on  both  sides 
are  nearly  alike,  down  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk  on  one  side  and  to 
Admiralty  Inlet  on  the  other.  The  sea  of  Japan  and  the  neigh- 
bouring coasts  of  China  are  frequented  by  fishes  having  northern 
forms,  which  are  there  mingled  with  many  species  common  to  the 
temperate  and  warm  parts  of  the  ocean.  Species  of  the  genus 
Gadus  or  Cod  reappear  in  the  southern  seas  very  like  those  of  the 
northern ;  and  two  very  remarkable  Greenland  genera,  which  in- 
.habit  deeper  water  and  are  seldom  taken  except  when  thrown  up  by 
a  storm,  have  been  discovered  on  the  coasts  of  New  Zealand  and 
South  Australia,  where  the  fish  differ  but  little  from  those  in  the 
seas  of  Van  Diemen's  Land.  Several  genera  are  peculiar  to  tho 
southern  hemisphere,  and  range  throughout  the  whole  circle  of  the 
high  latitudes.  The  sharks  of  the  China  seas  are  for  the  most  part 
identical  with  those  of  Australia :  the  cartilaginous  fish  to  which 
they  belong  have  a  much  wider  range  than  those  which  have  been 
under  consideration. 

The  British  islands  lie  between  two  great  provinces  of  fishes  — 
one  to  the  south,  the  other  to  the  north  —  from  each  of  which  we 
have  occasionally  visitors.  The  centre  of  the  first  is  on  the  coasts 
of  the  Spanish  peninsula,  extending  into  the  Mediterranean;  that 
on  the  north  has  its  centre  about  the  Shetland  Islands :  but  the 
group  peculiarly  British,  and  found  nowhere  else,  has  its  focus  in 
the  Irish  Sea.  It  is,  however,  mixed  with  fish  from  the  seas  bound- 
ing the  western  shores  of  central  Europe,  which  forms  a  distinct 
group. 

The  Prince  of  Canino  has  shown  that  there  are  853  European 
species  of  fishes,  of  which  210  live  in  fresh  water,  643  are  marine, 
and  GO  of  these  go  up  rivers  to  spawn.  444  of  the  marine  fish  in- 
habit the  Mediterranean,  216  are-found  off  the  British  coasts,  and 
171  are  peculiar  to  the  Scandinavian  seas;  so  that  the  Mediterranean 
is  richest  in  variety  of  species.  In  it  there  are  peculiar  sharks, 
sword-fish,  dolphins,  anchovies,  and  six  species  of  scomber  or 
mackerel,  one  of  the  largest  of  which,  indeed  of  all  edible  fish,  is 
the  tunny,  for  which  fisheries  are  established  on  the  southern  coasts 
of  France,  in  Sardinia,  Elba,  the  Straits  of  Messina,  and  the 
Adriatic.  Four  of  the  species  are  found  nowhere  else  but  in  the 
Mediterranean.  Kays  of  numerous  species  are  particularly  charac- 
teristic of  the  Mediterranean,  especially  the  Torpedos,  which  have 
the  power  of  giving  an  electric  shock,  and  even  the  electric  spark. 
The  Mediterranean  has  two  or  three  American  species,  41  in  com- 
mon with  Madeira,  one  in  common  with  the  Red  Sea,  and  a  very 
few  seem  to  be  Indian.  Some  of  these  fish  have  probably  entered 
the  Mediterranean  before  it  was  separated  from  the  Red  Sea  by  the 
Isthmus  of  Suez ;  but  geological  changes  have  had  very  great  influ- 
35 


410 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXIX. 


ence  on  the  distribution  of  fishes  everywhere.  Taking  salt  and  fresh 
water  fishes  together,  there  are  100  species  common  to  Italy  and 
Britain ;  and  although  the  communication  with  the  Black  Sea  is  so 
direct,  there  are  only  27  common  to  it  and  the  Mediterranean ;  but 
the  Black  Sea  forms  a  district  by  itself,  having  its  own  peculiar 
Ichthyology ;  and  the  fishes  of  the  Caspian  Sea  differ  entirely  from 
those  in  every  other  part  of  the  globe.  The  island  of  Madeira, 
solitary  amid  a  great  expanse  of  ocean,  has  many  species.  They 
amount  in  number  to  half  of  those  in  Britain ;  and  nearly  as  many 
are  common  to  Britain  and  Madeira  as  to  that  island  and  the  Medi- 
terranean ;  so  that  many  of  our  fish  have  a  wide  range  in  the  At- 
lantic; and  in  return  we  have  occasional  visits  from  the  tunny, 
torpedo,  pilot-fishes,  and  various  sharks.  The  Mediterranean  cer- 
tainly surpasses  the  British  and  Scandinavian  seas  in  variety,  though 
it  is  far  inferior  to  either  in  the  quantity  or  quality  of  useful  fish. 
Cod,  turbot,  brill,  haddock,  ling,  herring,  and  many  more,  are  better 
in  northern  seas  than  elsewhere,  and  several  exist  there  only. 

The  greater  number  of  fish  used  by  man  as  food  frequent  shoal 
water.  The  coast  of  Holland,  our  own  shores,  and  other  parts  of 
the  North  Sea  where  the  water  is  shallow,  teem  with  a  never-ending 
supply  of  excellent  fish  of  many  kinds. 

Vast  numbers  are  gregarious  and  migratory.  Cod  arrive  in  the 
shallow  parts  of  the  coast  of  Norway  in  February,  in  shoals  many 
yards  deep,  and  so  closely  crowded  together  that  the  sounding-lead 
can  hardly  pass  between  them :  16,000,000  have  been  caught  in 
one  place  in  a  few  weeks.  In  April  they  return  to  the  ocean.  Her- 
rings come  in  astonishing  quantities  in  winter. 

The  principal  cod  fisheries  are  on  the  banks  of  Newfoundland  and 
the  Dogger-bank.  They,  like  all  animals,  frequent  the  places  to 
which  they  have  been  accustomed.  Herrings  come  to  the  same 
places  for  a  series  of  years,  and  then  desert  them,  perhaps  from 
having  exhausted  the  food.  Pilchards,  sardinias,  mackerel,  and 
many  others  may  be  mentioned  among  the  gregarious  and  migra- 
tory fish. 

Sharks  like  deep  water.  They  are  found  of  different  species  in  all 
tropical  and  temperate  seas ;  and,  although  always  dangerous,  they 
are  more  ferocious  in  some  places  than  in  others,  even  in  the  same 
species. 

Most  lakes  have  fish  of  peculiar  species,  as  the  lake  Baikal.  The 
fishes  of  the  great  interalpine  Lake  of  Titicaca  amount  to  7  or  8 
species,  and  belong  to  genera  only  found  in  the  higher  regions  of 
the  Andes.  In  the  North  American  lakes  there  is  a  thick-scaled 
fish,  bearing  some  analogy  to  those  of  the  early  geological  eras : 
there  are  five  species  of  perch  in  the  North  American  waters,  one 
of  which  is  the  same  as  that  of  Europe;  and  the  Gillaroo  trout, 
which  ia  remarkable  in  having  a  highly  muscular  stomach  or  gizzard, 


CHAP.  XXIX.  ANALOGY  'TO   LAND   ANIMALS.  4H 

is  found  in  Ireland  only.  Pike  and  salmon  are  the  only  species  of 
fresh-water  fish  common  to  Europe  and  North  America ;  the  pike  is 
however  unknown  west  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  common 
salmon  does  not  exist  beyond  45°  of  N.  lat.  on  the  eastern  coast  of 
America,  and  it  is  probably  confined  within  similar  limits  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  Asia.  It  is  said  to  be  an  inhabitant  of  all  the 
northern  parts  of  the  Old  World  from  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay  to  North  Cape,  and  along  the  arctic  shores  of  Asia  and 
Kamtchatka  to  the  Sea  of  Okhotsk,  including  the  Baltic,  White 
Sea,  Gulf  of  Kara,  and  other  inlets.  Other  kinds  of  the  Salmon 
tribe  are  plentiful  in  the  estuaries  of  Kamtchatka  and  on  the  oppo- 
site coast  of  America  down  to  Oregon,  but  apparently  they  do  not 
extend  to  China.  Salmon  go  up  rivers  to  spawn,  and  make  extra- 
ordinary leaps  over  impediments  of  rocks  or  walls,  in  order  to  reach 
the  suitable  places  for  depositing  their  eggs.  Forty-four  fish  inhabit 
the  British  lakes  and  rivers,  and  50  those  of  Scandinavia,  of  the 
very  best  kinds.  The  fresh-water  fish  of  northern  climates  are  more 
esteemed  in  a  culinary  point  of  view  than  those  of  the  southern. 

Each  tropical  river  has  its  own  species  of  fish.  The  fresh-water 
fish  of  China  agree  with  those  of  India  in  generic  forms,  but  not  in 
species ; '  and  those  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  South  America 
differ  from  those  in  India  and  China.  Sea-fish,  in  immense  quanti- 
ties, frequent  the  estuaries  of  rivers  everywhere.  The  mouth  of  the 
Mississippi  is  full  of  them  ;  and  the  quantity  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Don,  in  the  Sea  of  Azof,  is  prodigious. 

There  are  some  singular  analogies  between  the  inhabitants  of  the 
sea  and  those  of  the  land.  Many  of  the  Medusao,  two  corallines, 
the  Physalia,  or  Portuguese  man-of-war  sailors,  sting  like  a  nettle 
•when  touched.  A  cuttle-fish,  at  the  Cape  de  Verde  islands,  changes 
colour  like  a  chameleon,  assuming  the  tint  of  the  ground  under  it. 
Herrings,  pilchards,  and  many  other  fish,  as  well  as  sea  insects,  are 
luminous.  The  medusa  tribe,  the  species  of  which  are  numerous, 
have  also  the  faculty  of  emitting  light  in  a  high  degree.  In  warm 
climates,  especially,  the  sea  seems  to  be  on  fire,  and  the  wake  of  a 
ship  is  like  a  vivid  flame.  Probably  fish  that  go  below  the  depths 
to  which  the  light  of  the  sun  penetrates  are  endowed  with  this 
faculty;  and  shoals  of  luminous  insects  have  been  seen  at  a  con- 
siderable depth  below  the  surface  of  the  water.  The  glow-worm, 
certain  beetles,  and  fire-flies,  shine  with  the  same  pale-green  light. 
The  fishes  that  live  at  great  depths  resemble  owls,  and  other  noctur- 
nal birds,  in  having  large  eyes.  The  tails  of  some  of  the  skate 
family,  especially  one  found  in  the  rivers  of  Guiana,  [as  well  as 

'  The  Chinese  fresh-water  fish  are  cyprinidce,  ophicephali,  and  siluridse 
— genera  which  agree  closely  with  those  in  India,  though  the  species  are 
different. 


412  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXIX 

those  found  on  the  coast  of  New  Jersey,]  are  armed  with  two  or 
three  serrated  prongs,  three  inches  long,  with  which  they  defend 
themselves  hy  lashing  their  tails,  inflicting  wounds  which,  in  hot 
climates,  are  often  followed  by  violent  inflammation  and  pain,  and 
have  hence  been  improperly  considered  as  venomous.  But  among 
the  terrestrial  animals  there  is  nothing  analogous  .to  the  property  of 
the  gymnotus  electricus  of  the  South  American  lakes,  or  of  the 
silurus  electricus  of  the  African  rivers,  and  the  different  species  of 
the  torpedo  of  the  Mediterranean,  which  possess  the  faculty  of  giving 
an  electric  shock  by  means  of  a  very  beautiful  organic  Voltaic  appa- 
ratus with  which  they  are  provided. 

The  marine  mammalia,  which,  as  their  name  indicates,  suckle 
their  young,  form  two  distinct  families — the  Phoca;  or  seals,  and  the 
Cetacea  or  whales  and  porpoises  :  whilst  fish  breathe  by  means  of 
gills,  which  separate  the  air  dissolved  in  the  water,  the  marine 
mammalia  .possess  lungs  and  breathe  like  the  terrestrial  quadrupeds; 
they  are  obliged  to  come  to  the  surface  from  time  to  time  to  inhale 
the  air. 

The  first  family  consists  of  the  Seal  tribe,  and  is  most  abundant 
in  the  polar  regions  of  both  hemispheres;  they  are  carnivorous,  live 
exclusively  on  fish,  and  are  seldom  found  at  a  great  distance  from 
the  land  or  ice  islands.  To  this  division  belong  the  common  seal 
and  the  Walrus  in  our  northern  hemisphere;  whilst  the  genus  Otaria 
or  sea-lion,  and  its  congeners  of  many  species,  and  which  attain  in 
general  a  greater  size,  are  only  found  in  high  southern  latitudes. 

The  family  of  Cetacea  consists  of  three  great  genera :  the  Mana- 
tus  and  Dugong,  which  live  in  or  near  the  estuaries  of  tropical 
rivers,  are  herbivorous ;  the  Dolphins  or  Porpoises,  which  are  car- 
nivorous, provided  with  long  jaws  and  numerous  teeth,  and  are  found 
in  almost  every  latitude  and  in  every  sea;  and  the  whales,  which, 
unprovided  with  cutting  teeth,  are  furnished  with  whalebone  inserted 
in  the  upper  jaw,  the  extreme  filaments  of  which  are  destined  as  a 
kind  of  net  to  catch  the  minute  marine  animals  which  form  their 
food.  The  marine  Cetacea  breathe  by  an  opening  in  the  centre  of 
the  head,  called,  in  whales,  the  blower,  corresponding  to  the  nose 
of  terrestrial  quadrupeds,  and  which  also  serves  to  expel  the  water 
taken  into  the  mouth  with  the  food,  in  the  form  of  jets,  which  in 
the  whale  tribe  varies  in  height  and  form  according  to  the  species. 

The  favourite  haunts  of  the  seal  tribe  are  the  polar  oceans  and 
desert  islands  in  high  latitudes,  where  they  bask  in  hundreds  on  the 
sunny  shores  during  the  brief  summer  of  these  inhospitable  regions, 
and  become  an  easy  prey  to  man,  who  has  nearly  extirpated  the  race 
in  many  places.  A  million  are  annually  killed  in  the  South  Atlantic 
alone.  Seven  species  are  natives  of  the  Arctic,  Atlantic,  and  Polar 
Oceans ;  the  Greenland  seal,  the  bearded  or  great  seal,  and  the  phoca 
leporina  are  found  also  in  the  high  latitudes  of  the  Northern  Pacific. 


CHAP.  XXIX.  MARINE     MAMMALIA.  413 

The  phoca  oceanica  is  only  met  with  in  the  White  Sea  and  the  sea 
at  Nova  Zembla,  and  the  phoca  sagura  on  the  coast  of  Newfound- 
land. The  sea-lion  is  to  be  found  on  all  the  coasts  of  the  South 
Pacific,  but  their  principal  gathering  is  on  the  island  of  St.  George, 
one  of  the  Pruibiloff  group,  in  lat.  56°  N.  The  common  seal  is 
G  or  7  feet  long,  with  a  face  like  that  of  a  dog,  and  a  large  intelli- 
gent eye.  It  is  easily  tamed,  and  in  the  Orkney  islands  it  is  so 
much  domesticated  that  it  follows  its  master,  and  helps  him  to  catch 
fish.  This  seal  migrates  in  herds  from  Greenland  twice  in  the  year, 
and  returns  again  to  its  former  haunts ;  they  probably  come  to  the 
coasts  of  Europe  and  the  British  islands  at  the  time  of  their  migra- 
tions ;  it  may  be  considered,  however,  a  constant  inhabitant  of  our 
northern  shores.  Some  of  the  seal  tribe  have  a  very  wide  range,  as 
the  fur  species,  Arctocephalus  ursinus,  of  the  Falkland  islands, 
which  at  one  time  frequented  the  southern  coasts  of  Australia  in 
great  numbers,  but  they  and  three  other  species  have  now  become 
scarce  from  the  indiscriminate  slaughter  of  old  and  young.  Sir 
James  lloss  found  some  of  the  islands  in  the  Antarctic  seas  overrun 
with  the  sea-elephant,  phoca  elcphantina.  The  Walrus,  a  grim- 
looking  creature,  with  tusks  2  feet  long,  bent  downwards,  and  its 
nose  covered  with  strong  transparent  bristles,  has  a  body  like  that 
of  a  seal,  20  feet  long,  with  a  coat  of  short  grey  or  yellow  hair.  It 
sleeps  on  the  floating  ice,  feeds  on  sea-weed  and  marine  animals,  and 
never  leaves  the  Arctic  seas. 

The  Manati  and  Dugong  form  the  first  group  of  the  family  of  the 
Cetacea ;  they  are  exclusively  herbivorous,  and  live  near  the  mouths 
of  the  great  tropical  rivers.  The  Lamantin,  a  species  of  Manatus, 
is  found  in  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco,  and  another  in  some  rivers  of 
Western  Africa.  In  the  former,  where  it  is  known  as  the  sea-cow, 
its  body  is  round  like  a  wine-bag,  and  sometimes  attains  a  length  of 
12  or  15  feet;  it  browses  in  herds  on  the  herbage  at  the  bottom  of 
streams ;  and  when  attacked,  the  mother  defends  her  young  at  the 
sacrifice  of  her  own  life.  The  Dugong  is  an  inhabitant  of  the 
eastern  archipelago,  and  of  the  shallow  parts  of  the  Indian  Ocean, 
where  it  also  feeds  on  sea-weed;  it  is  more  a  marine  animal  than  the 
Lamantin,  as  it  is  scarcely  ever  seen  in  fresh  water.  The  dugoug  is 
so  harmless  and  tame  as  to  allow  itself  to  be  handled.  When  it 
suckles  its  young  it  sits  upright,  which  has  given  rise  to  the  fable 
of  the  Mermaid.  This  animal,  like  the  Lamantin,  will  sacrifice  its 
life  for  its  young,  and  is  hence,  among  the  Malays,  held  as  the  type 
of  maternal  affection.  The  animal  called  the  Manatus  septentrio- 
nalis,  which  frequents  the  Arctic  seas,  is  very  little  known,  and 
probably  not  one  of  the  herbivorous  Cetacea. 

The  second  group  or  genus  of  the  Cetacea  consists  of  those  of 
predatory  habits  :  they  live  on  fish,  and  consequently  have  sharp 
and  numerous  teeth,  such  as  Porpoises,  Dolphins,  and  spermaceti 
35* 


414  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXTX. 

whales  or  Cachalots ;  they  have,  like  all  the  animals  of  this  family, 
spouting  nostrils  in  the  upper  part  of  the  head.1  The  common  ^por- 
poise is  seen  spouting  and  tumbling  on  the  surface  of  all  the  seas 
of  Europe ;  shoals  of  them  go  in  pursuit  of  herrings  and  mackerel, 
and  even  swim  up  the  rivers  in  chase  of  salmon.  They  have  more 
the  form  of  fish  than  the  seal  tribe,  and  have  a  dorsal  fin.  Tljo 
several  species  of  Dolphins,  so  remarkable  for  their  voracity  and  f»r 
the  swiftness  of  their  motions,  owing  to  the  symmetry  of  their 
form  and  the  width  of  their  horizontally-placed  tail,  are  seen  in  al- 
most every  latitude.  The  white  dolphin,  eaten  by  the  Icelanders, 
is  18  feet  long,  and  migrates  from  the  Atlantic  to  Greenland  in  the 
end  of  November.  The  Grampus,  Delphinus  Orca,  nearly  allied  to 
the  killer  of  the  South  Sea  whalers,  is  fierce  and  voracious,  often  20 
feet  long,  roams  in  numerous  shoals,  preying  upon  the  larger  fish, 
and  even  attacking  the  whale.  The  Grind  or  black  dolphin  has  been 
known  to  run  ashore  in  hundreds  in  the  bays  of  Feroe,  Orkney,  and 
Shetland.  This  seems  to  be  the  same  or  nearly  allied  to  the  black 
fish  which  was  met  with  in  vast  numbers  by  Sir  James  lloss  in  the 
Antarctic  seas :  they  had  so  little  fear,  that  they  darted  below  the 
ship  on  one  side  and  came  up  at  the  other.  The  delphinus  peronii, 
or  white  porpoise  of  the  southern  whalers,  is  a  rare  and  elegant 
species  of  dolphin  which  chiefly  inhabits  the  high  southern  latitudes, 
but  has  been  seen  near  the  equator  in  the  Pacific.  [It  is  not  unfre- 
quent  near  Macao  in  the  China  Sea.]  They  are  about  six  feet  long, 
the  hinder  part  of  the  head,  the  back,  and  the  flukes  of  their  tail 
are  black,  and  all  the  rest  of  the  purest  white.  The  Narwhal  or 
sea-unicorn  (Monodon  monoceros)  has  no  teeth,  but  a  tusk  of  fine 
ivory  wreathed  with  spiral  grooves  extending  8  or  10  feet  straight 
from  the  head;  in  general  there  is  only  one  tusk,  but  there  are  al- 
ways the  rudiments  of  another,  and  occasionally  both  grow  to  an 
equal  length.  The  old  narwhals  are  white  with  blackish  spots,  the 
young  are  dark-coloured.  This  singular  creature,  which  is  about  16 
feet  long  without  the  tusks,  swims  with  great  swiftness.  Dr.  Scoresby 
has  seen  15  or  20  at  a  time  playing  round  his  ship  in  the  Arctic 
seas,  and  crossing  their  long  tusks  in  all  directions  as  if  they  were 
fencing;  they  are  found  in  all  parts  of  the  Northern  Ocean. 

The  spermaceti  whale,  the  Cachalot  or  physeter  macrocephalus, 
belonging  to  the  family  of  the  predaceous  spouters,  is  one  of  the 
most  formidable  inhabitants  of  the  deep.  Its  average  size  is  60 
feet  long  and  40  feet  in  circumference ;  its  head,  equal  to  a  third 
of  its  length,  is  extremely  thick  and  blunt  in  front,  with  a  throat 
wide  enough  to  swallow  a  man."  The  proportionally  small  swimming 

1  The  carnivorous  Cetacea,  •with  two  remarkable  exceptions,  inhabit  the 
ocean — the  Delphinus  Inca,  of  the  Upper  Amazon  and  its  tributaries ;  and 
the  D.  Gangeticus,  of  the  Ganges. 


CHAP.  XXIX.  SPERMACETI    WHALES.  415 

paws  or  pectoral  fins  arc  at  a  short  distance  behind  the  head,  and 
the  tail,  which  is  a  horizontal  triangle  6  or  7  feet  long  and  19  feet 
wide,  with  a  notch  between  the  flukes,  is  the  chief  organ  of  progres- 
sive motion  and  defence.  It  has  a  hump  of  fat  on  its  back,  is  of  a 
dark  colour,  but  with  a  very  smooth  clean  skin.  These  sperm 
whales  have  two  nasal  apertures  on  the  top  of  their  head,  through 
which  they  throw  at  each  expiration  a  succession  of  jets  like  smoke, 
at  intervals  of  15  or  20  minutes,  after  which  they  toss  their  tails 
high  in  the  air  and  go  head  foremost  to  vast  depths,  where  they 
remain  for  a  considerable  time,  and  then  return  again  to  the  surface 
to  breathe.  The  jet  or  spout  is  from  6  to  8  feet  high,  and  consists 
of  water  mixed  with  air,  expired  from  the  lungs.  [It  is  a  jet  of 
vapour,  and  not  of  water,  as  erroneously  stated.]  This  whale  has 
sperm-oil  and  spermaceti  in  every  part  of  its  body,  but  the  latter  is 
chiefly  in  a  vast  reservoir  in  its  head,  which  makes  it  very  buoyant : 
ambergris  is  sometimes  found  in  the  inside  of  the  body,  supposed  to 
be  produced  by  disease.  These  huge  monsters,  occasionally  75  feet 
long,  go  in  great  herds,  or  schools,  as  the  whalers  call  them,  of  500 
or  600.  Females  with  their  young,  and  two  or  three  old  males, 
generally  form  one  company,  and  the  young  males  another,  while 
the  old  males  feed  and  hunt  singly.  The  sperm  whales  swim  grace- 
fully and  equably,  with  the  upper  part  of  the  head  above  the  water; 
but  when  a  troop  of  them  play  on  the  surface,  some  of  these  un- 
couth and  gigantic  creatures  leap  with  the  agility  of  a  salmon  several 
feet  into  the  air,  and  fall  down  again  heavily  with  a  tremendous 
crash  and  noise  like  a  cannon,  driving  the  water  up  in  lofty  columns 
capped  witU,foam.  The  fishery  of  the  sperm  whale  is  attended  with 
danger;  not  only  the  wounded  animal,  but  its  companions  who  come 
to  its  aid,  sometimes  fight  desperately,  killing  the  whalers  and  toss- 
ing them  into  the  air  with  a  sweep  of  their  tremendous  tails,  or 
biting  a  boat  in  two.  In  1820,  the  American  whaler  Essex  was 
wrecked  in  the  Pacific  by  a  sperm  whale ;  it  first  gave  the  ship  so 
violent  a  blow~that  it  broke  off  part  of  the  keel,  then,  retreating  to 
a  distance,  it  rushed  furiously,  and  with  its  enormous  head  beat  in 
a  portion  of  the  planks,  and  the  people  had  just  time  to  save  them- 
selves in  the  boats  when  the  vessel  filled.  They  often  lie  and  listen 
when  suspicious  of  mischief.  No  part  of  the. aqueous  globe,  except 
the  Arctic  seas,  is  free  from  their  visits ;  they  have  been  seen  in  the 
Mediterranean  and  the  Adriatic,  in  the  British  Channel,  and  even 
in  the  estuary  of  the  Thames,  but  their  chief  resort  is  the  deepest 
parts  of  the  warmer  seas  within  or  near  the  tropics,  and  in  the  Ant- 
arctic Ocean,  where  they  feed  on  floating  molluscx,  such  as  sepiae 
or  cuttle-fish,  &c. 

The  third  and  last  genus  of  the  Cetacea  are  whalebone  whales, 
such  as  the  Greenland  whale  and  Rorquals.  Instead  of  teeth,  the 
upper  jaws  of  these  animals  are  furnished  with  plates  and  filaments 


416  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXIX. 

of  whalebone,  which  are  moveable,  and  are  adapted  to  retain,  as  in 
a  net,  the  medusas  and  other  small  marine  animals  that  are  the  food 
of  these  colossal  inhabitants  of  the  deep.  The  common  Greenland 
species,  Balaena  Mysticetus,  was  formerly  much  more  numerous,  but 
it  is  now  chiefly  confined  to  the  very  high  northern  latitudes ;  how- 
ever, should  it  be  the  same  with  the  whale  found  in  such  multitudes 
in  shallow  water  on  the  coasts  of  the  Pacific  and  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean  by  Sir  James  Ross,  it  must  have  a  very  wide  range,  but  it  is 
more  probable  that  each  polar  region  has  its  own  species.  The 
Greenland  whale  is  from  65  to  70  feet  long,  but  they  are  so  much 
persecuted  that  they  probably  never  live  long  enough  to  attain 
their  full  growth.  The  head  is  very  large,  but  the  opening  of  the 
throat  is  so  narrow  that  it  can  only  swallow  small  animals.  It  has 
two  spouts  or  nostrils,  through  which  it  throws  jets  like  puffs  of 
smoke  yards  high.  It  only  remains  two  or  three  minutes  on  the 
surface  to  breathe,  and  then  goes  under  water  for  five  or  six.  The 
back  and  tail  are  velvet-black,  shaded  in  some  places  into  grey,  the 
rest  is  white  ;  some  are  piebald.  The  capture  of  this  whale  is  often 
attended  with  much  cruelty,  from  their  affection  for  their  young; 
indeed  the  custom  of  killing  the  calf  in  order  to  capture  the  mother 
has  ruined  the  fishery  in  several  places,  especially  in  the  New  Zea- 
land and  Australian  seas. 

Rorquals  are  also  whale-bone  whales,  differing  from  the  common 
whale  in  the  more  elongated  form  of  the  head.  One  species  is  from 
80  to  100  feet  long,  the  largest  of  marine  animals.  This  whale 
travels  to  lower  latitudes  in  pursuit  of  herrings  and  other  fish.  It 
had  been  caught  on  the  coast  of  Norway  as  early  as  the  year  890, 
and  probably  long  before.  The  first  northern  navigators  were  not 
attracted  by  the  whale  as  an  object  of  commerce,  but  stumbled  upon 
it  in  their  search  for  a  north-west  passage  to  the  Pacific.  The  hump- 
backed whale,  Balsena  gibbosa,  a  rorqual  30  or  40  feet  long,  is  met 
with  in  small  herds  in  the  intertropical  and  southern  regions  of  the 
Pacific  and  the  Atlantic ;  it  is  seldom  molested  by  the  whalers,  and 
is  very  dangerous  for  boats,  from  the  habit  it  has  of  leaping  and 
rising  suddenly  to  the  surface.  None  of  the  senses  of  the  whale 
tribe  are  very  acute ;  the  whalebone  whales  alone  have  the  sense  of 
smelling  more  acute  than  others,  and,  although  the  sperm  whale  is 
immediately  aware  of  a  companion  being  harpooned  at  a  great  dis- 
tance, they  do  not  hear  well  in  air,  and  none  appear  to  have  any 


1  Captain  Scoreaby's  'Arctic  Voyages.' 


CHAP.  XXX.  DISTRIBUTION   OP   REPTILES.  417 


CHAPTEK  XXX. 

Distribution  of  Reptiles  —  Frogs  and  Toads  —  Snakes,  Saurians,  and 
Tortoises. 

REPTILES,  more  than  any  other  class  of  animals,  show  the  par- 
tial distribution  of  animated  beings,  because,  being  unable  to  travel 
to  any  great  distance,  they  have  remained  in  the  places  wherein 
they  were  originally  stationed ;  and  as  they  inhabit  deserts,  forests, 
and  uncultivated  ground,  they  have  not  been  disturbed  by  man, 
who  has  only  destroyed  some  individuals,  but  has  not  diminished 
the  number  of  species,  which  is  probably  the  same  now  as  it  ever 
was.  Of  the  mammalia  few  hybernate,  or  fall  into  a  torpid  state 
in  winter,  such  as  the  bear,  marmot,  dormouse,  &c.  Their  fat  sup- 
plies the  carbon  consumed  by  the  oxygen  during  their  feeble  and 
imperceptible  respiration,  and  is  wasted  by  the  time  the  warm  wea- 
ther returns,  which  rouses  them  from  their  lethargy,  thin  and  atte- 
nuated. But  reptiles,  being  colder  blooded,  bury  themselves  in  the 
.  ground,  and  hybernate  during  the  winter  in  cold  and  temperate 
climates.  In  hot  countries,  they  fall  into  a  state  of  torpor  during 
the  dry  season,  so  that  they  have  no  occasion  to  wander  either  on 
account  of  temperature  or  want  of  sustenance ;  and  the  few  that  do 
migrate  in  quest  of  food  always  return  to  their  old  haunts.  As  the 
blood  of  reptiles,  from  the  peculiarity  of  their  circulation,  receives 
only  a  small  part  of  the  oxygen  they  inhale,  little  heat  and  strength 
are  generated,  and  they  are  for  the  most  part  sluggish  in  their  mo- 
tions, which,  however,  are  more  varied  than  in  quadrupeds;  but  as 
some  reptiles,  such  as  tortoises  and  lizards,  breathe  more  frequently 
than  others,  there  are  consequently  great  differences  in  their  energy 
and  sensibility. 

The  order  of  Reptiles  is  divided  by  naturalists  into  four  classes, 
commencing  in  the  ascending  order: — 1.  Batracians  or  frogs,  toads 
and  salamanders;  2.  Ophidians  or  Serpents;  8.  Saurians,  lizards, 
chameleons,  crocodiles;  and  4.  Emydians  or  tortoises,  and  turtle. 
With  very  few  exceptions  they  are  oviparous ;  they  partake  of  both 
terrestrial  and  aquatic  forms,  and  many  are  amphibious  :  they  all 
increase  in  numbers  towards  the  equator,  and  few  live  in  cold 
climates;  but  they  can  endure  a  cold  winter  better  than  a  cool 
summer.  Frogs  and  salamanders  inhabit  the  banks  of  the  M'Kenzie 
river  in  North  America,  where  the  mean  temperature  is  between  7° 
and  8°  of  Fahrenheit;  the  thermometer  in  winter  even  sinks  to  90° 
below  the  freezing  point.  The  southern  limit  of  reptiles,  so  far  as 
it  is  known,  is  in  50°  S.  lat.,  where  a  frog  was  found  on  the  banks 
of  the  river  Santa  Cruz. 


418  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXX. 

The  number  of  species  of  reptiles  in  the  torrid  zone  is  at  least 
double  that  in  the  temperate ;  Australia  has  fewer  than  Europe,  and 
of  all  places  in  the  Old  World,  Java  is  perhaps  the  richest  in  rep- 
tiles. America  possesses  more  than  half  of  all  the  species  known, 
the  maximum  being  in  Brazil,  but  every  one  of  them  is  peculiar  to 
that  continent  alone. 

The  Batracians  approach  nearest  to  the  nature  of  fishes,  and  form 
a  link  between  land  and  water  animals.  As  tadpoles  they  have  tails 
and  no  feet,  but  when  full-grown  they  generally  acquire  feet  and 
lose  their  tails.  Besides,  in  that  early  stage  they  are  aquatic  and 
breathe  by  gills,  like  fishes ;  but  in  a  state  of  maturity  they  breathe 
by  lungs  like  quadrupeds,  though  some  of  the  genera  always  retain 
their  gills  and  tails,  and  some  never  acquire  feet.  These  animals 
have  the  power  of  retarding  and  accelerating  their  respiration  with- 
out stopping  the  circulation  of  their  blood,  so  that  they  can  resist 
heat  and  cold  to  a  certain  degree — a  power  most  remarkable  in  the 
salamander,  which  forms  part  of  this  class,  so  varied  in  appearance 
and  nature.  Some,  as  toads  and  frogs,  imbibe  a  quantity  of  water, 
which  is  evaporated  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  more  or  less 
quickly,  and  serves  to  keep  them  at  the  temperature  of  the  medium 
they  live  in. 

The  group  of  toads  and  frogs  consists  of  four  families,  which 
have  four  feet,  but  without  tails ;  namely,  frogs,  hylas  or  rainettes, 
toads,  and  pipae.  Frogs,  which  are  amphibious,  have  no  nails  on 
their  toes,  and  their  hind  legs  are  longer  than  the  fore,  and  webbed, 
consequently  better  fitted  for  swimming  and  jumping,  which  they 
do  by  leaps.  There  are  above  50  species,  so  -that  they  are  more 
numerous  and  more  varied  than  any  other  reptile.  Of  the  hyla  or 
tree-frog  there  are  sixty  species,  all  of  the  most  vivid  and  brilliant 
tints,  and  several  colours  are  frequently  united  on  the  same  animal. 
They  mostly  live  on  high  trees,  and  their  feet  have  little  cushions 
at  the  points  of  their  toes,  forming  a  kind  of  sucker,  by  means  of 
which  they  can  squeeze  out  the  air  from  under  their  feet,  and,  by 
the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere,  they  adhere  firmly  to  the  under  side 
of  the  smoothest  leaf,  exactly  on  the  same  principle  by  which  flies 
walk  on  the  ceiling  of  a  room.  The  Bufo,  or  Toad,  is  the  ugliest 
of  the  race ;  many  are  hideous,  with  swollen  bodies,  wart-like  ex- 
crescences, and  obtuse  toes.  They  seldom  go  into  water,  but  fre- 
quent marshy  damp  places,  and  only  crawl,  whereas  the  frog  and 
hyla  leap.  They  are  much  fewer  than  either  of  the  other  two  fami- 
lies j  only  30  species  are  known.  The  Pipae  are  also  toads  of  a  still 
more  disgusting  form,  and  are  distinguished  from  their  congeners  by 
not  having  an  extensile  tongue.  All  these  reptiles  produce  a  noise, 
which  is  exceedingly  varied;  they  croak  in  concert,  following  a 
leader,  and  when  he  is  tired  another  takes  his  place.  One  of  the 
North  American  frogs  croaks  in  bands;  one  band  begins,  another 


CHAP.  XXX.  TOADS    AND    FROGS.  419 

answers,  and  a  third  replies,  till  the  noise  is  heard  at  a  great  dis- 
tance ;  a  pause  then  takes  place,  after  which  the  croaking  is  renewed. 
Mr.  Darwin  mentions  a  little  musical  hyla  at  Rio  de  Janeiro,  which 
croaks  a  kind  of  harmony  in  different  notes. 

Toads  and  frogs  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the  earth,  though 
very  unequally  and  partially  distributed.  America  has  more  than 
all  the  other  countries  taken  together,  and  Europe  the  fewest.  Six 
species  of  frogs,  one  rainette,  and  two  toads  are  European;  and  all, 
except  four  of  the  frogs,  are  also  found  in  Asia  and  Africa.  The 
rana  temporaria  lives  at  the  height  of  7700  feet  in  the  Pyrenees, 
and  near  the  snow-line  on  the  Alps. 

The  law  of  circumscribed  distribution  is  strongly  marked  in  Asia ; 
for  of  ten  species  of  frogs  peculiar  to  that  continent,  three  only  are 
in  the  mainland,  two  are  confined  to  Japan,  and,  of  the  five  that  are 
Javanese,  one  is  also  common  to  Amboina,  and  the  other  four  to 
Bengal.  The  eight  species  of  rainettes,  or  tree-frogs,  are  still  more 
limited  in  their  domicile ;  five  of  them  are  in  Java  only,  and  one  in 
Japan ;  and  the  hyla  viridis  is  in  Asia  Minor.  There  are  nine  spe- 
cies of  toad  peculiar  to  Asia. 

None  of  these  reptiles  exist  in  the  Galapagos  Archipelago,  nor  in 
any  of  the  innumerable  islands  in  Oceanica :  there  are  very  few  in 
Australia,  and  these  peculiar.  In  Africa  there  are  eight  species  of 
frogs,  two  or  three  rainettes,  and  two  toads.  One  of  the  two  spe- 
cies of  pipa,  more  horrid  in  appearance  than  any  toad,  is  very  com- 
mon at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  / 

The  great  extent  of  marshes,  rivers,  and  forests,  together  with 
the  heat  of  the  climate,  make  America  the  very  home  of  reptiles 
of  this  kind,  and  there  they  grow  to  a  greater  size  than  anywhere 
else :  23  species  of  frogs,  27  species  of  tree-frogs  or  rainettes,  and 
21  of  toads  are  indigenous  in  that  continent,  not  one  of  which  is  the 
same  with  any  of  those  in  the  Old  World;  and  most  of  those  in 
South  America  are  different  from  those  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
continent.  All  these  reptiles  have  abodes,  with  fixed  demarcations, 
often  of  small  extent.  The  pipa,  or  toad  of  Surinam,  is  the  most 
horrid  of  the  tribe ;  the  bufo  agua  of  Brazil,  10  or  12  inches  long, 
and  the  rana  pipiens  or  bull-frog  of  Carolina,  are  the  largest. 

The  second  family  of  this  class  of  reptiles  have  tails  and  feet,  as 
the  salamanders,  which  are  very  like  lizards  in  their  general  form, 
having  a  long  round  or  flattened  tail  and  four  feet.  Some  are  ter- 
restrial, others  aquatic;  the  former  are  known  as  salamanders  or 
newts,  the  latter  as  tritons.  Both  are  met  with  in  Europe,  but  the 
greater  number  are  American.  The  amphibious  genera  of  Am- 
phiuma  Menopoma  and  Syren,  possessing  both  lungs  and  gills,  are 
American ;  the  latter  are  peculiar  to  the  marshes  and  rice-grounds 
of  Carolina,  and  the  Oxolotl  is  only  found  in  the  Lake  of  Mexico. 
The  Proteus  anguinus,  of  a  light  flesh-colour,  has  four  little  feet  and 


420  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXX. 

a  flat  tail,  and  has  been  only  found  in  the  dark  subterraneous  caverns 
in  Carniola. 

The  third  group  of  this  order  of  Batracians  are  the  Cseciliae,  of 
•which  ther.e  are  only  eight  species,  all  inhabitants  of  the  warm  parts 
of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  They  have  a  cylindrical  body,  without 
feet  or  neck,  and  move  exactly  as  the  serpent,  so  they  seem  to  form 
the  link  between  these  reptiles  and  the  class  of  frogs  and  toads. 

There  are  serpents  in  all  hot  and  temperate  countries,  but  they 
abound  most  in  intertropical  regions.  Java  contains  56  species, 
which  is  a  greater  number  comparatively  than  any  other  country, 
while  in  Borneo  not  one  has  been  found.  Those  in  Japan  are  pe- 
culiar. Wherever  snakes  exist,  there  also  are  some  of  the  venom- 
ous kinds,  but  they  are  fewer  specifically  and  individually  than  is 
generally  supposed.  Of  263  .species,  only  57  are  venomous,  or 
about  one  in  five,  although  that  proportion  is  not  everywhere  the 
same.  In  sterile,  open  countries,  the  proportion  of  venomous  snakes 
is  greater  than  in  those  that  are  covered  with  vegetation.  Thus,  in 
Australia,  seven  out  of  ten  species  are  poisonous;  and  in  Africa, 
one  of  every  two  or  three  individuals  is  noxious.  In  general,  how- 
ever, the  number  of  harmless  individuals  is  20  times  as  great  as  the 
number  of  the  poisonous. 

The  three  great  families  of  venomous  serpents  are  the  colubri- 
form  or  adder-shaped  snakes,  the  triangular-headed  snakes,  and  sea- 
serpents. 

The  adder-formed  snakes  are  divided  into  three  genera,  the  Elaps, 
which  are  slender  like  a  cord,  with  a  small  head  and  of  brilliant 
colours.  There  are  four  species  in  South  America,  of  which  two 
are  confined  to  Guiana,«and  one  to  Surinam,  while  the  other  is  found 
everywhere  from  Brazil  to  Carolina.  There  is  only  one  in  Africa, 
three  in  Australia,  and  the  rest  are  in  limited  districts  in  tropical 
Asia,  especially  in  Sumatra  and  Java  ;  and  an  entire  genus  is  found 
only  in  India,  and  the  islands  of  Ceylon  and  Java.  The  hooded 
snakes  (or  Cobra  Capello)  are  the  best  known  of  this  family,  espe- 
cially the  spectacled  or  dancing  snake  of  the  Indian  jugglers,  which 
is  common  everywhere  from  Malabar  to  Sumatra,  and  two  other  spe- 
cies are  only  found  in  Sumatra  and  Java.  The  three  or  four  Afri- 
can species  are  chiefly  met  with  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  on 
the  Gold  Coast ;  but  the  most  celebrated  is  that  generally  known  as 
the  Egyptian  asp,  which  has  been  tamed  by  magicians  of  ancient 
and  modern  times,  and  is  frequently  figured  on  the  Egyptian  monu- 
ments; it  derives  some  of  its  celebrity  from  Cleopatra's  death.  Two 
of  the  family  inhabit  Australia,  one  of  which  is  spectacled,  like, 
but  of  a  different  species  from,  that  of  India. 

The  second  venomous  family  consists  of  the  triangular-headed  ser- 
pents, rattlesnakes,  and  vipers.  The  first  are  of  a  hideous  aspect, 
a  large  head,  broad  at  the  base  like  a  heart,  a  wide  mouth,  with  their 


CHAP.  XXX.  SERPENTS.  421 

hooked  poisonous  fangs  strongly  developed.  They  quietly  watch 
their  prey  till  it  is  within  reach,  then  dart  upon  it,  and  inflict  the 
deadly  wound  in  a  moment;  the  yellow  viper  of  the  French  West 
India  islands,  the  Trigonocephalus  lanceolatus,  being  amongst  the 
most  dangerous  snakes  in  existence.  One  species  in  the  Old  World 
is  to  be  met  with  everywhere  from  Ceylon  to  the  Philippine  Islands ; 
one  is  a  native  in  Sumatra,  Timor,  and  Celebes ;  the  rest  are  nar- 
rowly limited  in  their  abode ;  two  are  confined  to  Java  alone.  Cey- 
lon, Sumatra,  Japan,  and  Tartary,  have  each  a  species  of  these  ser- 
pents peculiar  to  itself. 

The  rattlesnakes  are  all  American  —  two  in  the  warm  districts  of 
North  America,  and  two  in  the  intertropical  parts  of  South  America. 
One  of  the  latter,  however,  has  a  hard  horn  at  the  end  of  its  tail, 
instead  of  a  rattle,  and  sometimes  grows  to  the  length  of  10  feet 
being,  with  the  Trigonocephalus,  the  longest  of  the  venomous 
snakes.1 

Vipers  extend  farther  north  than  any  other  of  the  noxious  tribe : 
two  are  Asiatic,  though  one  is  also  common  to  Africa,  which,  how- 
ever, has  four  peculiar  to  itself;  and  the  only  venomous  serpents  in 
Europe  are  three  species  of  viper,  one  of  which  is  also  spread  over 
the  neighbouring  parts  of  Asia  and  Africa.  The  common  viper  in- 
habits all  central  Europe  and  temperate  Asia,  even  to  Lake  Baikal, 
in  the  Altai  Mountains :  it  is  also  found  in  England  and  Sweden 
and  the  north  of  France,  but  does  not  pass  the  Alps,  beyond  which 
it'is  replaced  by  one  frequenting  dry  soils,  in  the  south-east  of  Europe, 
and  is  met  with  in  Styria,  Greece,  Dalmatia,  and  Sicily ;  and  the 
aspic  viper,  which  lives  on  rocky  ground,  inhabits  France  between 
the  Seine  and  the  Pyrenees,  Switzerland,  Italy,  and  Sicily. 

There  are  six  families  of  innocuous  serpents,  consisting  of  nume- 
rous species.  Four  of  the  families  are  terrestrial ;  their  species  are 
very  limited  in  their  domicile,  the  greater  number  being  confined  to 
some  of  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  Ceylon,  or  to  circum- 
scribed districts  in  tropical  Asia,  Africa,  and  America.  Nine  or 
ten  species  are  European,  some  of  which  are  also  found  in  Asia  and 
Africa. 

Tree-serpents  of  various  genera  and  numerous  species  live  only  in 
the  great  tropical  forests  of  Asia  and  America,  especially  in  the 
latter.  They  are  long  and  slender,  the  head  for  the  most  part  ending 
in  a  sharp  point,  and  generally  green,  though  there  are  some  of 
brighter  colours ;  many  of  these  serpents  are  fierce,  though  not  veno- 
mous; some  feed  on  birds,  which  they  watch  hanging  by  the  tail 
from  a  bough. 

1  [A  "  Catalogue  of  North  American  Reptiles  in  the  Museum  of  the  Smith- 
sonian Institution,  by  S.  F.  Baird  and  C.  Girard,"  published  in  January, 
1853,  contains  descriptions  of  119  species  of  35  genera  of  serpents,  among 
which  are  named  12  species  of  two  genera  of  the  family  of  rattlesnakes.] 
36 


422  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.'         CHAP.  XXX. 

In  all  temperate  and  warm  countries  abounding  in  lakes  and  rivers, 
fresh-water  snakes  are  numerous ;  some  live  in  the  water,  but  they 
mostly  inhabit  the  banks  near  it ;  they  are  excellent  swimmers,  and 
may  be  seen  crossing  lakes  in  shoals.  America  is  particularly  rich 
in  them  :  there  are  several  in  Asia,  but  they  are  rare  in  Africa,  and 
none  have  been  yet  discovered  in  Australia. 

The  genus  Boa  is  peculiarly  American.  The  boa  constrictor, 
generally  from  9  to  15  feet  long,  lives  in  the  great  tropical  forests 
of  South  America,  where  it  often  watches  its  prey  hanging  from  the 
boughs  of  trees.  Two  of  smaller  size  have  similar  habits,  and  two 
are  aquatic,  one  of  which  is  sometimes  20  feet  long,  and  another  6 
feet;  the  latter  inhabits  banks  of  the  rivers,  from  the  Amazon  to 
Surinam;  and  a  species  is  found  at  the  foot  of  the  Andes  of  Quito, 
as  high  as  3000  feet. 

Pythons  are  the  largest  snakes  of  the  eastern  world,  where  they 
represent  the  boas  of  the  western ;  one  species,  which  sometimes 
attains  the  length  of  20  feet,  is  spread  from  the  western  coast  of 
Africa,  throughout  tropical  Asia,  to  Java  and  China.  Another, 
only  14  feet  long,  is  confined  to  Malacca  and  some  of  the  Sunda 
Islands.  Two  others  are  found  only  in  the  islands  of  Timor  and 
Saparua,  and  one  in  Australia.  There  are  only  two  species  of  Acro- 
chordi,  which,  like  boas  and  pythons,  twist  themselves  round  their 
victims  and  crush  them  to'  death  :  one  aquatic,  peculiar  to  Java,  the 
other  is  a  land  snake,  found  everywhere  from  India  to  New  Guinea. 

The  West  Indian  islands  possess  the  snakes  of  North  and  South 
America  and  some  peculiar  to  themselves;  the  snakes  of  central 
America  are  little  known. 

All  the  seven  species  of  sea-snakes  are  very  venomous,  and  more 
ferocious  than  any  other.  They  frequent  the  Indian  Ocean  in  shoals 
from  Malabar  to  the  Philippine  Islands  and  the  Bay  of  Bengal ; 
they  never  enter  fresh  water.1 

1  The  existence  of  creatures  in  the  ocean  resembling  enormous  serpents 
had  been  announced  at  different  times  for  more  than  a  century,  but  was 
never  authentically  established.  Accounts  of  such  monsters  having  been 
seen  in  the  northern  seas,  in  the  fiords  of  Norway  and  Sweden,  had  been 
given  to  the  world  by  Egede  and  Pantoppidan:  by  the  latter  more  on  hear- 
say evidence  than  from  his  own  observation.  But  as  in  every  instance  the 
pretended  Sea-Serpent  was  represented  to  possess  either  the  blow-holes  of 
a  Cetaceous  animal  or  the  head  and  mane  of  a  seal,  it  was  evident  the  cre- 
dulity of  our  Scandinavian  neighbours  had  converted  some  well-known 
creatures  into  incomprehensible  marine  monsters.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  sea-serpent  represented  to  have  been  stranded  on  one  of  the  Orkney 
Islands  in  1808,  of  which  a  part  of  the  skeleton  is  preserved  in  the  Museum 
of  the  College  of  Surgeons,  and  which,  when  examined  by  the  naturalist, 
proved  to  belong  to  a  large  species  of  shark  ;  and  of  that  fallen  in  with  off 
the  coast  of  Halifax  in  1833,  by  some  British  officers  engaged  on  a  fishing 
expedition.  The  existence  of  the  Sea-Serpent  was  looked  upon  therefore 
as  one  of  those  creations  of  that  imaginative  credulity  so  frequently  enter- 


CHAP.  XXX.  CROCODILES.  423 

Saurians  have  representatives  in  every  warm  and  temperate  cli- 
mate. The  crocodile,  from  its  size  and  ferocity,  claims  the  first 
place.  There  are  three  genera  of  this  family,  all  amphibious,  living 
in  rivers  or  in  their  estuaries  :  the  crocodile,  properly  speaking,  com- 
mon to  the  old  and  new  continents; '  the  Alligator  or  Caiman,  pecu- 
liar to  America ;  and  the  Gravial,  which  comes  nearer  to  the  form 
of  certain  fossil  crocodiles  than  any  other,  is  limited  to  the  Granges 
and  other  great  rivers  of  India.  The  various  species  of  crocodiles 
are  confined  to  local  habitations:  three  are  Asiatic;  two  African, 
one  of  which  is  only  found  about  Sierra  Leone ;  two  are  peculiar  to 
Madagascar ;  in  America  there  are  two  species  of  crocodiles  and  five 
of  alligators.  The  American  crocodiles  inhabit  the  estuaries  of  great 
rivers ;  a  species  is  to  be  met  with  which  ascends  as  high  as  3000 
feet  at  the  base  of  the  Andes  of  Quito.2 

tained  by  ignorant  seafaring  persons,  and  had  ceased  to  attract  any  atten- 
tion except  occasionally  by  an  allusion  to  it  in  some  Transatlantic  news- 
paper ;  when  it  was  again  revived  in  an  official  report  addressed  to  the 
Lords  of  the  Admiralty  by  Captain  M'Quhae,  of  Her  Majesty's  ship  Daeda- 
lus, who  states  that,  on  the  6th  of  August,  1848,  being  in  lat,  24°  44'  S., 
long.  9°  22'  E.,  consequently  not  far  from  the  south-western  coast  of  Africa, 
he  descried  in  broad  daylight,  and  at  a  short  distance,  an  animal  with  the 
head  of  a  serpent  and  at  least  60  feet  long,  passing  his  ship  to  the  south- 
westward  at  the  rate  of  15  miles  an  hour.  Professor  Owen,  after  a  care- 
ful consideration  of  all  the  details  given  of  this  strange  apparition,  has 
shown  that  the  animal  seen  by  the  officers  of  the  Dsedalus  was  probably  a 
large  species  of  southern  seal,  of  the  genus  Otaria.  The  Otaria  is  longer 
in  proportion  than  our  Arctic  seals,  and  its  fore  flappers  being  situated  far- 
ther back,  the  neck  of  the  animal  appears  longer,  and  is  generally,  in  the 
act  of  swimming,  raised  out  of  the  water,  as  seen  and  represented  by  Gap- 
tain  M'Quhae  in  his  drawing.  Professor  Owen  supposes  that  this  seal  had 
been  carried  from  its  usual  haunts  in  or  near  the  Antarctic  circle  on  an  ice- 
berg, which  having  melted  away  in  these  middle  latitudes,  the  animal  was 
obliged  to  find  its  way  back  by  its  locomotive  powers;  an  opinion  rendered 
the  more  likely,  when  we  consider  that  it  was  making  for  the  nearest  land 
where  such  animals  are  known  to  live,  Gough's  Island  and  Tristan  d'Acunha, 
from  which  it  was  distant  about  1500  miles,  or  4  days'  journey  at  the  rate 
and  in  the  direction  it  is  represented  by  Captain  M'Quhae  to  have  been 
progressing  when  seen  from  his  ship.  This  statement  of  the  appearance 
therefore  of  the  sea-serpent  in  1848  adds  nothing  towards  confirming  the 
existence  of  such  monsters ;  whilst  it  shows  how  easy  it  is  for  even  well- 
informed  persons  to  raise  up  imaginary  beings  out  of  animals  well  known 
to  the  naturalist. 

1  One  of  the  most  celebrated  species  of  this  division  is  the  crocodile  of 
the  Nile,  which  probably  is  to  be  met  with  in  the  upper  branch  of  that 
river,  the  Bahr-el-Abiad,  as  high  as  4000  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Immense  numbers  of  this  animal,  of  every  size  and  age,  are  found  em- 
balmed in  the  catacombs  of  ancient  Egypt,  which  are  perfectly  identical 
with  the  existing  species,  offering  another  proof  of  the  important  fact  first 
announced  by  Cuvier,  from  his  examination  of  the  mummies  of  the  ibis, 
&e.,  &c.,  that  no  animal,  in  its  wild  state,  had  presented  the  least  change 
within  the  most  remote  historical  period. 

1  Mr.  Pentland  informs  me  that  alligators  are  found  in  some  of  the  rivers 
of  Bolivia  at  a  much  greater  elevation. 


424  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXX. 

The  alligators  of  the  Mississippi,  and  of  the  rivers  and  marshes 
of  Carolina,~  are  more  ferocious  than  those  of  South  America, 
attacking  men  and  animals;  they  only  prey  in  the  night;  while  in 
the  water,  like  all  their  congeners,  they  cannot  swallow  their  food, 
but  they  drown  the  animal  they  have  caught,  hide  it  under  water 
till  it  becomes  putrid,  and  then  bring  it  on  shore  to  eat  it.  Locality 
has  considerable  influence  on  the  nature  and  habits  of  these  animals ; 
in  one  spot  they  are  very  dangerous,  while  in  another,  at  no  great 
distance,  they  are  cowardly.  Alligators  are  rarely  more  than  15 
feet  long,  and  are  seen  in  large  herds  basking  on  the  banks  of  rivers : 
their  cry  is  like  the  roar  of  a  bull ;  in  a  stqrm  they  bellow  loudly, 
and  are  said  to  be  much  afraid  of  some  of  the  porpoise  family  that 
ascend  the  great  American  rivers.  The  female  watches  her  eggs 
and  her  young  for  months,  never  losing  sight  of  them ;  but  the 
male  devours  many  of  the  latter  when  they  go  into  the  water.  All 
animals  of  this  class  are  covered  with  scales ;  those  of  the  crocodile 
family  are  hard,  horny,  often  osseous,  and  impenetrable. 

Lizards  are  chiefly  distinguished  from  crocodiles  by  having  a  long, 
thin,  forked  tongue  like  that  of  the  viper ;  by  their  rapid  motions, 
smaller  size,  and  by  some  peculiarities  of  form. 

The  monitors,  which  are  entirely  confined  to  the  old  continent, 
have  the  tail  compressed,  laterally,  which  enables  them  to  swim 
rapidly;  and  they  are  furnished  with  strong  sharp  teeth.  Many 
species  inhabit  Africa  and  India,  especially  the  Indian  Archipelago  : 
the  terrestrial  crocodile  of  Herodotus  is  common  on  the  deserts  which 
surround  Egypt;  and  an  aquatic  species  in  the  Nile,  which  devours 
the  crocodile's  eggs,  is  often  represented  on  the  ancient  Egyptian 
monuments. 

Another  group  of  the  monitor  family  is  peculiarly  American : 
some  of  the  species  inhabiting  the  marshes  in  Guiana  are  6  feet 
long.1 

Lizards  are  very  common ;  more  than  63  species  are  European, 
of  which  17  inhabit  Italy,  and  one  lives  on  the  Alps  at  an  elevation 
of  4500  feet;  the  Iguanians,  which  differ  from  them  only  in  the 
form  of  the  tongue,  are  so  numerous  in  genera  and  species,  that  it 
would  be  vain  to  attempt  to  follow  all  their  ramifications,  which  are 
nevertheless  distributed  according  to  the  same  laws  with  other  crea- 
tures but  the  dragons,  only  found  in  India,  are  too  singular  to  be 
passed  over.  The  dragon  is  in  fact  a  lizard  with  wings  of  skin ; 

1  Animals  of  a  gigantic  size,  and  allied  to  the  lizard  family,  formerly 
inhabited  the  latitudes  of  Britain.  A  monster  (the  Mosasaurus)  much 
surpassing  the  largest  living  crocodile  is  found  in  our  Sussex  chalk-beds ; 
and  another  allied  to  the  Iguana,  the  iguanodon  of  Mantell,  is  of  frequent 
occurrence  in  the  strata  upon  which  the  chalk  reposes  in  the  Weald  of  Sus- 
sex, the  Isle  of  Wight,  &c.  Some  bones  of  the  iguanodon  would  indicate 
an  animal  more  than  50  feet  long. 


CHAP.  XXX.  LIZARDS.  425 

•which  are  spread  along  its  sides  and  attached  to  its  fore  and  hind 
feet,  like  those  of  the  flying-squirrel,  and  though  they  do  not  enable 
it  to  fly,  they  act  like  a  parachute  when  the  animal  leaps  from  bough 
to  bough  in  pursuit  of  insects.  Nocturnal  lizards  of  many  species 
inhabit  the  hot  countries  of  both  continents ;  they  are  not  unlike 
salamanders,  but  they  have  sharp  claws,  which  they  can  draw  in  and 
conceal  like  those  of  a  cat,  and  seize  their  prey.  One  of  these  spe- 
cies, the  Gecko,  climbs  on  walls  in  all  the  countries  round  the  Medi- 
terranean. Chameleons  are  frequent  in  Northern  Africa ;  and  seve- 
ral species  inhabit  different  districts  and  islands  in  Asia ;  the  only 
European  species  is  found  in  Spain ;  it  is  also  common  in  Northern 
Africa. 

The  Anolis,  which  lives  on  trees,  replaces  the  chameleon  in  the 
hot  regions  of  South  America  and  in  the  Antilles,  having  the  pro- 
perty common  to  chameleons  of  changing  its  colour,  but  it  is  a  more 
nimble  and  beautiful  animal.  In  Australia,  where  everything  is 
anomalous,  there  is  a  lizard  with  a  leaf-shaped  tail. 

Scinks  resemble  serpents  in  form,  but  with  four  very  short  feet 
and  sharp  nails  on  their  claws;  they  burrow  in  the  sands  of  Africa 
and  Arabia :  there  is  a  species  of  gigantic  black  and  yellow  scink  in 
New  Holland,  and  those  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago 
are  green,  with  blue  tails. 

Two  anomalous  saurians  of  the  genus  Amblyrhinchus  were  dis- 
covered by  Mr.  Darwin  in  the  Galapagos  Archipelago.  One  found 
only  in  the  central  islands  is  terrestrial,  and  in  many  places  it  has 
undermined  the  ground  with  its  burrows ;  the  other  is  the  only  lizard 
known  that  lives  on  sea-weed  and  inhabits  the  sea ;  it  is  about  four 
feet  long,  and  hideously  ugly,  with  feet  partially  webbed  and  a  tail 
compressed  laterally.  It  basks  on  the  beach,  and  in  ifs  marine  habits 
and  food  it  resembles,  on  a  small  scale,  the  huge  monsters  of  a  for- 
mer creation. 

Tortoises  are  covered  with  a  shell  or  buckler,  but  their  head,  legs, 
and  tail  are  free,  covered  with  a  wrinkled  skin,  and  the  animal  can 
draw  them  into  the  shell  when  alarmed.  The  head  is  sometimes 
defended  by  a  regular  shield,  and  the  jaws,  instead  of  teeth,  have  a 
horny  case.  The  upper  buckler  is  rounded,  and  formed  of  eight 
parts  of  plates  symmetrically  disposed,  and  often  very  beautiful ;  the 
under  shelf  is  flat,  and  consists  of  four  pair  of  bones  and  one  in  the 
centre.  0;  e  family  of  tortoises  is  terrestrial,  two  others  are  amphi- 
bious, one  of  which  lives  in  fresh  water,  and  the  other  in  tropical 
and  warm  seas. 

There  are  more  land  tortoises  in  Africa  than  in  all  the  rest  of  the 
world,  both  specifically  and  individually.  They  abound  also  in  the 
Sunda  Islands,  in  the  United  States  of  America,  South  America, 
and  especially  Brazil.  There  are  three  European  species,  of  which 
the  common  tortoise  (Testudo  Graeca),  which  is  found  in  all  the 
36* 


426  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXX. 

countries  round  the  Mediterranean,  is  the  largest,  attaining  as  much, 
as  a  foot  in  length  :  it  lives  on  insects  and  vegetables,  and  burrows 
in  the  ground  in  winter.  Some  of  the  East  Indian  species  are  enor- 
mously large,  above  three  feet  long,  and  remarkable  for  the  beautiful 
distribution  of  their  colours ;  certain  species  are  peculiar  to  Brazil, 
one  to  Demerara,  and  one  to  North  America ;  but  perhaps  the  largest 
known  species  is  that  of  the  Galapagos  Islands,  the  Testudo  Indica, 
•which  attains  500  or  600  pounds  in  weight. 

There  are  two  genera  of  fresh-water  tortoises  that  live  in  ponds 
and  stagnant  pools  and  lakes,  the  Emys  and  Chelys.  The  first  is 
very  numerous  in  species  in  America ;  there  are  no  less  than  forty- 
six  peculiar  to  its  two  continents :  six  have  been  found  in  Africa, 
three  in  Europe,  eighteen  in  Asia  and  its  islands,  and  only  two  in 
Australia.  The  emys  caspia,  in  Asia  Minor,  follows  a  leader,  and 
plunges  into  the  water  when  alarmed.  The  Chelys,  furnished  with 
a  kind  of  proboscis,  is  found  in  the  stagnant  waters  of  South 
America. 

The  Potamians  Trionyx,  or  fresh-water  turtle,  live  in  the  great 
rivers  and  lakes  in  warm  countries;  there  are  two  species  peculiar 
to  North  America;  they  are  very  large  and  voracious,  devouring 
birds,  reptiles,  and  young  crocodiles,  and  often  are  a  prey  to  older 
crocodiles.  One  is  peculiar  to  the  Nile,  where  it  devours  the  eggs 
and  young  of  the  crocodile ;  one  to  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris ;  there 
are  four  species  in  the  Ganges,  which  are  frequently  seen  eating  the 
human  bodies  that  are  thrown  into  the  sacred  stream ;  one  of  these 
animals  often  weighs  250  pounds.  The  starred  trionyx  is  found  in 
the  rivers  of  Java  only,  and  another  species  is  common  to  the  rivers 
of  Borneo  and  Sumatra. 

The  Chekmians,  or  sea-turtles,  live  in  the  seas  of  the  torrid  and 
temperate  zones,  as  far  as  the  50th  parallel  of  latitude,  some  living 
on  sea-weed,  and  others  on  small  marine  animals.  Distinct  species 
are  found  in  different  parts  of  the  ocean.  The  green  turtle,  of 
which  there  are  many  varieties,  inhabits  the  Atlantic  within  the 
tropics;  they  may  be  seen  eating  sea-weed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water  along  the  coasts  :  they  repair  at  certain  seasons  from  distances 
of  many  hundred  miles  in  great  herds  to  the  mouths  of  rivers  to 
deposit  their  eggs  in  the  sand.  This  turtle  is  often  six  or  seven  feet 
long,  and  weighs  600  or  700  pounds ;  it  is  much  esteemed  for  food, 
but  the  shell  is  of  little  value. 

The  hawk's-bill  turtle,  which  yields  the  tortoise-shell,  is  caught 
in  different  parts  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  among  the  Molucca  Islands, 
and  on  the  north-western  coast  of  New  Guinea.  It  is  also  found  in 
the  western  hemisphere  off  Haiti  and  the  Caiman  Islands,  but  the, 
shell  is  less  valuable  than  that  from  the  east.  There  are  two  species 
in  the  Mediterranean,  which  are  only  valued  for  their  oil.  A  very 
peculiar  turtle,  with  a  leathery  or  coriaceous  covering  (  Testudo  cori- 


CHAP.  XXXI.        DISTRIBUTION   OF   BIRDS.  427 

acea),  has  been  sometimes  caught  on  our  English  coasts,  weighing 
aa  much  as  800  pounds :  it  is  the  species  supposed  to  have  been 
used  by  the  ancients  in  the  construction  of  their  lyre,  and  has  hence 
been  called  Lyre  Turtle  by  the  French. 

With  respect  to  the  whole  class  of  reptiles  it  may  be  observed, 
that  not  one  species  is  common  to  the  Old  and  New  World,  and  few 
are  common  to  North  and  South  America;  those  in  Australia  are 
^altogether  peculiar;  and,  as  far  as  is  at  present  known,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  Marianne  Islands,  there  are  neither  toads,  frogs,  nor 
snakes  in  any  of  the  Polynesian  islands,  though  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago abounds  in  them;  neither  are  they  found  in  Terra  del  Fuego, 
in  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  nor  in  the  Falkland  Islands. 

Five  species  of  reptiles  only  appear  to  have  existed  in  Ireland  be- 
fore its  geological  separation  from  England  —  a  lizard,  a  frog,  a 
toad,  and  two  tritons. 


CHAPTER  XXXI. 

Distribution  of  Birds  in  the  Arctic  Regions  —  In  Europe,  Asia,  Africa, 
America,  and  the  Antarctic  Regions. 

MORE  than  7000  species  of  birds  are  known,  which,  according  to 
the  most  received  system,  are  arranged  in  seven  natural  orders  or 
groups,  namely,  Birds  of  prey — or  vultures,  falcons,  owls ;  Perching 
birds,  by  much  the  most  numerous,  and  which  comprise  the  song- 
sters ;  Climbers,  as  parrots,  woodpeckers,  cuckoos,  &c. ;  Pigeons, 
Gallinaceous  birds,  including  our  domestic  fowls,  partridges,  grouse, 
pheasants,  ostriches ;  Waders,  as  snipes,  herons,  curlews,  &c. ;  Web- 
footed  birds,  as  ducks,  petrels,  albatrosses,  gulls,  &c.'  Next  to 
tropical  America,  Asia  is  richest  in  species :  the  greatest  number  of 
birds  of  prey  inhabit  Europe  and  America,  which  last  surpasses 
every  country  in  the  number  and  beauty  of  species. 

There  is  great  similarity  in  the  birds  of  the  northern  parts  of  the 
old  and  new  continents,  and  some  are  identical.  Towards  the  south, 
:  the  forms  differ  more  and  more,  till  in  the  tropical  and  southern 
temperate  zones  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  America,  they  become  entirely 
different,  whole  families  and  genera  often  being  stationary  within 
very  narrow  limits.  Some,  however,  are  almost  universally  dis- 
tributed, especially  birds  of  prey,  waders,  and  sea-fowl. 

The  bald  buzzard  is  to  be  met  with  in  every  country  from  Europe 

1  See  the  arrangement  in  the  very  beautiful  work  on  Birds  by  G.  R 
Gray,  Esq. 


428  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXXI. 

to  Australia;  the  Chinese  gosshawk  inhabits  the  American  conti- 
nent, and  every  station  between  China  ami  the  west  coast  of  Europe ; 
the  peregrine  falcon  lives  in  Europe,  America,  and  Australia ;  and 
Flamingos  of  different  species  fish  in  almost  every  tropical  river, 
and  on  the  borders  of  the  lakes  of  the  Andes  to  the  height  of  13,000 
feet.  Many  sea-birds  also  are  widely  spread ;  the  wagel-gull  is  at 
home  in  the  northern  and  southern  oceans.  Captain  Beechey's  ship 
was  accompanied  by  pintadoes,  or  Cape  pigeons,  during  a  voyage  of 
500  miles,  in  the  Pacific ;  and  even  the  common  house-sparrow  is 
as  much  at  home  in  the  villages  of  Bengal  as  it  is  in  Britain.  Many 
more  instances  might  be  given,  but  they  do  not  interfere  with  the 
general  law  of  special  distribution. 

Birds  migrate  to  very  great  distances  in  search  of  food,  passing 
the  winter  in  one  country  and  the  summer  in  another,  many  breed- 
ing in  both.  In  cold  climates  insects  die  or  hybernate  during  win- 
ter; between  the  tropics  they  either  perish  or  sleep  in  the  dry 
season :  so  that,  in  both  cases,  insect-eating  birds  are  compelled  to 
migrate.  When  the  ground  is  covered  with  snow,  the  want  of  seeds 
forces  those  kinds  whose  food  is  vegetable,  to  seek  it  elsewhere ;  and 
in  tropical  countries  the  annual  inundations  of  the  rivers  regulate 
the  migrations  of  birds  that  feed  on  fish. 

Some, migrate  singly,  some  in  groups,  others  in  flocks  of  thou- 
sands ;  and  in  some  instances,  the  old  and  the  young  birds  go  sepa- 
rately. Those  that  fly  in  company  generally  have  a  leader,  and  such 
as  fly  in  smaller  numbers  observe  a  certain  order.  Wild  swans  fly 
in  the  form  of  a  wedge,  wild  geese  in  a  line.  Some  birds  are  silent 
in  their  flight,  others  utter  constant  cries,  especially  those  that  mi- 
grate during  night,  to  keep  the  flock  together,  as  herons,  goat-suckers, 
and  rails. 

Birds  of  passage  in  confinement  show  the  most  insurmountable 
uneasiness  when  the  time  of  migration  draws  near.  The  Canadian 
duck  rushes  impetuously  to  the  north  at  the  usual  period  of  summer 
flight.  Redbreasts,  Goldfinches,  and  Orioles,  brought  from  Canada 
to  the  United  States  when  young,  dart  northwards,  as  if  guided  b^ 
the  compass,  as  soon  as  they  are  set  at  liberty.  Birds  return  to  the 
same  place  year  after  year.  Storks  and  swallows  take  possession  of 
their  former  nests,  and  the  times  of  their  departure  are  exact  even 
to  a  day.  Various  European  birds  spend  the  winter  in  Asia  and 
Africa;  while  many  natives  of  these  countries  come  to  central  Eu- 
rope in  summer. 

The  birds  of  passage  in  America  are  more  numerous,  both  in 
species  and  individuals,  than  in  any  other  country.  Ducks,  geese, 
and  pigeons  migrate  in  myriads  from  the  severity  of  the  northern 
winters ;  and  when  there  is  a  failure  of  grain  in  the  south,  different 
families  of  birds  go  to  the  north.  The  Virginian  partridge  crosses 
the  Delaware  and  goes  to  Pennsylvania  when  grain  is  scarce  in  New 


CHAP.  XXXI.  MIGRATORY    BIRDS.  429 

Jersey ;  but  it  is  so  heavy  on  the  wing,  that  many  fall  into  the  river, 
and  end  the  journey  by  swimming. 

The  same  thing  happens  to  the  wild  turkey,  which  is  caught  by 
hundreds  as  it  arrives  wet  on  the  banks  of  the  Ohio,  Missouri,  and 
Mississippi.  These  birds  are  not  fitted  for  long  flight  by  their  struc- 
ture, their  bones  have  fewer  of  those  air-cells  which  give  buoyancy 
to  the  feathered  tribes.  The  number  of  air-cells  is  greatest  in  birds 
that  have  to  sustain  a  continued  and  rapid  flight ;  probably  the  ex- 
tremes are  to  be  met  with  in  the  swift  and  the  ostrich — the  one  ever 
on  the  wing,  the  other  never.  The  strength  of  the  ostrich  is  in  the 
muscles  of  its  legs ;  while  the  muscles  on  the  breast  of  the  swift 
weigh  more  than  all  the  rest  of  the  body ;  hence  it  flies  at  the  rate 
of  100  miles  an  hour.  The  wild  duck  and  the  wild  pigeon  fly  be- 
tween 400  and  500  miles  in  a  day.  The  Stork-  and  some  other 
migratory  birds  do  not  halt  till  the  end  of  their  journey.  Many  sea- 
fowl  are  never  seen  to  rest ;  and  all  the  eagles,  vultures,  and  hawks 
are  birds  of  strong  flight,  and  capable  of  sustaining  themselves  at 
heights  beyond  the  reach  of  less  buoyant  creatures. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  ARCTIC  AND  EUROPEAN  BIRDS. 

The  birds  of  Europe  and  North  America  are  better  known  than 
those  of  any  part  of  the  globe.  New  species  are  constantly  disco- 
vered in  Asia,  Africa,  and  South  America;  and  extensive  regions 
in  the  East  are  yet  unexplored. 

There  are  540  species  of  birds  in  Europe,  many  of  which  are 
distributed  over  Asia  and  Africa,  without  any  apparent  variation ; 
and  100  of  our  European  species  are  also  in  North  America.  Of 
these  39  are  land-birds,  28  waders,  and  62  water-fowl;  among  which 
are  most  of  the  marine  birds  of  northern  Europe,  which,  like  all 
sea-fowl,  have  a  wider  range. 

More  than  three-fourths  of  the  species,  and  a  much  larger  propor- 
tion of  individuals,  of  the  birds  of  Greenland,  Iceland,  and  Faroe, 
are  more  or  less  aquatic,  and  many  of  the  remainder  are  only  occa- 
sional visitors.  Of  the  few  small  birds,  the  greater  number  are 
British ;  but  many  that  reside  constantly  in  Britain  are  migratory 
in  Iceland  and  Faroe,  and  all  the  small  birds  leave  Greenland  in 
winter.  The  aquila  albicilla,  or  fishing  eagle,  is  the  largest  bird  of 
these  northern  islands;  it  feeds  on  salmon  and  trout,  and  builds  its 
nest  on  the  boldest  crags.  The  jer-falcon,  or  falco  islandicus,  though 
native,  is  rare  even  in  Iceland.  The  snowy  owl  lives  near  the  gla- 
ciers in  the  interior  of  Greenland,  and  is  sometimes  seen  in  Orkney. 
Particular  kinds  of  grouse  are  peculiar  to  high  latitudes,  as  the 
ptarmigan  or  white  grouse.  The  Columba  oenas  lives  on  all  the 
rocky  coasts  of  Europe,  and  it  is  also  an  American  bird.  The  crow 
family  are  inhabitants  of  every  part  of  the  globe.  The  common 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXXI. 

crow  is  very  generally  distributed ;  the  carrion-crow  and  jackdaw 
are  all  over  Europe  and  North  America.  The  Royston  crow  is  the 
only  one  of  the  genus  seen  within  the  Arctic  circle,  and  but  a  sum- 
mer visitor.  The  Magpie  is  met  with  everywhere  in  Europe.  The 
Jay,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  birds  of  its  tribe,  is  found  in  Europe, 
North  America,  and  China ;  the  Raven  everywhere,  from  Greenland 
to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and  from  Hudson's  Bay  to  Mexico;  it 
is  capable  of  enduring  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  is  larger, 
stronger,  and  more  ravenous  in  the  Arctic  islands  than  anywhere 
else.  It  is  said  to  destroy  lambs,  and  to  drive  the  eider  ducks  from 
their  nests  to  take  their  eggs  or  young :  they  unite  in  flocks  to  chase 
intruding  birds  from  their  abode. 

Waders  are  more  numerous  than  land-birds  in  the  Arctic  regions. 
The  snipe  and  the  golden  plover  are  mere  visitors;  and  the  oyster- 
catcher  remains  all  the  year  in  Iceland,  where  it  makes  its  nest  near 
streams,  and  wages  war  with  the  crow  tribe.  The  heron,  curlew, 
plover,  and  most  of  the  other  waders,  emigrate;  sand-pipers  and 
the  water-ousel  remain  all  the  year  round. 

Web-footed  birds,  being  clothed  with  down  and  oily  feathers,  are 
best  able  to  resist  the  cold  of  a  polar  climate.  The  cygnus  musicus, 
or  whistling  swan,  is  the  largest  migratory  bird  of  Europe  or  Ame- 
rica. It  is  5  feet  long  from  the  tip  of  the  bill  to  the  end  of  the 
tail,  and  8  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings :  its  plumage  is  pure 
white,  tinged  orange  or  yellow  on  the  head.  Some  of  them  winter 
in  Iceland ;  and  in  the  long  Arctic  night  their  song  is  heard,  as  they 
pass  in  flocks :  it  is  like  the  notes  of  a  violin.  Various  species  of 
the  duck  tribe  live  in  the  far  north,  in  prodigious  multitudes.  The 
mallard,  supposed  to  be  the  origin  of  our  tame  duck,  is  everywhere 
in  the  Arctic  lands.  There  are  two  species  of  eider-duck  :  the  king 
duck,  or  somateria  spectabilis,  one  of  these,  is  widely  dispersed  over 
the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  North  Atlantic,  and  all  the  Arctic  re- 
gions in  Europe  and  America.  In  Europe  its  most  southern  build- 
ing-place is  the  Fame  Islands  on  the  coast  of  Northumberland ;  ia 
America  it  never  goes  south  of  New  York.  It  lives  in  the  open  sea 
in  winter,  and  resorts  to  the  coast  when  the  grass  begins  to  grow. 
The  duck  makes  her  nest  of  sea-weed,  lined  with  down  from  her 
breast.  The  islanders  take  the  eggs  and  down  twice  in  the  season  ; 
but  they  do  not  kill  the  old  birds,  because  the  down  of  a  dead  duck 
is  of  little  value,  having  lost  its  elasticity.  The  third  time  the  drake 
repairs  tho  nest  with  down  from  his  breast :  the  birds  are  allowed  to 
hatch  their  brood ;  and,  as  soon  as  the  young  can  feed  themselves, 
they  arc  taken  out  to  sea  by  the  mother.  They  attain  their  full 
growth  in  4  years,  and  then  measure  2  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the 
wing.  The  same  couple  has  been  known  to  frequent  a  nest  20  years, 
and  the  Icelanders  think  the  eider-duck  lives  to  100. 

The  Cormorant,  which  lives  on  fish,  is  universal  in  the  northern 


CHAP.  XXXI.  THE    STORMY    PETREL.  431 

seas,  and  is  scarcely  ever  eaten  by  the  natives.  It  sits  singly,  or 
sometimes  in  flocks,  on  the  rocks,  watching  the  fish  with  its  keen 
.eye :  it  plunges  after  them,  and  pursues  them  for  three  or  four 
minutes  under  water.  Auks  are  very  numerous,  especially  the 
razor-billed  auk,  or  penguin ;  but  the  great  auk,  which  is  incapable 
of  flight  from  its  small  wings,  is  now  nearly  extinct  in  the  Arctic 
seas.  Terns,  or  sea-swallows,  are  seen  everywhere  in  these  seas, 
skimming  along  the  surface  of  the  water,  catching  mollusca  and 
small  fish.  Gulls  of  many  species,  and  in  countless  numbers,  are 
inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  regions,  whilst  in  the  Antarctic  they  are 
represented  by  the  equally  numerous  genus  Procellaria,  of  which 
the  Mother-Gary' s-chicken  or  stormy  petrel  is  the  type..  No  birds 
are  more  widely  dispersed  than  these  two  genera.  They  are  at 
home,  and  brave  the  storm,  in  every  latitude  and  in  every  sea. 
There  are  nine  or  ten  species  of  gulls  in  the  Arctic  regions,  and  the. 
most  numerous  of  these  probably  are  the  kittywakes,  the  young  of 
which  cover  the  rocks  in  Iceland,  packed  so  close  together  that  50 
are  killed  at  a  shot. 

The  Skua  Gull  is  a  bold  and  rapacious  bird,  forming  a  kind  of 
link  between  gulls  and  birds  of  prey.  It  lives  by  robbing  other 
birds,  and  is  so  audacious  that  it  forces  the  gulls  to  disgorge  the  fish 
they  have  swallowed,  and  has  been  seen  to  kill  a  puflin  at  a  single 
blow.  Its  head-quarters  are  in  Faroe,  Shetland,  and  the  Hebrides, 
where  it  hatches  its  brood,  and  attacks  animals  if  they  come  near 
them. 

A  few  species  of  petrel,  such  as  the  puffin  inhabit  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  but  the  South  Pacific  and  the  Antarctic  seas  are  the  fa- 
vourite resort  of  this  genus.  They  take  their  name  from  the  faculty 
they  have  of  walking  on  the  water,1  which  they  do  by  the  aid  of 
their  very  large  flat  webbed  feet  arid  widely-extended  wings.  The 
stormy  petrels,  consisting  of  several  distinct  species,  confounded  by 
sailors  under  the  name  of  tempest-bird  or  Mother-Cary's-chicken, 
are  the  most  widely  diffused,  about  the  size  of  a  swallow,  and  nearly 
of  the  same  colour  as  the  latter ;  their  flight  is  rapid ;  they  shelter 
themselves  from  the  storm  in  the  hollow  of  a  wave,  and  go  to  land 
only  at  the  breeding  season. 

It  is  observed  that  all  birds  living  on  islands  fly  against  the  wind 
when  they  go  to  sea,  so  as  to  have  a  fair  wind  when  they  return 
home  tired.  The  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  consequently, 
has  great  influence  on  the  choice  of  their  abode  :  for  example,  the 
25  bird-rocks,  or  Vogel-berg,  in  Faroe,  face  the  west  or  north-west; 
and  no  bird  frequents  the  cliffs  facing  the  east,  though  the  situation, 
is  to  all  appearance  equally  good ;  a  preference  accounted  for  by  the 
prevalence  of  westerly  wind  in  these  latitudes. 

1  Petrel,  from  St.  Peter. 


432  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXXI. 

Most  marine  birds  are  gregarious.  They  build  their  nests  on  the 
same  rock,  and  live  in  society.  Of  this  a  curious  instance  occurs 
on  the  rocks  in  question.  The  Vogel-berg  lies  in  a  frightful  chasm 
among  the  cliffs  of  Westmanshavn  in  Faroe.  The  chasm  is  encom- 
passed by  rocks  1000  feet  high,  and  myriads  of  sea-fowl  cluster 
round  the  top  of  the  crags ;  but  different  kinds  have  separate  habi- 
tations ;  and  no  race  or  individual  leaves  his  own  quarters,  or  ven- 
tures to  intrude  upon  his  neighbours. 

Upon  some  low  rocks,  scarcely  rising  above  the  surface  of  the 
water,  sits  the  glossy  cormorant;  the  predatory  skuas,  on  a  higher 
shelf,  are  anxiously  regarded  by  myriads  of  kittywakes  on  nests  in 
crowded  rows  along  the  shelving'  rock  above,  with  nothing  visible 
but  the  heads  of  the  mothers  alufbst  touching  one  another;  the  auks 
and  guillemots  are  seated  a  stage  higher  on  the  narrow  shelves,  in 
order  as  on  a  parade,  with  their  white  breasts  facing  the  sea,  and  in 
absolute  contact.  The  puffins  form  the  summit  of  this  feathered 
pyramid,  perched  on  the  highest  station,  and  scarcely  discernible 
from  its  height,  if  they  did  not  betray  themselves  by  flying  back- 
wards and  forwards.  Some  of  these  tribes  have  a  watch  posted  on 
the  look-out  for  their  safety ;  and  such  confidence  has  the  flock  in 
his  vigilance,  that  if  he  is  taken  the  rest  are  easily  caught.  When 
the  whole  take  flight,  the  ear  is  stunned  by  their  discordant  screams. 

The  greater  part  of  the  marine  birds  of  the  Arctic  seas  are  inha- 
bitants also  of  the  northern  coasts  of  the  continent  of  Europe  and 
of  the  British  islands. 

Few  parts  of  Europe  are  richer  in  birds  than  Britain,  both  in 
species  and  numbers  of  individuals ;  and  the  larger  game  is  so  abun- 
dant, that  no  one  thinks  of  eating  nightingales  and  redbreasts  and 
other  small  birds,  as  we  see  in  the  south  of  Europe.  Of  the  540 
species  of  European  birds,  277  are  native  in  our  islands.  The  com- 
mon grouse,  the  yellow  and  pied  wagtails,  are  found  nowhere  else. 
It  is  probable  that  most  of  the  British  birds  came  from  Germany 
before  the  separation  of  our  island  from  the  continent,  and  many  of 
short  flight  never  reached  Ireland.  The  Ptarmigan  and  Capercailzie 
came  from  Norway. 

There  are  five  European  vultures  :  the  Lemmergeyer  of  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees  builds  its  nest  in  the  most  inaccessible  parts  of  the 
mountains,  and  is  seldom  seen ;  it  lives  also  on  the  mountains  of 
Abyssinia  and  in  the  steppes  of  Mongolia.  Ten  eagles  are  European ; 
one  is  peculiar  to  Sardinia;  and  few  if  any  of  them  are  common  in 
America  :  the  golden  eagle  is  perhaps  one ;  that  beautiful  bird,  which 
once  gave  a  characteristic  wildness  to  our  Scotch  mountains,  and  the 
distinguishing  feather  to  the  bonnet  of  our  Highland  chieftains,  is 
now  nearly  extirpated.  The  osprey  or  fishing  eagle  of  Europe  is 
replaced  in  America  by  the  bald  eagle,  and  so  are  some  of  our  nume- 
rous hawks;  among  others  the  jer  or  gentil  falcon  has  been  so  much 


CHAP.  XXXI.        SYLVIAS  —  THICK-BILLED   BIRDS.  433 

destroyed,  that  it  is  now  rare  even  in  Iceland,  its  native  place  :  there 
are  still  a  few  in  Scotland,  and  several  are  caught  in  their  migratory 
flight  over  the  Low  Countries  and  reclaimed  by  the  expert  falconers 
for  the  now  nearly  obsolete  sport  of  falconry. 

The  owl  tribe  is  numerous,  and  many  of  them  are  very  handsome. 
The  Bubo  maximus,  the  great  horned  owl,  the  largest  of  nocturnal 
birds,  inhabits  the  forests  of  middle  and  southern  Europe ;  it  is  rare 
in  France  and  England,  though  not  uncommon  in  Ireland  and  Ork- 
ney :  in  Italy,  a  small  owl  is  tamed  and  used  as  a  decoy. 

Owls,  eagles,  and  hawks  have  representatives  in  every  country, 
but  of  different  species.  The  two  species  of  European  Goatsuckers 
migrate  to  Africa  in  winter;  their  peculiar  cry  may  be  heard  on  a 
moonlight  night  when  a  large  flock  takes  wing  for  the  journey. 
Several  of  our  swallows  go  to  Africa  :  both  our  kingfishers  are  Afri- 
can, and  only  visit  us  in  summer  ;  one,  the  Alcedo  ispida,  is  a  native 
of  Lower  Egypt  and  the  shores  of  the  Red  Sea.  Some  of  the  7 
species  of  European  creeping  birds,  or  certhias,  creep  on  the  trunks 
and  branches  of  trees  in  search  of  insects ;  others  pursue  their  prey 
clinging  to  the  face  of  rocks  and  walls,  supported  by  the  stiff  elastic 
feathers  of  the  tail :  the  Hoopoe,  an  inhabitant  of  southern  Europe, 
pursues  small  reptiles  and  insects  on  the  ground. 

The  Fringillida)  or  thick-billed  birds  are  by  much  the  most  char- 
acteristic of  Europe ;  to  them  belong  some  of  our  finest  songsters. 
The  sylvias  have  soft  beaks,  and  feed  on  insects  and  worms ;  the 
nightingale,  the  redbreast,  the  wren,  the  smallest  of  European  birds, 
the  warblers,  white-throat  and  others  are  of  this  family.  Thick- 
billed  birds  live  on  seed,  as  do  the  common  sparrow,  the  gold  and 
other  finches,  linnets,  buntings,  and  crossbeaks. 

Four  species  of  fly-catchers  are  peculiar  to  Europe,  and  five  spe- 
cies of  shrikes.  Ravens,  crows,  jays,  and  magpies  abound ;  the 
Alpine  crow  and  Nutcracker  are  found  in  central  Europe  only.  Com- 
pared with  America  the  Starling  family  is  poor,  and  the  woodpecker 
race  still  more  so,  yet  we  have  six  species,  some  of  which  are  very 
beautiful.  There  is  only  one  Cuckoo  entirely  European,  the  other 
two  kinds  only  come  accidentally,  and  all  are  birds  of  passage. 
There  are  four  species  of  the  pigeon  tribe ;  the  Ringdove  frequents 
the  larch  forests,  and  is  migratory;  the  Stockdove  also  leaves  us  in 
October :  the  Biset  or  rock  pigeon,  supposed  to  be  the  origin  from 
which  the  infinite  variety  of  our  domestic  pigeons  has  sprung,  flies 
in  flocks,  and  makes  its  flimsy  nest  on  trees  and  rocks;  it  is  also 
found  in  the  Daburia  part  of  the  Altai  chain.  Of  gallinaceous  birds 
there  are  many ;  the  only  native  pheasant  is  in  the  southern  parts  of 
the  continent;  and  the  capercailzie,  extinct  in  the  British  forests, 
inhabits  many  parts  of  Europe ;  in  Scandinavia  especially  it  is  plen- 
tiful as  far  as  the  pine-tree  grows,  which  is  nearly  to  North  Cape, 
and  also  in  the  Russian  forests.  The  hazel  grouse  frequents  tho 
37 


434  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXI. 

pine  and  aspen  forests  in  northern  and  central  Europe,  where  the 
black  cock  also  is  plentiful.  Five  species  of  grouse  and  six  of  par- 
tridges afford  abundance  of  game ;  four  of  the  latter  are  confined  to 
the  southern  parts  of  the  continent,  and  so  are  the  sand  and  pen- 
tailed  grouse,  which  form  a  separate  family ;  the  former  inhabits  the 
sterile  plains  of  Andalusia  and  Granada,  and  the  latter  the  stony 
uncultivated  parts  of  France,  southern  Italy,  and  Sicily.  The  Or- 
tigis  Gibraltarica,  a  peculiar  bird  allied  to  the  grouse  family,  is  found 
in  the  south  of  Europe  only. 

European  waders  are  very  numerous,  and  among  them  there  are 
specimens  of  nearly  all  the  known  genera;  woodcocks,  snipes,  plo- 
vers, and  curlews  are  very  abundant,  and  herons  of  various  species ; 
there  are  three  species  of  egret  or  crested  heron,  and  the  common 
heron  now  assembles  on  the  tops  of  trees  unmolested,  since  the  pro- 
gress of  agriculture  has  rendered  the  country  unfit  for  hawking. 
Several  cranes  and  storks,  and  two  species  of  ibis,  are  European  :  a 
species  of  flamingo  is  met  with  in  the  south-eastern  parts  of  the 
continent,  and  in  the  Maremme  or  marshy  plains  on  the  western 
coasts  of  Italy.  Many  of  the  waders,  however,  migrate  in  winter. 
The  stork,  so  great  a  favourite  in  Horfand  that  it  is  specially  pro- 
tected, is  a  wanderer;  it  retires  to  Asia  Minor,  and  on  the  return 
of  summer  resumes  its  old  nest  on  a  chimney-top,  breeding  in  both 
countries.  About  140  species  of  European  birds  either  live  in  the 
more  elevated  parts  of  the  Alps,  or  cross  them  in  their  annual  mi- 
grations. They  generally  take  their  flight  by  the  Great  St.  Bernard, 
the  pass  of  St.  Theodule,  the  Simplon,  and  St.  Gothard.  Europe 
is  particularly  rich  in  web-footed  birds ;  there  are  three  species  of 
wild  swans,  four  of  wild  geese,  and  more  than  30  of  the  duck  tribe, 
including  the  inhabitants  of  the  Arctic  seas. 

BIRDS  OF  ASIA  AND  THE  INDIAN  ARCHIPELAGO. 

European  birds  are  widely  spread  over  Asia;  most  of  the  Arctic 
sea-fowl  frequent  its  northern  coasts  :  between  50  and  60  European 
birds  are  also  Siberian,  and  there  are  above  70  European  species  in 
Japan  and  Corea,  which  probably  are  also  inhabitants  of  Siberia  and 
the  Altai  Mountains,  and  several  are  identical  with  the  birds  of 
North  America;  so  that  the  same  aifinity  prevails  in  the  feathery 
tribes  of  the  Arctic  regions  as  in  the  vegetable  productions. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  country  of  transition,  and  many  European  birds 
are  mixed  with  those  of  warmer  regions,  as  the  halcyon  smyrnensis, 
a  bird  with  gorgeous  plumage,  identical  with  the  great  Bengal  king- 
fisher, so  generally  found  in  India.  European  birds  also  inhabit  the 
Caucasus,  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  Persia.  Moreover, 
these  warmer  climates  are  the  winter-quarters  of  various  European 
species. 


CHAP.  XXXI.  BIRDS    OF    ASIA.  435 

In  Asia  Minor,  and  especially  in  Armenia,  the  number  and  va- 
riety of  birds  is  very  great;  eagles,  vultures,  falcons,  buzzards, 
quails,  partridges,  starlings,  herons,  storks,  cranes,  legions  of  Arctic 
grebes,  swans,  wild  geese,  ducks,  and  pelicans,  are  natives  of  these 
countries ;  besides  singing-birds,  the  nightingale,  the  constant  theme 
of  the  poet's  song,  abounds  in  Persia  :  hawks  are  trained  for  hunt- 
ing deer  in  that  country,  and  the  Asiatic  partridges,  or  francolins, 
more  vividly  coloured  than  ours,  differ  also  in  having  beaks  fitted 
for  digging  up  bulbous  roots,  which  is  their  food  in  the  deserts. 

Farther  east  the  types  become  more  Indian ;  the  great  peninsulas 
on  each  side  of  the  Ganges  are  the  habitations  of  the  most  peculiar 
and  the  most  gorgeous  of  birds.  Many  species  of  Kingfishers  of 
the  brightest  colouring  are  found  here;  the  plumage  of  the  fly- 
catchers has  the  richest  metallic  lustre ;  and  the  Shrikes,  of  a  sober 
hue  with  us,  are  there  decked,  in  the  most  brilliant  colours ;  the 
Drongo  has  a  coat  of  ultramarine,  and  the  Calyptomene  has  one  of 
emerald  green. 

The  large-beaked  climbing-birds  are  singularly  handsome.  The 
small  collared  parakeet,  so  easily  taught  to  speak,  has  inhabited  the 
Indian  forests  and  the  banks  of  the  Granges  time  out  of  mind,  with 
a  host  of  congeners  of  every  colour;  not  one  species  of  these  or 
indeed  of  the  whole  parrot  tribe  is  common  to  Asia,  Africa,  America, 
or  Australia,  nor  even  to  any  two  of  these  great  continents.  They 
are  vividly  coloured  in  India,  but  the  cuckoo  tribe  rivals  them ; 
several  genera  of  these  birds  exist  nowhere  else,  as  the  large-beaked 
Malcahos,  the  Coucals  with  their  stiff  feathers,  and  the  Couroucous 
or  Trogons,  dressed  in  vermilion  and  gold;  the  last,  however,  also 
inhabit  other  tropical  climates. 

Southern  Asia  is  distinguished  by  the  variety  of  its  gallinaceous 
birds  and  the  gorgeousness  of  their  plumage.  To  this  country  we 
owe  our  domestic  fowls;  and  two  species  of  peacock  are  wild  in  the 
•woods  of  India  and  Ceylon.  The  Polyplectron,  the  only  bird  of  its 
genus,  and  the  Tragopons,  are  Indian ;  and  some  of  the  most  bril- 
liant birds  of  the  East  are  among  the  pheasant  tribe,  of  which  five 
species  are  peculiar  to  China  and  Tibet.  There  are  various  species 
of  the  pheasant  in  the  Himalaya,  and  one  whose  feathers  have  a 
metallic  lustre.  The  gold,  the  silver,  and  Reeves'  pheasant,  the 
tail-feathers  of  which  are  four  feet  long,  belong  to  China.  The 
Lophophorus  refulgens,  and  some  others  of  that  genus,  are  altoge- 
ther Indian. 

The  pigeons  also  are  very  splendid  in  their  plumage ;  they  mostly 
belong  to  China  and  Japan ;  those  in  the  Birman  empire  are  green. 

It  would  be  vain  to  enumerate  the  fine  birds  that  range  in  the 
forests,  or  fish  in  the  rivers,  of  the  Asiatic  continent,  yet  the  birds 
of  the  Indian  Archipelago  far  surpass  them  in  splendour  of  plumage; 
these  islands  indeed  are  the  abode  of  the  most  gorgeously  arrayed 


PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXI 

birds  in  existence.  Even  in  Java  and  Sumatra,  though  most  similai 
to  India  in  their  winged  inhabitants,  there  are  many  peculiar,  espe- 
cially 12  or  13  species  of  the  climbing  tribe,  and  several  of  tho 
honey-sucking  kind;  but  the  dissimilarity  increases  with  the  dis- 
tance, as  in  New  Guinea  and  its  islands,  where  the  honey-sucking 
genera  are  developed  in  novel  forms  and  sumptuous  plumage. 

About  35  genera  are  peculiar  to  India :  32  genera,  with  all  their 
numerous  species,  are  found  only  in  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, and  several  of  these  are  limited  to  one  or  two  islands.  There 
are  the  Cassicans,  which  resemble  jays,  with  plumage  of  metallic 
lustre ;  the  only  two  species  of  Pirolls,  one  bright  violet,  the  other 
of  brilliant  green ;  various  species  of  Buceros  with  large  horned 
beaks,  Orioles  of  vivid  colours,  the  Swallow  that  builds  the  edible 
nest,  the  numerous  and  splendid  Sylvias,  and  all  the  species  except 
one  of  the  Philedons  or  honey-sucking  birds  with  tongues  termi- 
nating in  a  brush.  Birds  of  Paradise  of  many  kinds  inhabit  New 
Guinea  and  the  neighbouring  Moluccas  and  Aroo  Islands.  They 
are  birds  of  passage,  and  change  their  quarters  with  the  monsoon. 
The  King  or  Royal  Bird  of  Paradise  has  two  long  slender  filaments 
from  the  tail,  ending  in  a  curled  flat  web  of  emerald  green,  and  the 
male  of  the  green  species  has  long  flowing  plumes  from  the  sides 
of  his  body,  which  give  him  a  magnificent  appearance.  The  pigeons 
are  peculiarly  beautiful  and  numerous,  but  limited  in  their  abode. 
The  Goura,  or  great  crowned  pigeon,  the  largest  of  its  tribe,  is  an 
inhabitant  of  Borneo.  Each  island  has  its  own  species  of  Lories ; 
many  Paroquets  and  Cockatoos,  Couroucous  or  Trogons,  Coucals, 
and  the  Barbu,  with  huge  beaks,  are  peculiar  to  these  islands.  Even 
the  partridges  have  thrown  aside  their  grave  colours  and  assumed 
the  vivid  hues  of  the  tropics,  as  the  gree»  and  tufted  Cryptonyx. 
But  the  other  gallinaceous  birds  far  surpass  them  in  beauty,  as  the 
Argus  pheasant  and  two  or  three  species  still  more  splendid,  with  a 
host  of  others,  which  Europeans  have  never  seen  in  their  wild  state, 
in  the  deep  jungles  and  impenetrable  forests  of  these  unexplored 
islands.  The  Cassowary,  a  bird  akin  to  the  ostrich,  without  the 
power  of  flying,  but  fleet  in  its  course,  has  a  wide  range  in  the  In- 
dian Archipelago  and  the  south-eastern  peninsula  of  Asia,  and, 
though  destitute  of  beauty,  is  interesting  from  its  peculiar  location 
and  the  character  of  the  whole  race. 

AFRICAN  BIRDS. 

A  great  number  of  European  birds  are  also  inhabitants  of  Africa, 
and  many  migrate  there  in  winter,  yet  the  birds  of  this  continent 
are  very  peculiar  and  characteristic ;  those  in  the  north  and  north- 
east, and  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  are  best  known,  the  greater 
part  of  tropical  Africa  being  still  unexplored  by  the  naturalist.  It 


CHAP.  XXXI.  AFRICAN     BIRDS.  437 

may  be  observed,  generally,  that  the  tropical  birds  differ  from  tbose 
of  North  Africa,  but  are,  with  a  few  exceptions,  the  same  with 
those  in  the  southern  part  of  the  continent,  and  the  whole  of  Africa 
south  of  the  desert  differs  in  species  from  those  of  north  and  western 
Africa  and  from  Europe.  Moreover,  there  is  a  strong  analogy, 
though  no  affinity,  between  the  birds  of  Africa  and  America  in  the 
same  parallels  of  latitude ;  there  is  not  a  single  perching  bird  com- 
mon to  the  two  continents,  though  some  birds  of  prey  are  found  in 
both. 

There  are  59  species  of  birds  of  prey,  of  which  a  few  are  also 
European.  The  Secretary-bird  is  the  most  singular  of  this  order  : 
it  preys  upon  serpents  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  in  Abyssinia,  and 
other  parts  of  the  continent.  Africa  possesses  at  least  300  species 
of  the  passerine  order,  of  which  10  genera,  with  all  their  species, 
are  peculiarly  its  own.  The  swallows  are  more  beautiful  than  ours, 
especially  the  Filicoda,  with  two  tail-feathers  twice  as  long  as  its 
body.  Many  kingfishers,  the  most  beautifully  coloured  of  their  bril- 
liant race,  frequent  the  lakes  and  rivers :  four  species  of  Hoopoes, 
one  of  which  visits  Europe  in  summer,  are  natives ;  and  the  honey- 
birds,  the  representatives  of  the  humming-birds  of  South  America, 
are  peculiarly  African.  They  abound  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
where  the  nectaries  of  Proteas  and  other  plants  furnish  the  sac- 
charine juice  for  their  food.  The  malurus  africanus,  and  many 
other  singing-birds  for  the  most  part  unknown  elsewhere,  inhabit  the 
forests.  The  canary-bird  is  confined  to  the  Canary  Islands ;  its  song 
differs  in  two  adjacent  districts :  there  are,  however,  instances  of 
this  among  other  birds.  The  Capirote,  also  indigenous  in  the  Ca- 
nary Islands,  is  a  finer  songster,  but  it  cannot  be  tamed.  Various 
shrikes  are  peculiar  to  Africa,  but  the  species  known  as  the  grand 
Batara  is  confined  to  the  Azores.  There  are  several  birds  of  the 
raven  tribe,  or  nearly  akin  to  them :  as  the  lampritornis  superba ; 
another  with  purple  wings :  the  Buphaga,  the  only  bird  of  its 
genus ;  and  several  species  of  the  Calaos.  The  Weaving-bird,  or 
ploceus  textor,  is  one  of  the  most  remarkable  of  the  granivorous 
tribe ;  it  weaves  its  nest  with  grass  and  twigs  very  dexterously ;  one 
brought  to  Europe  wove  a  quantity  of  thread  among  the  wires  of  its 
cage,  with  great  assiduity,  into  a  strong  texture.  The  Widow-bird, 
the  Colious,  the  blue  Bee-eater,  and  all  the  fly-catching  Touracous, 
with  many  species  of  woodpeckers,  are  found  nowhere  else.  The 
parrots  and  paroquets,  which  swarm  in  the  tropical  forests,  from  the 
size  of  a  hen  to  that  of  a  sparrow,  or  of  peculiar  forms.  The  Tro- 
gons,  or  Couroucous,  the  most  beautiful  of  the  large-beaked  climb- 
ing-birds, are  the  same  as  in  Asia;  but  the  Barbu  and  the  four 
species  of  Barbicans  are  altogether  African,  and  so  are  some  of  the 
cuckoos.  Among  the  latter  are  two  species  of  the  Cuculus  indi- 
cator, so  named  from  indicating  where  the  bees  have  their  nests  • 


438  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.   XXXI. 

one  is  peculiar  to  Abyssinia,  the  other  to  the  interior  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope. 

There  are  at  least  13  species  of  African  pigeons;  and  to  Africa 
we  are  indebted  for  the  Guinea-fowl,  of  which  there  are  three  or 
four  kinds :  it  wanders  in  flocks  of  hundreds  among  the  brushwood 
on  the  banks  of  rivers  and  lakes  in  Numidia  and  all  the  tropical 
regions,  and  they  are  even  more  abundant  in  Madagascar.  Many 
grouse  and  partridges  are  peculiar,  especially  the  Gangas,  of  which 
there  are  five  species;  some  go  in  coveys,  and  others  traverse  the 
deserts  in  flocks  of  many  hundreds.  The  sand-grouse,  one  of  this 
family,  is  much  more  abundant  on  the  arid  deserts  of  north  Africa 
than  in  Europe;  and  the  partridges  in  this  country  are  represented 
by  the  francolin,  which  feeds  on  bulbous  roots. 

The  ostrich  takes  the  wide  range  of  Africa  and  Arabia ;  and  bus- 
tards, also  wanderers  in  the  plains,  are  numerous  :  the  most  peculiar 
are  the  Houbara  and  the-  otis  kori,  in  South  Africa,  five  feet  high, 
and  remarkable  for  the  brilliancy  of  its  eye. 

Waders  of  infinite  variety  inhabit  the  rivers,  lakes,  and  marshes 
— woodcocks,  snipes,  plovers,  storks,  cranes,  herons,  and  spoonbills. 
The  most  peculiar  are  the  Dromes  and  Marabous,  whose  feathers 
form  a  considerable  article  of  commerce ;  the  cream-coloured  plover, 
the  Scopus  or  Ombrette,  the  water-treader  of  Abyssinia,  and  the 
Tantalus  or  Curlew  tribe,  among  which  is  the  Ibis  (Ibis  Religiosa), 
held  sacred  by  the  ancient  Egyptians,  so  frequently  found  in  mum- 
mies in  the  catacombs,  and  represented  on  their  monuments,  and 
the  recently  discovered  anomalous  bird  the  Balaeniceps  Rex,  which 
inhabits  the  upper  branches  of  the  White  Nile,  where  it  feeds  on 
fish  and  lizards. 

Swimming-birds  are  no  less  numerous :  the  Bernicla  cyanoptera 
is  a  goose  peculiar  to  Shoa :  the  Rhynchops  and  Pelicans,  several 
of  the  duck  kind  or  birds  allied  to  them,  are  found  nowhere  else. 
There  are  56  genera  with  all  their  species  entirely  African,  many 
of  which  are  confined  to  limited  districts. 


BIRDS  OF  NORTH  AMERICA. 

Of  500  species  of  North  American  birds,  about  100  are  also 
found  in  Europe,  the  greater  number  of  which  are  aquatic,  and 
those  common  to  the  northern  coasts  of  both  continents.  The  sea- 
fowl  on  the  North  Pacific  and  Behring's  Straits  are  very  much  the 
same  with  those  in  the  Greenland  seas  and  the  North  Atlantic,  but 
the  great  Auk  of  our  northern  seas  still  exists  on  the  North  Pacific, 
and  the  large  white  albatross,  seldom  seen  in  the  North  Atlantic, 
frequents  Behring's  Straits  and  the  western  coasts  of  North  America 
in  immense  flocks.  It  is  almost  universal  in  the  Pacific  as  far  as 
the  stormy  regions  near  the  Antarctic  circle.  Like  the  Petrel,  it  is 


CHAP.  XXXI.       BIRDS    OP    NORTH    AMERICA.  439 

a  bird  of  the  tempest,  sailing  calmly  on  its  huge  wings  in  the  most 
tremendous  gales,  and  following  a  ship  a  whole  day  without  resting 
on  the  waves :  it  is  the  largest  of  winged  sea-fowls ;  some  measure 
14  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings. 

There  is  no  vultnre  common  to  the  two  continents,  but  there  are 
eagles,  and  some  other  birds  of  prey,  a  few  of  the  crow  tribe,  several 
waders  and  web-footed  birds  which  inhabit  both :  yet  the  general 
character  of  the  birds  of  North  America  is  different  from  those  of 
Europe  :  81  American  generic  forms  and  two  families  are  not  found 
in  Europe.  The  humming-birds  are  altogether  American ;  only  four 
species  are  in  North  America;  one  of  these  is  migratory,  and  an- 
other is  common  to  South  America.  The  Parrot  family,  distributed 
with  generic  differences  in  almost  all  tropical  countries,  has  but  one 
representative  here,  which  lives  in  the  forests  of  the  Carolinas.  Eu- 
rope has  nothing  analogous  to  these  two  families.  It  is  singular 
that  a  country  with  so  many  rivers  and  lakes  should  possess  only 
one  kingfisher.  The  woods  are  filled  with  many  species  of  creeping 
birds,  and  there  are  68  peculiar  species  of  Sylvias  and  fly-catchers  j 
among  others  the  todus  viridis,  which  forms  a  genus  by  itself.  Ra- 
vens, Crows,  Pies,  and  Jays  abound,  and  there  are  many  species  of 
Icteridae  or  Hangnesters.  The  finch  tribe  are  very  numerous,  and 
there  are  16  species  of  woodpeckers,  as  might  be  expected  in  a 
country  covered  with  forests.  Of  pigeons  there  are  eight  species, 
but  individually  they  are  innumerable,  especially  the  columba  mi- 
gratoria,  which  passes  over  Canada  and  the  northern  States  in 
myriads  for  successive  days  twice  in  the  year.  The  poultry-yard  is 
indebted  to  North  America  for  the  domestic  turkey,  which  there 
ranges  wild  in  its  native  woods  and  attains  great  size.  There  are 
no  partridges,  properly  speaking,  but  the  Ortyx,  a  genus  closely  al- 
lied, represents  them,  and  of  13  American  species  of  grouse,  only 
one  probably  is  European,  a  family  which  exists  in  every  country 
under  different  forms.  The  vast  expanse  of  water  and  marshy 
ground  makes  North  America  the  home  of  innumerable  water-fowl 
and  waders.  Most  of  the  waders  and  granivorous  birds  are  migra- 
tory j  in  winter  they  find  no  food  north  of  the  great  lakes,  where 
the  ground  is  frozen  upwards  of  six  months  in  the  year.  Many 
pass  the  winter  in  California,  as  Storks  and  Cranes ;  wild  geese  cover 
acres  of  ground  near  the  sea,  and  when  they  take  wing  their  clang 
is  heard  from  afar.  Even  gulls  and  other  northern  sea-birds  come 
to  the  coasts  of  California,  and  indeed  to  the  shores  of  all  the  north 
and  temperate  Pacific. 

It  may  be  said  generally  that,  with  regard  to  the  web-footed 
tribe,  North  America  possesses  specimens  of  all  the  genera  of  the 
Old  World  and  many  peculiarly  its  own.  The  table-land  of  Mexico 
has  some  peculiar  forms,  and  some  species  of  swimming-birds  found 


440  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXI. 

only  in  more  northern  latitudes ;  but,  except  the  Cotingidae,  there 
are  representatives  of  every  group  of  North  and  South  America. 

BIRDS  OF  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

The  tenants  of  the  air  in  South  America  differ  more  from  those 
in  North  America  than  these  latter  do  from  the  birds  of  Europe : 
there  are  not  more  than  50  or  60  species  in  common.  South  Ame- 
rica has  a  greater  variety  of  original  forms  than  any  other  country ; 
more  than  138  genera  with  all  their  species  inhabit  that  country 
only ;  of  the  passerine  family  alone  there  are  at  least  1000  species, 
all  peculiar  to  it.  The  vultures  are  of  different  genera  from  those 
in  Europe ;  the  Condor  of  the  Andes  is  the  largest  of  these ;  it  fre- 
quents the  highest  pinnacles  of  the  Andes  in  summer,  and  builds 
its  nest  at  the  height  of  15,000  feet  and  more  above  the  sea ;  and 
Baron  Humboldt  saw  it  wheeling  in  circles  at  the  elevation  of  22,000 
feet.  It  inhabits  the  Andes  from  the  Straits  of  Magellan  to  7°  N. 
lat.,  but  it  never  crosses  the  isthmus  of  Panama^  the  Condor  of  Cali- 
fornia being  a  smaller  bird.  It  roams  over  the  plains  of  Patagonia 
even  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Negro,  and  at  times  descends  from 
the  Andes  in  groups  to  feed  on  the  sea-shore  upon  dead  whales ;  like 
all  the  vulture  race,  it  possesses  the  faculty  of  descrying  a  dead  or 
dying  animal  from  a  very  great  distance.  Although  the  Condor 
lives  principally  on  dead  animals  and  carrion,  it  will  sometimes 
attack  live  animals ;  its  habits  are  those  of  our  ordinary  vulture ; 
much  exaggeration  has  found  its  way  into  books  as  to  its  size  and 
ferocity ;  the  most  remarkable  point  in  its  history  is  the  great  ver- 
tical extent  in  which  it  is  known  to  live,  from  the  level  of  the  sea 
to  an  elevation  of  nearly  four  statute  miles.  The  Vultur  papa,  or 
king  of  the  vultures,  an  inhabitant  of  the  tropical  regions,  is  remark- 
able for  the  bright  blue  and  vermilion  colour  of  the  head  and  neck ; 
the  black  vulture  lives  in  large  flocks  on  the  tops  of  high  trees  in 
the  silvas  of  Brazil :  another  numerous  species  prey  on  animals  in 
the  llanos  or  plains.  Many  other  rapacious  birds  are  peculiar  to 
this  continent;  the  burrowing  owl,  so  common  in  the  Pampas  of 
Buenos  Ayres,  is  one  of  these.  The  Guacharo  bird  forms  a  genus 
of  itself  (Steatornis)  :  it  is  the  size  of  a  common  fowl,  with  the  form 
and  beak  of  a  bird  of  prey,  and  is  a  singular  instance  of  a  nocturnal 
bird  feeding  on  fruit.  It  shuns  the  day,  and  is  found  under  the 
natural  bridge  of  Pandi,  near  Bogota,  and  in  the  caverns  of  Guade- 
loupe and  Trinidad :  incredible  numbers  have  taken  possession  of 
the  dark  cavern  of  Guacharo  in  the  valley  of  Caripe,  where  they 
are  killed  by  thousands  every  year  by  the  Indians  for  thoir  fat. 

The  Troupials  represent  our  Orioles,  the  Bataras  and  Becardes  our 
shrikes,  while  the  Tangaras  partake  of  the  form  both  of  the  Shrike 


CHAP.  XXXI.  BIRDS   OP   SOUTH   AMERICA.  441 

and  Pie,  which  last,  with  all  the  rest  of  the  crow  family,  have  various 
representatives  in  this  country.  Swallows,  or  birds  allied  to  them, 
are  numerous,  and  many  that  live  on  the  honeyed  juice  of  flowers, 
like  the  humming-bird,  so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  South  Ame- 
rica ,  300  species  of  humming-birds,  from  the  size  of  a  wren  to  that 
of  an  bumblebee,  adorn  the  tropical  regions  of  Brazil  and  Guiana. 
This  family,  so  entirely  American,  has  a  range  from  the  Straits  of 
Magellan  to  the  38th  parallel  of  N.  lat. ;  it  may  be  met  with  in  the 
forests  on  the  mountains  of  Orizaba,  at  an  elevation  of  11,000  feet 
above  the  sea;  and  some  beautiful  species  of  it  at  still  greater 
heights  in  the  Andes  of  Bolivia  and  New  Granada.  There  are 
only  three  South  American  humming-birds  which  visit  the  United 
States,  and  only  a  few  are  permanent  in  Central  America :  many  of 
them  are  migratory ;  they  come  in  multitudes  to  northern  Chile  in 
summer,  and  disappear  in  winter.  The  climbing-birds,  with  large 
bills,  are  mostly  confined  to  the  tropical  forests,  which  swarm  with 
peculiar  races  of  parrots,  paroquets,  and  macaws.  It  is  a  remarkable 
circumstance  in  the  distribution  of  birds  that  there  should  be  40 
species  of  parrots  in  the  torrid  zone  of  America,  and  only  three 
species  on  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa,  though  the  climate  is  similar 
and  the  vegetation  nearly  as  luxuriant.  Parrots  range  from  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  to  the  42nd  parallel  of  N.  lat.,  where  the  Eider- 
duck,  which  is  a  peculiar  Arctic  bird,  first  shows  itself.  There  are 
whole  families  of  birds  in  tropical  America  not  to  be  seen  elsewhere  : 
as  the  vividly-coloured  Toucan,  with  its  huge  beak ;  the  Araucari, 
which  lives  on  the  fruit  of  the  Araucaria ;  some  peculiar  species  of 
the  gorgeous  Trogons  or  Couroucous;  the  Toomatias — birds  related 
to  the  cuckoo  tribe ;  and  the  Jacamars,  which  represent  the  wood- 
peckers. 

The  gallinaceous  family  is  totally  different  from  that  of  the  North 
American  forests ;  the  Guan  or  Penelope  represents  our  pheasants, 
the  different  species  of  Crax  or  Alectors  the  wild  turkey,  which  they 
equal  in  size  and  brilliancy  of  plumage ;  whilst  the  numerous  spe- 
cies of  Tinamous  and  cognate  genera  fill  the  place  of  the  grouse, 
quails,  and  partridges  of  the  old  continent.  South  America  furnishes 
two  species  of  gallinaceous  birds  of  a  very  peculiar  character  —  the 
Cariama  of  Brazil,  like  to  the  secretary-bird  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  in  its  form  and  its  habits  of  destroying  reptiles ;  and  the  Ka 
michi,  which  possesses  one  or  more  sharp  triangular  spurs  at  the 
point  of  each  wing,  a  dreadful  instrument  of  attack  and  defence, 
such  as  is  possessed  by  no  other  bird  to  the  same  extent. 

The  three-toed  or  American  ostrich,  or  Struthio  llhea,  ranges, 
like  all  its  congeners,  over  a  wide  extent  of  country.  It  is  found 
from  the  silvas  of  Brazil  to  the  Rio  Negro,  which  bounds  the  Pampas 
of  Buenos  Ayres  on  the  south,  and  in  some  of  the  elevated  plains 


442  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXXI. 

of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Cordilleras ;  while  the  Struthio  Darwimi  roams 
over  the  plains  of  Patagonia  to  the  Straits  of  Magellan. 

The  water-fowl  and  waders  in  this  land  of  rivers  are  beyond  num- 
ber ;  millions  of  Flamingoes,  Spatulas,  Cormorants,  Herons,  fishing 
falcons,  and  scissor-beaks,  follow  the  fish  as  they  go  up  the  rivers  to 
spawn ;  nor  are  gulls  wanting  where  fish  are  to  be  found :  a  little 
snow-white  heron  walks  on  the  back  and  over  the  head  of  the  croco- 
dile while  it  sleeps.  The  water-fowl  are  almost  all  peculiar.  Eight 
or  nine  genera  belonging  to  the  warm  climates  of  the  Old  World  are 
here  under  new  forms,  and  the  number  of  specific  forms  of  the  same 
genus  is  greater  than  in  any  other  country.  The  beautiful  red  Ibia 
or  Tantalus  ruber  inhabits  Cayenne ;  the  Ardea  helias,  the  most 
beautiful  of  the  heron  tribe,  from  its  variegated  plumage,  is  found 
in  the  same  country. 

Ducks  migrate  in  immense  flocks,  alternately  between  the  Orinoco 
and  the  Amazon,  on  account  of  the  greater  supply  of  fish  afforded 
by  the  floods  of  these  rivers,  which  take  place  at  intervals  of  six 
months  from  each  other.  Between  the  tropics  the  vicissitudes  of 
drought  and  humidity  have  much  influence  on  the  migration  of 
birds,  because  the  supply  of  their  food  depends  upon  these  changes. 

If  anything  more  were  required  to  show  the  partial  location  of 
birds,  the  Galapagos  Archipelago  might  be  mentioned.  Of  26  spe- 
cimens shot  by  Mr.  Darwin,  25  were  peculiar,  though  bearing  a 
strong  resemblance  to  American  types ;  some  birds  (the  Orpheus  or 
Geospizinse)  were  even  confined  to  particular  islands.  But  on  this 
comparatively  recent  volcanic  group,  only  500  miles  distant  from 
the  coast  of  America,  everything  is  peculiar — birds,  plants,  reptiles, 
and  fish ;  and  though  under  the  equator,  none  have  brilliant  colours. 

The  coasts  of  Peru  and  northern  Chile,  from  their  desert  nature, 
are  not  rich  in  land-birds,  but  in  southern  Chile  there  are  several 
species  of  humming-birds,  parrots,  flamingoes,  peculiar  ducks  and 
geese  ;  and  there  commences  that  inconceivable  quantity  of  sea-fowl 
that  swarm  on  the  seas  and  coasts  of  the  Antarctic  regions.  The 
black  sheerwater,  or  rynchops  nigra,  has  been  seen  to  form  a  dense 
mass  seven  miles  long ;  shags  fly  in  an  unbroken  line  of  two  miles. 
Pelicans,  terns,  petrels,  and  many  others  c<jver  the  low  islands  and 
coasts  of  the  main-land,  and  those  of  Terra  del  Fuego. 

In  the  Antarctic  and  Southern  seas,  petrels  take  the  place  which 
gulls  occupy  in  northern  latitudes ;  several  specie?  of  them  inhabit 
these  high  southern  latitudes  in  prodigious  numbers.  Two  remark- 
able species  of  this  genus  are  found  throughout  the  Southern  Ocean 
— the  Giant  Petrel  (P.  gigantea),  equal  to  the  albatross  in  size,  and 
resembling  it  in  its  mode  of  life  —  it  sometimes  becomes  perfectly 
white;  and  the  Equinoctial  Petrel  (P.  aequinoctialis),  a  beautiful 
bird  as  largo  as  our  domestic  fowl,  and  of  a  jet-black  colour.  A 
flock  ot  what  was  supposed  to  be  the  young  of  the  species  known. 


CHAP.  XXXI.  AUSTRALIAN    BIKDS.  443 

as  the  Pintado  or  Cape  Pigeon  (procellaria  capensis)  was  estimated 
to  have  been  from  six  to  ten  miles  long,  and  two  or  three  miles 
broad,  absolutely  darkening  the  air  during  the  two  or  three  hours 
they  were  flying  over  the  Discovery  ships.  The  snowy  petrel,  a 
most  elegant  bird,  never  leaves  the  ice,  and  consequently  is  seldom 
seen  north  of  the  Antarctic  circle  in  summer.  Four  species  of  the 
southern  Penguin  (Aptenodytes)  inhabit  these  seas;  the  A.  pata- 
chonica,  the  largest  bodied  of  sea-fowls,  is  a  rare,  and,  for  the  most 
part,  solitary  bird,  lives  on  the  pack-ice,  and  weighs  from  60  to  70 
pounds.  Two  other  species  are  smaller  and  gregarious ;  they  crowd 
the  snow-clad  islands  in  the  high  southern  latitudes  in  myriads; 
every  ledge  of  rock  swarms  with  them,  and  on  the  shore  of  Posses- 
sion Island,  close  to  Victoria  Land,  it  was  difficult  to  pass  through 
the  multitudes.  They  are  fine,  bold  birds,  pecking  and  snapping 
with  their  sharp  bills  at  those  who  venture  among  them.  They  can 
scarcely  walk,  and,  their  wings  being  mere  flappers,  they  cannot  fly ; 
they  skim  along  the  sea,  and  swim  rapidly,  even  under  water,  re- 
sembling more  a  fish  or  a  seal  than  a  bird  in  their  movements,  and 
the  noise  they  make  baffles  all  description.  Two  species  of  albatross 
breed  in  the  Antarctic  islands;  a  kind  of  skua  gull,  which  robs 
their  nests ;  and  a  goose  which,  like  the  eider-duck,  makes  its  nest 
with  the  down  from  its  breast.  A  very  curious  bird,  forming  as  it 
were  a  passage  between  the  gallinaceous  birds  and  waders,  the  Chionis 
or  Vaginalis  alba,  is  only  found  near  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
American  continent :  it  is  of  a  milky  white,  and  of  the  size  of  our 
domestic  pigeon,  and  often  takes  refuge  on  the  yards  of  ships  off 
Cape  Horn  and  Staten  Land ;  it  lives  chiefly  on  a  small  species  of 
cuttle-fish.  Few  land- birds  are  met  with  within  the  Antarctic  circle : 
there  are  but  seven  or  eight  species  in  the  Auckland  Islands,  mostly 
New  Zealand  birds ;  among  others,  the  Tooa  or  Tui,  and  an  olive- 
coloured  creeper,  the  choristers  of  the  woods.  One  only  was  found 
in  Campbell  Island. 

Many  generic  forms  are  the  same  at  the  two  extremities  of  the 
globe,  yet  with  distinct  specific  differences.  Sea-fowls  are  more  ex- 
cursive than  other  birds,  but  even  they  confine  themselves  within 
definite  limits,  so  that  the  coasts  may  be  known  from  their  winged 
inhabitants. 

AUSTRALIAN  BIRDS. 

The  birds  of  Australia  are  in  many. respects  as  singular  as  the 
quadrupeds  and  plants  of  that  country :  a  white  falcon  is  among  its 
birds  of  prey,  a  black  swan  among  its  water-fowl,  and  61  genera 
are  entirely  Australian.  The  passeres  are  so  original,  that  they  have 
furnished  many  new  genera.  The  Cassican,  a  handsome  bird  of 
bright  colours,  approaching  somewhat  to  the  crow  family,  the  Chou- 
calcyon,  the  golden  and  black  Oriole,  and  one  species  of  Phiiedon, 


444  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXI. 

are  peculiarly  Australian.  The  Menura  superba,  or  Lyre-bird,  from 
the  resemblance  its  outspread  tail  bears  to  the  form  of  the  ancient 
lyre,  is  the  only  bird  of  its  genus,  and  the  only  one  which  approaches 
the  character  of  the  gallinaceous  family.  Here  are  many  new  forms 
of  cuckoos,  as  the  Coucal  and  the  Scythrops,  the  only  bird  of  its 
genus.  Woodpeckers  there  are  none.  The  parrots,  paroquets,  and 
cockatoos,  which  live  in  numerous  societies,  are  all  peculiar,  espe- 
cially the  black  cockatoo,  which  is  found  here  only ;  it  is  not  so  gre- 
garious, but  even  more  suspicious  than  the  white  cockatoos,  which 
have  a  sentinel  to  warn  them  of  danger.  Chious,  with  huge  bills 
like  the  toucan,  satin-birds,  pigeons  and  doves  of  peculiar  forms, 
abound ;  and  the  Cereopsis  goose  is  no  less  peculiar  among  the  web- 
footed  tribe.  The  desert  plains  of  this  great  continent  are  allotted 
to  the  Emu,  a  large  struthious  bird,  like  its  congener  the  Cassowary, 
incapable  of  flight,  and  once  very  plentiful,  but  now  in  progress  of 
being  extirpated  or  driven  by  the  colonists  to  the  unexplored  regions 
of  the  interior. 

The  Apteryx,  a  bird  of  the  same  family,  still  lingers  in  New  Zea- 
land, but  it  is  on  the  verge  of  extinction,  and  probably  owes  its 
preservation  to  its  nocturnal  and  burrowing  habits.  It  is  one  of 
those  anomalous  creatures  that  partakes  of  the  character  of  several 
others;  its  head  is  in  shape  something  like  that  of  the  Ibis,  with  a 
long,  slender  bill,  fitted  for  digging  into  the  ground  for  worms  and 
grubs ;  its  legs  and  feet  resemble  those  of  the  common  fowl,  with  a 
fourth  toe  or  spur  behind,  in  which  it  differs  from  its  congeners ;  and 
its  wings,  if  wings  they  can  be  called,  are  exceedingly  small.  In  a 
specimen,  whose  body  measured  19  inches,  the  wings,  stripped  of 
the  feathers,  were  only  an  inch  and  a  half  long,  ending  in  a  hard 
horny  claw  three  inches  long.  The  comparatively  small  wings  are 
characteristic  of  the  whole  family ;  the  Ostrich  and  Rhea  have  the 
largest,  which,  though  unavailing  in  flight,  materially  aid  their  pro- 
gress in  running;  the  wings  of  the  Emu  and  Apteryx  serve  only  as 
weapons  of  defence  :  the  whole  tribe  also  defend  themselves  by  kick- 
ing. No  animals  have  a  more  remarkable  geographical  distribution 
than  this  family,  or  show  more  distinctly  the  decided  limits  within 
which  they  have  originally  been  placed.  These  huge  birds  can  nei- 
ther fly  nor  swim,  consequently  they  could  not  have  passed  through 
the  air  or  the  ocean  to  distant  continents  and  islands.  There  are 
five  distinct  genera,  to  each  of  which  very  extensive  and  widely  sepa- 
rated countries  have  been  allotted  :  the  Ostrich  is  spread  over  Africa, 
from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to  the  deserts  of  Arabia;  two  species 
of  the  Rhea  range  over  the  Pampas,  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  and 
the  elevated  plains  of  Southern  Bolivia;  the  continent  of  Australia 
is  the  abode  of  the  Emu;  the  Cassowary  roves  over  some  of  the  large 
islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago ;  and  the  Apteryx,  as  stated  above, 
dwells  exclusively  in  New  Zealand.  The  Dodo;  a  very  large  short- 


CHAP.  XXXI.  NEW     ZEALAND     BIRDS.  445 

winged  bird,  extirpated  by  the  Dutch  navigators,  inhabited  the  Mau- 
ritius, and  belonged  probably  to  the  ostrich  tribe.  Recent  observa- 
tions of  its  skeleton  have  led  some  naturalists  to  think  it  more  akin 
to  Trenons,  or  fruit-eating  pigeons.  The  Solitaire,  another  species, 
also  allied  to  the  pigeons,  lived  on  the  Island  of  Rodriguez,  and  the 
Isle  of  Bourbon  was  inhabited  by  two  other  species,  all  of  which 
are  extinct. 

The  remains  of  a  very  numerous  group  of  extinct  struthious  birds 
have  been  lately  discovered  imbedded  in  the  very  recent  geological 
deposits  of  New  Zealand.  One  of  its  genera,  the  Dinornis,  chiefly 
found  in  the  north  island,  has  several  species,  the  largest  of  which, 
the  D.  giganteus,  attains  a  height  of  11  feet,  or  double  that  of  the 
largest  ostrich;  another,  the  Palapteryx,  almost  peculiar  to  the  mid- 
dle island,  upwards  of  9  feet.  From  the  geological  position  in  which 
these  bones  are  found,  as  well  as  from  their  state  of  conservation, 
they  can  scarcely  be  considered  as  fossil,  although  belonging  to  spe- 
cies which  have  become  extinct.  Professor  Owen  has  described  no 
less  than  six  species  of  Dinornis,  and  four  of  Palapteryx ;  and  later 
discoveries  in  the  colony  have  added  several  to  these  numbers.  No 
better  example  can  be  cited,  as  elucidating  the  certitude  of  the  de- 
ductions of  the  comparative  anatomist,  than  what  led  to  the  first 
discovery  of  this  extraordinary  group  of  birds.  A  small  portion  of 
a  bone,  which  from  its  dimensions  appeared  to  belong  rather  to  a 
quadruped  of  the  size  of  an  ox  than  to  a  bird,  was  submitted  to  Mr. 
Owen ;  he  boldly  pronounced  it,  from  its  structure,  to  belong  to  a 
bird  of  the  ostrich  kind  —  a  decision  that  was  soon  abundantly  con- 
firmed by  the  discovery  not  only  of  the  bones  of  the  bird,  but  of  its 
eggs- 

The  bones  of  another  extinct  bird,  perhaps  a  Nestor,  have  been 
found,  mixed  with  those  of  the  Dinornis.  It  is  allied  to  the  curious 
living  genus  Strigops,  something  between  an  owl  and  a  parrot,  but 
more  nearly  allied  to  the  latter.  There  are  two  living  species  of 
the  Nestor;  one  in  New  Zealand;  another,  almost  extinct,  in  Philip 
Island,  only  five  miles  in  extent,  and  it  is  found  in  no  other  part  of 
the  world.  The  Notornis,  a  race  supposed  to  have  been  extinct, 
closely  allied  to  the  water-hen,  of  the  size  of  the  bustard,  had  also 
been  an  ancient  inhabitant  of  these  islands,1  where  birds  did  and  do 
exist,  almost  to  the  entire  exclusion  of  quadrupeds  and  reptiles :  an 
extinct  species  of  dog,  and  a  rat  still  existing,  are  the  only  land  ani- 
mals which  shared  in  these  extensive  territories  with  multitudes  of 
the  feathered  race.2 

1  This  beautiful  bird  has  just  been  found  living  in  the  Middle  Island,  at 
Dusky  Bay.     Its  nearest  affinity  is  with  a  genus  of  the  Rallidae  or  land-rail 
family. 

2  In  some  parts  of  the  earth  the  same  conditions  which  regulated  the  dis- 
tribution of  the  ancient  fauna  and  flora  still  prevail.     The  flora  of  the  car- 

38 


446  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXII. 

The  ostrich  family  live  on  vegetables ;  the  form  of  those  that  had 
their  home  in  New  Zealand  would  lead  to  the  conclusion  that  they 
had  fed  on  the  roots  of  the  edible  fern  which  abounds  in  that  coun- 
try ;  and  as  no  quadruped  excepting  a  rat  is  indigenous  in  New  Zea- 
land, though  700  miles  long,  and  in  many  places  90  wide,  these 
birds  could  have  had  no  enemy  but  man,  the  most  formidable  of  all. 

The  beautiful  and  sprightly  Tui,  or  parson-bird,  native  in  New 
Zealand,  is  jet  black  with  a  white  tuft  on  its  breast,  and  so  imita- 
tive that  it  can  be  taught  to  repeat  whole  sentences.  There  are 
parrots  and  paroquets,  vast  numbers  of  pigeons,  fine  warblers,  many 
small  birds,  and  a  great  variety  of  water-fowl,  amongst  others  a  cor- 
morant, which,  though  web-footed,  perches  on  the  trees  that  over- 
hang the  streams  and  sea,  watching  for  fish ;  and  a  snow-white 
frigate-bird,  that  pounces  on  them  from  a  great  height  in  the  air. 
Altogether  there  are  at  least  84  species  of  birds  that  inhabit  these 
islands.1 


CHAPTER  XXXII. 

Distribution  of  Mammalia. 

CARBONIC  acid,  water,  and  ammonia  contain  the  elements  neces- 
sary for  the  support  of  animals,  as  well  as  of  vegetables.  They  are 
supplied  to  the  herbivora  in  the  vegetable  food,  which  is  converted 
into  animal  matter  by  their  vital  functions. 

Vitality  in  animals,  as  in  vegetables,  is  the  power  they  have  of 
assimilating  their  food,  a  process  independent  of  volition,  since  it  is 

bonaceous  epoch  is  perfectly  similar  to  that  of  New  Zealand,  where  ferns 
and  club-mosses  are  so  abundant;  and  the  fauna  of  that  ancient  period  had 
been  representative  of  that  which  recently  prevailed  in  these  islands,  since 
foot-prints  of  colossal  birds  have  been  discovered  in  the  red  sandstone  of 
Connecticut. 

The  age  of  reptiles  of  the  "Wealden  and  other  secondary  periods  is  re- 
presentative of  the  fauna  of  the  Galapagos  islands,  which  chiefly  consists 
of  tortoises  and  creatures  of  the  lizard  or  crocodile  family ;  and  the  cyca- 
daceous  plants  and  marsupial  animals  of  the  oolite  are  representative  of 
the  flora  and  fauna  of  Australia. 

The  colossal  birds  -which  prevailed  in  New  Zealand,  almost  to  the  entire 
exclusion  of  reptiles  and  quadrnpeds,  lasted  to  a  very  late  period. 

['  The  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia,  contains  the  most 
extensive  and  most  beautiful  collection  of  birds  in  the  world.  It  consists 
of  more  than  27,000  specimens,  of  which  upwards  of  22,000  specimens  are 
mounted  and  exhibited.  A  representative  of  almost  every  species  of  birds 
known  in  the  world  may  be  seen  there.] 


CHAP.  XXXII.        CHEMISTRY    OF    ANIMAL    LIFE.  447 

carried  on  during  sleep,  and  is  the  cause  of  force.  Animals  inhale 
oxygen  with  the  air  they  breathe ;  part  of  the  oxygen  combines 
with  the  carbon  contained  in  the  food,  and  is  exhaled  in  the  form 
of  carbonic  acid  gas.  With  every  effort,  with  every  breath,  and 
with  every  motion,  voluntary  or  involuntary,  at  every  instant  of  life, 
a  part  of 'the  muscular  substance  becomes  dead,  separates  from  the 
living  part,  combines  with  the  remaining  portion  of  inhaled  oxygen, 
and  is  removed.  Food,  therefore,  is  necessary  to  compensate  for  the 
waste,  to  supply  nourishment,  and  to  restore  strength  to  the  nerves, 
on  which  all  vital  motion  depends;  for  by  the  nerves  volition  acts 
on  living  matter.  Food  would  not  be  sufficient  to  make  up  for  this 
waste,  and  consequent  loss  of  strength,  without  sleep;  during  which 
voluntary  motion  ceases,  and  the  undisturbed  assimilation  of  the 
food  suffices  to  restore  strength,  and  to  make  up  for  the  involuntary 
motion  of  breathing,  which  is  also  a  source  of  waste. 

The  perpetual  combination  of  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  with 
the  carbon  of  the  food,  and  with  the  effete  substance  of  the  body, 
is  a  real  combustion,  and  is  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  animal  heat, 
because  heat  is  constantly  given  out  by  the  combination  of  carbon 
and  oxygen;  and,  without  a  constant  supply  of  food,  the  oxygen 
would  soon  consume  the  whole  animal,  except  the  bones. 

Herbivorous  animals  inhale  oxygen  in  breathing,  and,  as  vege- 
table food  does  not  contain  so  much  carbon  as  animal,  they  require 
a  greater  supply  to  compensate  for  the  wasting  influence  of  the  ox- 
ygen; therefore,  cattle  are  constantly  eating.  But  the  nutritious 
parts  of  vegetables  are  identical  in  composition  with  the  chief  con- 
stituents of  the  blood;  and  from  blood  every  part  of  the  animal 
body  is  formed. 

Carnivorous  animals  have  not  pores  in  the  skin,  therefore  their 
supply  of  oxygen  is  from  their  respiration  only;  and  as  animal  food 
contains  a  greater  quantity  of  carbon,  they  do  not  require  to  eat  so 
often  as  animals  that  feed  on  vegetables.  The  restlessness  of  car- 
nivorous animals  when  confined  in  a  cage  is  in  some  degree  owing 
to  the  superabundance  of  carbon  in  their  fooct.  They  move  about 
continually  to  quicken  respiration,  and  by  that  means  procure  a  sup- 
ply of  oxygen  to  carry  off  the  redundant  carbon. 

The  quantity  of  animal  heat  is  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  the 
oxygen  inspired  in  equal  times.  The  heat  of  birds  is  greater  than 
that  of  quadrupeds,  and  in  both  it  is  higher  than  the  temperature  of 
amphibious  animals  and  fishes,  which  have  the  coldest  blood.  On 
these  subjects  we  are  indebted  to  Professor  Liebig,  who  has  thrown 
so  much  light  on  the  important  sciences  of  animal  and  vegetable 
chemistry. 

The  mammalia  consist  of  nine  orders  of  animals,  which  differ  in 
appearance  and  in  their  nature ;  but  they  agree  in  the  one  attribute 
of  suckling  their  young.  These  orders  are  —  the  Quadrumana,  ani- 


448  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

mals  which  can  use  their  fore  and  hind  feet  as  hands,  as  monkeys 
and  apes;  Cheiroptera,  animals  with  winged  arms,  as  bats;  Carni- 
vora,  that  live  on  animal  food,  as  the  lion,  tiger,  bear,  &c. ;  Rodentia, 
or  gnawers,  as  beavers,  squirrels,  mice ;  Edentata  or  toothless  ani- 
mals,' as  anteaters  and  armadilloes;  Pachydermata,  or  thick-skinned 
animals,  as  the  elephant,  the  horse,  hippopotamus,  and  hog;  Rurni- 
nantia,  animals  that  chew  the  cud,  as  camels,  lamas,  giraffes,  cows, 
sheep,  deer ;  Marsupialia,  possessing  a  pouch  in  which  the  young  is 
received  after  birth ;  and  Cetaceae,  inhabiting  the  waters,  as  whales, 
dolphins,  porpoises,  &c. 

The  animal  creation,  like  the  vegetable,  varies  correspondingly 
with  height  and  latitude ;  the  changes  of  species  in  ascending  the 
Himalaya,  for  instance,  are  similar  to  what  a  traveller  would  meet 
with  in  his  journey  from  an  equatorial  to  a  high  latitude.  The 
number  of  land  animals  increases  from  the  frigid  zones  to  the  equa- 
tor, but  the  law  is  reversed  with  regard  to  the  marine  mammalia, 
which  abound  most  in  high  latitudes.  Taking  a  broad  view  of  the 
distribution  of  the  nine  orders  of  mammalia,  it  may  be  observed  that 
the  tropical  forests  are  the  chief  abode  of  the  monkey  tribe :  Asia  is 
the  home  of  the  ape,  especially  the  islands  of  the  Indian  Archipelago, 
as  far  as  the  most  easterly  meridian  of  Timor,  beyond  which  there 
are  none. 

They  abound  throughout  Africa  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
Gibraltar,  where  the  Barbary  ape  or  magot  is  found  :  another  species 
of  magot  inhabits  the  island  of  Niphon,  the  northern  limit  of  mon- 
keys at  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  old  continent. 

The  bats  that  live  on  fruits  are  chiefly  met  with  in  tropical  and 
warm  climates,  especially  in  the  Indian  Archipelago;  the  common 
bats,  which  live  on  insects,  and  are  so  numerous  in  species  as  to 
form  more  than  a  third  of  the  whole  family,  are  found  everywhere 
except  in  arctic  America.  The  Vampire  is  only  met  with  in  tropi- 
cal America.  Carnivorous  mammalia  are  distributed  all  over  the 
globe,  though  very  unequally :  in  Australia  there  are  only  four 
species,  two  of  which  are  bats ;  there  are  only  18  in  South  America, 
and  27  in  the  Oceanic  region  ;  while  in  the  tropical  regions  of  Ame- 
rica there  are  109,  in  Africa  130,  and  in  Asia  166  species  of  carni- 
vora;  and  so  rapid  is  their  increase  towards  the  tropical  regions, 
that  there  are  nearly  three  times  as  many  in  the  tropical  as  in  the 
temperate  zones. 

With  regard  to  the  Gnawers  or  Rodents,  species  of  the  same 
group  frequently  have  a  wide  range  in  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same, 
parallels  of  latitude,  but  when  they  are  inhabitants  of  high  moun- 
tain-ridges they  follow  the  direction  of  the  chain,  whatever  that  may 
be,  and  groups  confined  to  high  latitudes  often  appear  again  at  great 

'  Or  more  properly  wanting  certain  teeth,  as  the  canines  or  incisors. 


CHAP.  XXXII.        DISTRIBUTION    OP    MAMMALIA.  449 

elevations  in  low  latitudes.  The  Edentata  are  particularly  charac- 
teristic of  South  America,  where  there  are  three  times  as  many 
species  as  there  are  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Australia  taken  together. 
In  the  three  latter  countries  they  only  occur  at  intervals,  but  in 
America  they  extend  from  the  tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  plains  of 
Patagonia.  Thick-skinned  animals  are  very  abundant  in  the  old 
continent,  especially  in  Asia  and  Africa ;  they  have  been  introduced 
into  North  America  by  man,  but  in  the  southern  part  of  that  conti- 
nent the  only  indigenous  species  is  the  Tapir.  The  Ruminantia 
abound  all  over  the  temperate  and  tropical  countries  of  both  conti- 
nents, and  three  species  are  found  as  far  as  the  Arctic  regions — there 
are  neither  Ruminantia  nor  Pachydermata  in  Australia.  The  Mar- 
supialia  are  confined  to  Australia,  New  Guinea,  and  America. 

The  distribution  of  animals  is  guided  by  laws  analogous  to  those 
which  regulate  the  distribution  of  plants,  insects,  fishes,  and  birds. 
Each  continent,  and  even  different  parts  of  the  same  continent,  are 
centres  of  zoological  families,  which  have  always  existed  there,  and 
nowhere  else ;  each  group  being  almost  always  specifically  different 
from  all  others. 

Food,  security,  and  temperature  have  little  influence,  as  primary 
causes,  in  the1  distribution  of  animals.  The  plains  of  America  are 
not  less  fit  for  rearing  oxen  than  the  meadows  of  Europe ;  yet  the 
common  ox  was  not  found  in  that  continent  at  the  time  of  its  dis- 
covery ;  and  with  regard  to  temperature,  this  animal  thrives  on  the 
Llanos  of  Venezuela  and  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres  as  well  as  on 
the  steppes  in  Europe.  The  horse  is  another  example  :  originally  a 
native  of  the  deserts  of  Tartary,  he  now  roams  wild  in  herds  of  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  on  the  grassy  plains  of  America,  though  un- 
known in  that  continent  at  the  time  of  the  Spanish  conquest.1  All 
animals,  however,  are  not  so  flexible  in  their  constitutions,  for  most 
of  them  would  perish  from  change  of  climate.  The  stations  which 
the  different  families  now  occupy  must  have  been  allotted  to  them  as 
each  part  of  the  land  rose  above  the  ocean ;  and  because  they  have 
found  in  these  stations  all  that  was  necessary  for  their  existence, 
many  have  never  wandered  from  them,  notwithstanding  their  powers 
of  locomotion;  while  others  have  migrated,  but  only  within  certain 
bounds. 

Instinct  leads  animals  to  migrate  when  they  become  too  numer- 
ous :  the  rat  in  Kamtchatka,  according  to  Pennant,  sets  out  in  spring 
in  great  multitudes,  and  travels  800  miles,  swimming  over  rivers  and 
lakes;  and  the  Lapland  marmot  or  Lemming,  a  native  in  the  mouc 
tains  of  Kolen,  migrates  in  bands,  once  or  twice  in  25  years,  to  the 

1  There  exist,  however,  remains  of  an  extinct  species  of  horse  in  several 
parts  of  South  America,  contemporaneous  with  the  mastodons,  and  gigantic 
lost  Edentata  of  that  continent. 
38* 


450  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.  CHAP.  XXXII. 

Western  Ocean,  which  they  enter  and  are  drowned ;  other  bands  go 
through  Swedish  Lapland  and  perish  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  Thus 
nature  provides  a  remedy  against  the  over-increase  of  any  one  spe- 
cies, and  maintains  the  balance  of  the  whole.  A  temporary  migra- 
tion for  food  is  not  uncommon  in  animals.  The  wild  ass,  a  native 
of  the  deserts  of  Great  Tartary,  in  summer  feeds  to  the  east  and 
north  of  the  lake  of  Aral,  and  in  autumn  they  migrate  in  thousands 
to  the  north  of  India,  and  even  to  Persia.1  The  ruminating  animals 
that  dwell  in  the  inaccessible  parts  of  the  Himalaya  descend  to  their 
lower  declivities  in  search  of  food  in  winter;  and  for  the  same  rea- 
son the  reindeer  and  musk-ox  leave  the  Arctic  snows  for  a  more 
southern  latitude. 

The  Arctic  regions  form  a  district  common  to  Europe,  Asia,  and 
America.  On  this  account,  the  animals  inhabiting  the  northern 
parts  of  these  continents  are  sometimes  identical,  often  very  similar; 
in  fact,  there  is  no  genus  of  quadrupeds  in  the  Arctic  regions  that 
is  not  found  in  the  three  continents,  though  there  are  only  27  spe- 
cies common  to  all,  and  these  are  mostly  fur-bearing  animals.  In 
the  temperate  zone  of  Europe  and  Asia,  which  forms  an  uninter- 
rupted region,  identity  of  species  is  occasionally  met  with,  but  for 
the  most  part  marked  by  such  varieties  in  size  and  colour  as  might 
be  expected  to  arise  from  difference  of  food  and  climate.  The  same 
genera  are  sometimes  found  in  the  intertropical  parts  of  Asia,  Af- 
rica, and  America,  but  the  same  species  never;  much  less  in  the 
south  temperate  zones  of  these  continents,  where  all  the  animals  are 
different,  whether  birds,  beasts,  insects,  or  reptiles;  but  in  similar 
climates  analogous  tribes  replace  one  another. 

Europe  has  no  family  and  no  order  peculiarly  its  own,  and  many 
of  its  species  are  common  to  other  countries;  consequently  the  great 
zoological  districts,  where  the  subject  is  viewed  on  a  broad  scale,  are 
Asia,  Africa,  Oceanica,  America,  and  Australia;  but  in  each  of 
these  there  are  smaller  districts,  to  which  particular  genera  and 
families  are  confined.  Yet  when  the  regions  are  not  separated  by 
lofty  mountain-chains,  acting  as  barriers,  the  races  are  in  most  cases 
blended  together  on  the  confines  between  the  two  districts,  so  that 
there  is  not  a  sudden  change. 

EUROPEAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

The  character  of  the  animals  of  temperate  Europe  has  been  more 
changed  by  the  progress  of  civilization  than  that  of  any  other  quar- 

1  Perhaps  BO  quadruped  in  the  wild  state  will  be  found  to  have  so  wide 
a  vertical  range  of  habitat  as  this  animal.  It  is  found  in  the  plains  of  Tar- 
tary, in  the  vallej  'f  the  Tigris,  at  a  very  few  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and 
in  the  most  elevate-i  valleys  of  the  Himalaya  and  in  Tibet,  at  elevations 
exceeding  15,200  feet. 


CHAP.  XXXn.       EUROPEAN    QUADRUPEDS.  451 

ter  of  the  globe.  Many  of  its  original  inhabitants  have  been  oxtir- 
pated,  and  new  races  introduced ;  but  it  seems  always  to  have  had 
various  animals  capable  of  being  domesticated.  The  wild  cattle  in 
the  parks  of  the  Duke  of  Hamilton  and  the  Earl  of  Tankerville  are 
the  only  remnants  of  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  British  forests, 
though  they  were  spread  over  Europe,  and  perhaps  were  the  parent 
stock  from  which  the  European  cattle  of  the  present  time  have  de- 
scended ;  the  Aurochs,  a  race  nearly  extinct,  and  found  only  in  the 
forests  of  Lithuania,  may  also  have  some  claim  to  having  furnished 
the  races  of  our  domestic  cattle.  Both  are  supposed  to  have  come 
from  Asia.  The  Mouflon,  which  exists  in  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  is 
by  some  supposed  to  be  the  parent  stock  of  our  domestic  sheep. 
The  pig,  the  goat,  the  red  and  fallow-deer  have  been  reclaimed,  and 
also  the  reindeer,  which  cannot  strictly  be  called  European,  since  it 
also  inhabits  the  northern  regions  of  Asia  and  America.  The  Cat 
is  European ;  and  altogether  eight  or  ten  species  of  our  domestic 
quadrupeds  have  sprung  from  native  animals. 

A  remarkable  uniformity  prevails  in  the  organization  and  instincts 
of  each  species  of  animal  in  its  wild  state.  Many  adapt  themselves 
to  change  of  climate :  after  some  generations  their  habits  and  organ- 
ization alter  by  degrees  to  suit  the  new  condition  in  which  they  are 
placed,  but  domestication  is  the  cause  of  all  our  tame  and  useful 
tribes;  by  high  cultivation  and  training  great  changes  have  been 
produced  in  form ;  and  in  some  instances  habits  and  powers  of  per- 
ception are  induced,  approaching  to  reason,  which  remain  hereditary 
as  long  as  the  breed  is  unchanged. 

There  are  still  about  180  wild  quadrupeds  in  Europe :  45  of 
these  are  also  found  in  Western  Asia,  and  nine  in  northern  Africa. 
The  most  remarkable  are  the  reindeer,  elk,  red  and  fallow-deer,  the 
roebuck,  glutton,  lynx,  polecat,  several  wild  cats,  the  common  and 
black  squirrels,  the  fox,  wild  boar,  wolf,  the  black  and  the  brown 
bear,  several  species  of  weasels  and  mice.  The  otter  is  common; 
but  the  beaver  is  now  found  only  on  the  Rhine,  the  Hhone,  the 
Danube,  and  some  other  large  rivers;  rabbits  and  hares  are  numer- 
ous; the  hedgehog  is  everywhere;  the  porcupine  in  southern  Eu- 
rope only;  the  chamois  and  ibex  in  the  Alps  and  Pyrenees.  Many 
species  of  these  animals  are  widely  distributed  over  Eurape,  gene- 
rally with  variations  in  size  and  colour.  The  Chamois  of  the  Alps 
and  Pyrenees,  though  the  same  in  species,  is  slightly  varied  in  ap- 
pearance ;  and  the  fox  of  the  most  northern  parts  of  Europe  is 
larger  than  that  of  Italy,  with  a  thicker  fur,  and  of  somewhat  dif- 
ferent colour. 

Some  animals  never  descend  below  a  certain  height,  as  the  ibex 
and  chamois,  which  live  on  higher  ground  than  any  of  their  order, 
'being  usually  found  between  the  region  of  trees  and  the  line  of 
perpetual  snow,  which  is  about  8900  feet  on  the  southern,  and  8200 


452  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

on  the  northern  declivities  of  the  Alps.  The  red  deer  does  not  as- 
cend beyond  7000  feet,  and  the  fallow-deer  not  more  than  6000, 
above  the  level  of  the  sea:  these  two,  however,  descend  to  the 
plains,  the  former  never  do.  The  bear,  the  lynx,  and  the  stoat  are 
sometimes  met  with  nearly  at  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow. 

Some  European  animals  are  much  circumscribed  in  their  locality. 
The  Ichneumon  is  peculiar  to  Egypt;  the  mouflon  is  confined  to 
Corsica  and  Sardinia;  a  species  of  weasel  and  bat  inhabit  Sardinia 
only ;  and  Sicily  has  several  peculiar  bats  and  mice.  There  is  only 
one  species  of  monkey  in  Europe,  which  lives  on  the  rock  of  Gib- 
raltar, and  is  supposed  to  have  been  brought  from  Africa.  All  the 
indigenous  British  quadrupeds  now  existing,  together  with  the  ex- 
tinct hyaena,  tiger,  bear,  and  wolf,  whose  bones  have  been  found  in 
caverns,  are  also  found  in  the  same  state  in  Germany.  Ireland  was 
probably  separated  by  the  Irish  Channel  from  England  before  all 
the  animals  had  migrated  to  the  latter;  so  that  our  squirrel,  mole, 
pole-cat,  dormouse,  and  several  smaller  quadrupeds,  never  reached 
the  sister  island.  Mr.  Owen  has  shown  that  the  Britich  horse,  ass, 
hog,  the  smaller  wild  ox,  the  goat,  roe,  beaver,  and  many  small 
rodents,  are  the  same  species  with  those  which  had  co-existed  with 
the  mammoth  or  fossil  elephant,  the  great  northern  hippopotamus, 
and  two  kinds  of  rhinoceros  long  extinct.  So  that  a  part  only  of 
the  modern  tertiary  fauna  has  perished,  from  whence  he  infers  that 
the  cause  of  their  destruction  was  not  a  violent  universal  catastrophe 
from  which  none  could  escape.  The  Bos  longifrons  and  the  gigantic 
Elk  of  the  Irish  bogs  were  probably  co-existent  with  man. 

ASIATIC  QUADRUPEDS. 

Asia  has  a  greater  number  and  a  greater  variety  of  wild  animals 
than  any  country,  except  America,  and  also  a  larger  proportion  of 
those  that  are  domesticated.  Though  civilized  from  the  earliest 
ages,  the  destruction  of  the  animal  creation  has  not  been  so  great  as 
in  Europe,  owing  to  the  inaccessible  height  of  the  mountains,  the 
extent  of  the  plains  and  deserts,  and,  not  least,  to  the  impenetrable 
forests  and  jungles,  which  afford  them  a  safe  retreat :  288  mamma- 
lia are  Asiatic,  of  which  186  are  common  to  it  and  other  countries ; 
these,  however,  chiefly  belong  to  the  temperate  zone. 

Asia  Minor  is  a  district  of  transition  from  the  fauna  of  Europe  to 
that  of  Asia.  There  the  chamois,  the  bouquetin  or  ibex,  the  brown 
bear,  the  wolf,  fox,  hare,  and  others,  are  mingled  with  the  hyaena, 
the  Angora  goat,  which  bears  a  valuable  fleece,  the  Argali  or  wild 
sheep,  the  white  squirrel ;  and  even  the  Bengal  royal  Tiger  is  some- 
times seen  on  Mount  Ararat,  and  is  not  uncommon  in  Azerbijan  and 
the  mountains  in  Persia. 

Arabia  is  inhabited  by  the  hysena,  panther,  jackal,  and  wolf.  An- 
telopes and  monkeys  arc  found  in  Yemen.  Most  of  these  are  also 


CHAP.  XXXII.         ASIATIC    QUADRUPEDS.  453 

indigenous  in  Persia.  The  wild  ass,  or  Onagra,  a  handsome  spirited 
animal  of  great  speed,  and  so  shy  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  ap- 
proach it,  wanders  in  herds  over  the  plains  and  table-lands  of  Cen- 
tral Asia.  It  is  also  found  in  the  Indian  desert,  and  especially  in 
the  Run  of  Cutch — "  the  wilderness  and  barren  lands  are  his  dwell- 
ing"— and  in  the  most  elevated  regions  of  Tartary  and  Tibet,  on  the 
shores  of  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasarowar  and  Rakasthal,  at  a  height 
of  more  than  15,250  feet  above  the  sea.1 

The  table-lands  and  mountains  which  divide  eastern  Asia  almost 
into  polar  and  tropical  zones,  produce  as  great  a  distinction  in  the 
character  of  its  indigenous  fauna.  The  severity  of  the  climate  in 
Siberia  renders  the  skins  of  its  numerous  fur-bearing  animals  more 
valuable.  These  are  reindeer,  elks,  wolves,  the  large  white  bear, 
that  lives  among  the  ice  on  its  Arctic  shores,  several  other  bears,  the 
lynx,  various  kinds  of  martens  and  cats,  the  common,  the  blue,  and 
the  black  fox,  the  ermine,  and  the  sable.  The  fur  of  these  last  is 
much  esteemed,  and  is  only  equalled  by  that  of  the  sea-otter,  which 
inhabits  the  shores  on  both  sides  of  the  northern  Pacific. 

Many  of  the  Asiatic  species  of  gnawers  are  confined  to  Siberia. 
The  most  remarkable  of  these  is  the  flying  squirrel,  the  Jerboa, 
which  burrows  in  sandy  deserts,  on  the  table-land  and  elsewhere. 
The  Altai  Mountains  teem  with  wild  animals  :  besides  many  of  those 
mentioned,  we  also  find  here  several  large  stags,  bears,  some  peculiar 
weasels,  the  argali,  and  the  wild  sheep.  The  wild  goat  of  the  Alps 
is  found  in  the  Sayansk  part  of  the  chain ;  the  Glutton  and  musk- 
deer  in  the  Baikal ;  and  in  Daouria  the  red-deer  and  the  Antelope 
Saiga.  The  Bengal  tiger  and  the  Felis  Irbis,  a  species  of  panther, 
wander  from  the  Celestial  Mountains  to  the  Altai  and  into  southern 
Siberia :  the  Tiger  is  met  with  even  on  the  banks  of  the  Obi,  and 
also  in  China,  though  in  the  northern  regions  it  differs  considerably, 
but  not  specifically,  from  that  of  Bengal ;  thus  it  can  bear  a  mean 
annual  temperature  of  from  81°  of  Fahrenheit  to  the  freezing  point. 
The  Tapir,  and  many  of  the  animals  of  the  Indian  Archipelago,  are 
found  in  the  southern  provinces  of  the  Chinese  empire.  The  ani- 
mals of  Japan  have  a  strong  analogy  with  those  of  Europe :  many 
are  identical,  or  slightly  varied,  as  the  badger,  otter,  mole,  common 
fox,  marten,  and  squirrel.  On  the  other  hand,  a  large  species  of 
bear  in  the  island  of  Jesso  resembles  the  grizzly  bear  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains  of  North  America.  A  chamois  in  other  parts  of  Japan 

1  It  is  by  no  means  certain  that  the  wild  Ass  of  the  three  countries  men- 
tioned in  the  text  belongs  to  the  same  species.  The  Kiang  of  Tibet  appears 
to  be  the  same  as  the  Dziggetai  (Equns  Hemionus  of  Pallas),  which  is  met 
•with  throughout  central  Asia;  but  the  species  found  in  the  Run  of  Cutch 
is  of  a  different  colour  and  form :  whilst  the  one  neighs  like  a  horse,  this 
other  brays  like  an  ass ;  in  one  the  striped  colour  of  the  zebra  family  is 
said  to  exist  in  the  young,  and  not  in  the  second. 


454  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

is  similar  to  the  Antelope  montana*bf  the  same  mountains :  and 
other  animals  native  in  Japan  are  the  same  with  those  in  Sumatra; 
so  that  its  fauna  is  a  combination  of  those  of  very  distant  regions. 

A  few  animals  are  peculiar  to  the  high  cold  plains  of  the  table- 
land of  eastern  Asia :  the  Dziggetai,  a  very  fleet  animal,  is  peculiar 
to  these  Tartarian  steppes.  Two  species  of  antelopes  inhabit  the 
plains  of  Tibet,  congregating  in  immense  herds,  with  sentinels  so 
vigilant  that  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  approach  them. 

The  Dzeran,  or  yellow  goat,  which  is  both  swift  and  shy,  and  the 
handsome  Tartar  ox,  are  natives  of  these  wilds ;  also  the  shawl-wool 
goat  and  the  Manul,  from  which  the  Angora  cat,  so  much  admired 
in  Persia  and  Europe,  is  descended.  Most  of  the  animals  that  live 
at  such  heights  cannot  exist  in  less  elevated  and  warmer  regions, 
exhibiting  a  striking  instance  of  the  limited  distribution  of  species. 
Goats  and  sheep  endure  best  the  rarefied  air  and  great  cold  of  high 
lands :  the  Cashmere  goat  and  Argali  sheep  browse  on  the  plains 
of  Tibet  at  elevations  of  from  10,000  to  13,000  feet ;  the  Rass,  a 
sheep  with  spiral  horns,  lives  on  the  table-lands  of  Pamer,  which 
are  15,000  feet  above  the  sea ;  and  also  the  Kutch-gar,  a  species  of 
sheep  which  is  about  the  height  of  a  year-old  colt,  with  fine  curling 
horns :  they  congregate  in  flocks  of  many  hundreds,  and  are  hunted 
by  the  nomade  tribes  of  Kirghis. 

The  ruminating  animals  of  Asia  are  more  numerous  than  those 
of  any  other  part  of  the  world ;  64  species  are  native,  and  46  of 
these  exist  there  only.  There  are  several  species  of  wild  oxen ;  one 
in  the  Birmese  empire,  and  on  the  mountains  of  north-eastern  India, 
with  spiral  twisted  horns.  The  buffalo  is  a  native  of  China,  India, 
Borneo,  and  the  Sunda  Islands  ;  it  is  a  large  animal,  formidable  in  a 
wild  state,  but  domesticated  throughout  the  East.  It  was  introduced 
into  Italy  in  the  sixth  century,  and  large  herds  now  graze  in  the 
low  marshy  plains  near  the  sea. 

Various  kinds  of  oxen  have  been  domesticated  in  India  from  time 
immemorial :  the  Zebu  or  Indian  ox,  with  a  hump  on  the  shoulders, 
has  been  venerated  by  the  Brahmins  for  ages;  the  beautiful  white 
silky  tail  of  the  domesticated  ox,  or  Yak,  of  Tartary,  used  in  the 
East  to  drive  away  flies,  was  adopted  as  the  Turkish  standard ;  and 
the  common  Indian  ox  differs  from  all  others  in  the  great  speed  of 
its  course.  Some  other  species  of  cattle  have  been  tamed,  and  some 
are  still  wild  in  India,  Java,  and  other  Asiatic  islands.  The  Cash- 
mere goat,  which  bears  the  shawl-wool,  is  the  most  valuable  of  the 
endless  varieties  of  goats  and  sheep  of  Asia;  it  is  kept  in  large 
herds  in  the  great  valleys  on  the  northern  and  southern  declivities 
of  the  Himalaya,  and  in  the  upper  regions  of  Bhotan,  where  the 
cold  climate  is  congenial  to  it. 

The  Bactrian  camel,  with  two  humps,  is  strong,  rough,  and  hairy, 
and  is  said  to  be  found  in  a  wild  state  in  the  desert  of  Shamo :  it  is 


CHAP.  XXXII.         ASIATIC    QUADRUPEDS.  455 

the  camel  of  central  Asia,  north  of  the  Himalaya  and  Taurus,  also 
of  the  Crimea  and  the  countries  round  the  Caucasus.  The  more 
common  or  Arabian  camel  with  one  hump  is  a  native  of  Asia,  though 
only  known  now  in  a  domesticated  state :  it  has  been  introduced 
into  Africa,  Italy,  the  Canary  Islands,  and  even  into  the  elevated 
regions  of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes.  The  best  come  from  the  pro- 
vince of  Nejed  in  Arabia,  which,  on  that  account,  is  called  the 
"  mother  of  Camels."  The  camel  of  Oman  is  remarkable  for  beauty 
and  swiftness.  • 

Ten  species  of  antelopes  and  twenty  of  deer  are  peculiar  to  Asia : 
two  species  of  antelopes  have  already  been  mentioned  as  peculiar  to 
the  table-lands,  the  others  are  distributed  in  the  Asiatic  archipelago. 
The  genuine  musk-deer  (Moschus  moschiferus)  inhabits  the  moun- 
tainous countries  of  central  and  south-eastern  Asia,  between  China 
and  Tartary,  the  regions  round  lake  Baikal,  the  ,Altai  mountains, 
Nepaul,  Bhotan,  Tibet,  and  the  adjacent  countries  of  China  and 
Tonquin. 

Asia  possesses  about  ten  native  species  of  Pachydermata,  including 
the  elephant,  horse,  and  ass,  which  have  been  domesticated  from  the 
time  of  the  earliest  historical  records.  The  horse  is  supposed  to 
have  existed  wild  in  the  plains  of  central  Asia,  as  the  dromedary 
in  Arabia;  though -now  they  are  only  known  as  domestic  animals. 
The  Arabian  and  Persian  horses  possess  acknowledged  excellence 
and  beauty,  and  from  these  our  best  European  horses  are  descended ; 
the  African  horse,  which  was  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors, 
is  probably  of  the  same  race. 

The  elephant  has  long  been  a  domestic  animal  in  Asia,  though  it 
still  roams  wild  in  formidable  herds  through  the  forests  and  jungles 
at  the  foot  of  the  Himalaya,  in  other  parts  of  India,  the  Indo-Chi- 
nese peninsula,  and  the  islands  of  Sumatra  and  Ceylon ;  the  hunting 
elephant  is  esteemed  the  most  noble.  A  one-horned  rhinoceros  is  a 
native  of  continental  Asia. 

There  are  several  genera  of  Asiatic  carnivorous  animals,  of  which 
the  royal  tiger  is  the  handsomest  and  the  most  formidable ;  its  fa- 
vourite habitation  is  in  the  jungles  of  Hindostan,  though  it  wanders 
nearly  to  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  in  the  Himalaya,  to  the  Per- 
sian and  Armenian  mountains,  to  Siberia  and  China.  Leopards  and 
panthers  are  common,  and  there  is  a  nameless  variety  of  the  lion  in 
Guzerat;  the  Cheetah,  used  in  hunting,  is  the  only  one  of  the  pan- 
thers capable  of  being  tamed.  The  hyaena  is  found  everywhere, 
excepting  the  Birman  empire,  in  which  there  are  neither  wolves, 
hyaenas,  foxes,  nor  jackals.  There  are  four  species  of  bears  in  India ; 
that  of  Nepaul  has  valuable  fur :  the  wild  boar,  hog,  and  dogs  of 
endless  variety,  abound. 

The  edentata  have  only  two  representatives  in  India,  which  differ 
from  all  others  except  the  African,  in  being  covered  with  imbricated 


456  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

scales.  Of  these  the  short-tailed  pangolin,  or  scaly  ant-eater,  is 
found  throughout  the  Deccan,  Bengal,  Nepaul,  the  southern  pro- 
vinces of  China,  and  Formosa. 

The  Indian  Archipelago  and  the  Indo-Chinese  peninsula  form  a 
zoological  province  of  a  very  peculiar  nature,  being  allied  to  the 
faunas  of  India,  Australia,  and  South  America,  yet  having  animals 
exclusively  its  own.  The  royal  tiger  is  in  great  abundance  in  the 
peninsula  of  Malacca,  and  also  the  black  variety  of  the  panther, 
leopard,  wild  cats,  multitudes  of  elephants,  the  rhinoceros  of  all 
three  species,  the  Malayan  tapir,  many  deer,  the  Babiroussa  hog, 
and  another  species  of  that  genus.  Some  groups  of  the  islands 
have  several  animals  in  common,  either  identical  or  with  slight  va- 
riations, that  are  altogether  wanting  in  other  islands,  which,  in  their 
turn,  have  creatures  of  their  own.  Many  species  are  common  to 
the  Archipelago  and  the  neighbouring  parts  of  the  continent,  or 
even  to  China,  Bengal,  Hindostan,  and  Ceylon.  Flying  quadrupeds 
are  a  distinguishing  feature  of  this  archipelago,  though  some  do  not 
absolutely  fly,  but,  by  an  extension  of  the  skin  of  their  sides  to 
their  legs,  which  serves  as  a  parachute,  are  enabled  to  take  long 
leaps  and  to  support  themselves  in  the  air.  Nocturnal  flying  squir- 
rels, of  several  species,  are  common  to  the  Malayan  peninsula  and 
the  Sunda  islands,  especially  Javaj  and  three  species  of  flying 
Lemurs  inhabit  Sunda,  Malacca,  and  the  Pelew  Islands.  Besides 
these,  there  are  the  frugivorous  bats,  which  really  fly,  differing  from 
bats  in  other  countries  by  living  exclusively  upon  vegetable  food. 
The  edible  Roussette,  or  Kalong,  one  of  the  largest  known,  appears 
in  flocks  of  hundreds,  and  even  thousands,  in  Java,  Sumatra,  and 
Banda  :  the  pteropus  funereus,  another  of  these  large  bats,  assem- 
bles in  as  great  numbers. 

A  hundred  and  eighty  species  of  the  ape  and  monkey  tribe  are 
entirely  Asiatic :  monkeys  are  found  only  on  the  coast  of  India, 
Cochin-China,  and  the  Sunda  Islands :  the  long-armed  apes  or  Gib- 
bons belong  to  the  Sunda  Islands  and  the  Malayan  peninsula.  The 
Simayang,  a  very  large  ape  of  Sumatra  and  Bencoolen,  moves  about 
in  large  troops,  following  a  leader,  and  makes  a  howling  noise  at 
sunrise  and  sunset  that  is  heard  miles  off.  Sumatra  and  Borneo 
are  the  peculiar  abode  of  the  Orang-outang,  a  name  which  in  th« 
Malay  language  signifies  the  "man  of  woods;"  except  perhaps  th* 
Chimpanzee  of  Africa,  it  approaches  nearest  to  man.  It  has  never 
spread  over  the  islands  it  inhabits,  though  there  seems  to  be  nothing 
to  prevent  it,  but  it  finds  all  that  is  necessary  within  a  limited  dis- 
trict. The  orang-outang  and  the  long-armed  apes  have  extraordinary 
muscular  strength,  and  swing  from  tree  to  tree  by  their  arms. 

Tne  Malays  have  given  the  name  of  orang,  or  man,  to  the  whole 
tribe,  on  account  of  their  intelligence  as  well  as  their  form. 

A  two-horned  rhinoceros  is  peculiar  to  Java;  of  a  different  species 


CHAP.  XXXII.         AFRICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  457 

from  the  African,  also  the  Felis  macrocelis,  and  a  very  large  bear ; 
there  are  only  two  species  of  squirrels  in  Java,  which  is  remarkable, 
as  the  Sunda  Islands  are  rich  in  them.  'The  Royal  tiger  of  India 
and  the  elephant  are  found  only  in  Sumatra,  and  the  Babiroussa 
lives  in  Borneo ;  but  these  two  islands  have  many  quadrupeds  in 
common,  as  a  leopard,  the  one-horned  rhinoceros,  the  black  antelope, 
some  graceful  miniature  creatures  of  the  deer  kind,  the  Tapir,  also 
found  in  Malacca,  besides  a  wild  boar,  an  inhabitant  of  all  the 
marshy  forests  from  Borneo  to  New  Guinea.  In  the  larger  islands 
deer  abound,  some  as  large  as  the  elk,  probably  the  Hippelaphus  of 
Aristotle. 

The  Anoa,  a  ruminating  animal  about  the  size  of  a  sheep,  a  spe- 
cies of  antelope,  shy  and  savage,  goes  in  herds  in  the  mountains  of 
Celebes,  where  many  forms  of  animals  strangers  to  the  Sunda  Islands 
begin  to  appear,  as  some  sorts  of  phalangers,  or  pouched  quadrupeds. 
These  new  forms  become  more  numerous  in  the  Moluccas,  which  are 
inhabited  by  flying  phalangers  and  other  pouched  animals,  with  hair- 
less scaly  tails.  The  phalangers  are  nocturnal,  and  live  on  trees. 
In  New  Guinea  there  are  Kangaroos,  the  spotted  phalanger,  the 
New  Guinea  hog,  and  the  Papua  dog,  said  to  be  the  origin  of  all  the 
native  dogs  in  Australia  and  Oceanica,  wild  or  tame. 

The  fauna  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  analogous  to  that  in  the 
Sunda  Islands.  They  have  several  quadrupeds  in  common  with 
India  and  Ceylon,  but  there  are  others  which  probably  are  not  found 
in  these  localities. 

AFRICAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

The  opposite  extremes  of  aridity  and  moisture  in  the  African  con- 
tinent have  had  great  influence  in  the  nature  and  distribution  of  its 
animals ;  and  since  by  far  the  greater  part  consists  of  plains  utterly 
barren  or  covered  by  temporary  verdure,  and  watered  by  inconstant 
streams  that  flow  only  a  few  months  in  the  year,  fleet  animals,  fitted 
to  live  on  arid  plains,  are  far  more  abundant  than  those  that  require 
rich  vegetation  and  much  water.  The  latter  are  chiefly  confined  to 
the  intertropical  coasts,  and  especially  to  the  large  jungles  and  deep 
forests  at  the  northern  declivity  of  the  table-land,  where  several 
genera  and  many  species  exist  that  are  not  found  elsewhere.  Africa 
has  a  fauna  in  many  respects  different  from  that  of  every  other  part 
of  the  globe;  for  although  about  100  of  its  quadrupeds  are  common 
to  other  countries,  there  are  250  species  of  its  own.  Several  of 
these  animals,  especially  the  larger  kinds,  are  distributed  over  the 
whole  table-land  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hopeto  the  highlands  of 
Abyssinia  and  Senegambia  without  the  smallest  variety,  and  many 
are  slightly  modified  in  colour  and  size.  Ruminating  animals  are 
very  numerous,  though  few  have  been  domesticated :  of  these  the 
39 


458  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

ox  of  Abyssinia  and  Bornou  is  remarkable  from  the  extraordinary 
size  of  its  horns,  which  are  sometimes  2  feet  in  circumference  at  the 
root ;  and  the  Galla  ox  of  "Abyssinia  has  horns  4  feet  long.  There 
are  many  African  varieties  of  Buffalo ;  that  at  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  is  a  large,  fierce  animal,  wandering  in  herds  in  every  part  of 
the  country,  even  to  Abyssinia:  the  flesh  of  the  whole  race  is  tainted 
with  the  odour  of  musk.  The  African  sheep  and  goats,  of  which 
there  are  many  varieties,  differ  from  those  of  other  countries ;  the 
wool  of  all  is  coarse,  except  that  of  the  Merino  sheep,  said  to  have 
been  introduced  into  Spain  by  the  Moors  from  Morocco. 

No  country  has  produced  a  ruminating  animal  similar  to  the 
Giraffe,  or  Camelopard,  which  ranges  widely  over  South  Africa  from 
the  northern  banks  of  the  Gareep,  or  Orange  river,  to  the  Great 
Desert;  it  is  also  found  in  Dongolaand  in  Abyssinia.  It  is  a  gentle, 
timid  animal,  and  has  been  seen  in  troops  of  100.  The  earliest 
record  we  have  of  it  is  on  the  sculptured  monuments  of  the  ancient 
Egyptians,  and  it  is  well  known  that  it  was  brought  to  Rome  to  grace 
the  triumphs  of  a  victorious  emperor. 

Africa  may  truly  be  said  to  be  the  land  of  the  genus  Antelope, 
which  is  found  in  every  part  of  it,  where  it  represents  the  deer  of 
Europe,  Asia,  and  America.  Different  species  have  their  peculiar 
localities,  while  others  are  widely  dispersed,  sometimes  with  and 
sometimes  without  any  sensible  variety  of  size  or  colour.  The 
greater  number  are  inhabitants  of  the  plains,  while  a  few  penetrate 
into  the  forests.  Sixty  species  have  been  described,  of  which  at 
least  26  are  found  north  of  the  Colony  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope 
and  in  the  adjacent  countries.  They  are  of  every  size,  from  the 
pigmy  antelope,  not  larger  than  a  hare,  to  the  Caama,  which  is  as 
large  as  an  ox.  Timidity  is  the  universal  character  of  the  race. 
Most  species  are  gregarious ;  and  the  number  in  a  herd  is  far  too 
great  even  to  guess  at.  Like  all  animals  that  feed  in  groups,  they 
have  sentinels ;  and  they  are  the  easy  prey  of  so  many  carnivorous 
animals,  that  their  safety  requires  the  precaution.  At  the  head  of 
their  enemies  is  the  lion,  who  lurks  among  the  tall  reeds  at  the 
fountain,  to  seize  them  when  they  come  to  drink.  Th6y  are  graceful 
in  their  motions,  especially  the  Spring-Buck,  which  goes  in  a  com- 
pact troop ;  and  in  their  march  there  is  constantly  one  which  gathers 
its  slender  limbs  together,  and  bounds  into  the  air.1 

Africa  has  only  two  species  of  deer,  both  belonging  to  the  Atlas  : 
one  is  the  common  fallow-deer  of  Europe. 

The  38  species  of  rodentia,  or  gnawing  quadrupeds,  of  this  con- 

1  The  reader  will  find  an  interesting  enumeration  of  the  South  African 
antelopes  in  an  article  in  the  179th  Number  of  the  '  Quarterly  Review,' 
evidently  from  the  pen  of  a  distinguished  naturalist,  on  Mr.  Gordon  Gum- 
ming's  'Hunter's  Life  in  South  Africa.' 


CHAP.  XXXII,        AFRICAN    QUADRUPEDS.       .  459 

tinent,  live  on  the  plains,  and  many  of  them  are  leaping  animals, 
as  the  Jerboa  capensis.  Squirrels  are  comparatively  rare. 

There  are  some  species  of  the  horse  peculiar  to  South  Africa ;  of 
these  the  gaily-striped  Zebra  and  the  more  sober-coloured  Quagga 
wander  in  troops  over  the  plains,  often  in  company  with  ostriches. 
An  alliance  between  creatures  differing  in  nature  and  habits  is  not 
easily  accounted  for.  The  two-horned  rhinoceros  of  Africa  is  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  Asia ;  there  are  certainly  three,  and  probably 
five,  species  of  these  huge  animals  peculiar  to  the  table-land.  Dr. 
Smith  saw  150  in  one  day  near  the  24th  parallel  of  South  latitude. 
The  Hippopotamus  is  exclusively  African :  multitudes  inhabit  the 
lakes  and  rivers  in^he  tropical  and  southern  parts  of  the  continent; 
those  that  inhabit  the  Nile  and  Senegal  appear  to  belong  to  different 
species.  An  Elephant  differing  in  species  from  that  of  Asia  is  so 
numerous,  that  200  have  been  seen  in  a  herd  near  lake  Tchad. 
They  are  not  domesticated  in  Africa,  and  are  hunted  by  the  natives 
for  their  tusks.  The  Phacochoere,  or  Ethiopian  hog,  and  a  species 
of  Hyrax,  are  among  the  Pachydermata  of  this  country.  The 
monkey  is  found  in  all  the  hot  parts  of  Africa  :  peculiar  genera  are 
allotted  to  particular  districts.  Except  a  few  in  Asia,  the  family  of 
Guenons  is  found  in  no  part  of  the  world  but  about  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  on  or  near  the  coasts  of  Loando  and  Guinea,  where 
they  swarm. 

The  species  are  numerous,  and  vary  much  in  size  and  colours; 
the  Cynocephalus,  or  dog-headed  Baboon,  with  a  face  like  that  of  a 
dog,  is  large,  ferocious,  and  dangerous,  A  species  of  these  Baboons 
inhabits  Guinea,  others  the  southern  parts  of  the  table-land,  and 
one  is  met  with  everywhere  from  Sennaar  to  Caffraria.  A  remark- 
able long-haired  species,  the  Hamadryas,  is  found  in  the  mountains 
of  Abyssinia,  8000  feet  above  the  sea;  the  Mandrills,  which  belong 
to  the  same  genus,  come  from  the  coasts  of  Guinea.  The  magot, 
or  Barbary  ape,  is  in  North  Africa.  The  African  long-haired  tail- 
less apes,  forming  the  genus  Colobus,  are  met  with  in  the  tropical 
districts  on  the  west  coast;  the  C.  Polycomos,  or  king  of  the  mon- 
keys,, so  called  by  the  natives  from  its  beautiful  fur  and  singular 
head  of  bushy  hair,  is  met  with  in  the  forests  about  Sierra  Leone ; 
another  of  these  is  peculiar  in  the  low  lands  of  Gojam  Kulla,  and 
Damot.  The  Chimpanzee,  which  so  nearly  approaches  the  human 
form,  inhabits  the  forests  of  South- Western  Africa  from  Cape  Negro 
to  the  Gambia.  Living  in  troops,  like  most  apes  and  monkeys, 
which  are  eminently  gregarious,  it  is  very  intelligent  and  easily 
tamed.  A  new  species  of  the  African  Chimpanzee,  equalling  in 
size  the  Orang-outang,  has  been  recently  described  by  Professor 
Owen  :  it  is  probably  the  largest  of  the  quadrumana,  and  by  all  ac- 
counts the  most  dangerous  and  ferocious. 

Baron  Humboldt  observes  that  all  apes  resembling  man  have  an 


460  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXII. 

expression  of  sadness ;  that  their  gaiety  diminishes  as  their  intelli- 
gence increases. 

Africa  possesses  the  cat  tribe  in  great  variety  and  beauty ;  lions, 
leopards,  and  panthers  are  numerous  throughout  the  continent; 
servals  and  viverrine  cats  inhabit  the  torrid  districts;  and  the  lion 
of  the  Atlas  has  ever  been  considered  the  most  formidable  of  car- 
nivorous animals.  In  no  country  are  foxes  so  abundant.  Various 
species  inhabit  Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  A 
long-eared  fox,  the  Fennec,  of  Bruce,  found  from  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope  to  Kordofan,  is  peculiar  to  Africa.  There  are  also  various 
species  of  dogs,  the  hyaena,  and  the  jackal.  The  hyaenas  hunt  in 
packs,  attack  the  lion  and  panther,  and  end  by  destroying  them. 

Two  species  of  Edentata  are  African — the  long-tailed  Mania,  and 
the  Aard-vark,  or  earth-hog :  the  first  is  covered  with  scales,  the 
latter  with  coarse  long  hair ;  they  burrow  in  the  ground  and  feed  on 
ants.  Great  flocks  of  a  large  migratory  vampire-bat  frequent  the 
Slave-coast.  Altogether  there  are  26  species  of  African  bats. 

Multitudes  of  antelopes  of  various  species,  lions,  leopards,  pan- 
thers, hyaenas,  jackals,  and  some  other  carnivora,  live  in  the  oases 
of  the  great  northern  deserts ;  jerboas,  and  endless  species  of  leap- 
ing gnawers,  rats,  and  mice  burrow  in  the  ground.  The  dryness  of 
the  climate  and  soil  keeps  the  coats  of  the  animals  clean  and  glossy; 
and  it  has  been  observed  that  tawny  and  grey  tints  are  the  prevail- 
ing colours  in  the  fauna  of  the  North  African  deserts,  not  only  in 
the  birds  and  beasts,  but  in  reptiles  and  insects.  In  consequence 
of  the  continuous  desert  extending  from  North  Africa  through 
Arabia  to  Persia  and  India,  many  analogous  species  of  animals 
exist  in  those  countries :  in  some  instances  they  are  the  same,  or 
varieties  of  the  same  species,  as  the  ass,  the  dziggettai,  antelopes, 
leopards,  panthers,  jackals,  and  hyaenas. 

The  fauna  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  great  island  of  Madagascar 
is  in  some  degree  analogous  to  that  of  India ;  on  the  western  side  it 
resembles  that  of  Africa,  though,  as  far  as  it  is  known,  it  seems  to 
be  a  distinct  centre  of  animal  life.  It  has  no  ruminating  animals ; 
and  the  monkey  tribe  is  represented  by  the  Lemures,  the  Galagos, 
and  Indris,  which  are  characteristic  of  this  insular  fauna.  A  frugi- 
vorous  bat,  the  size  of  a  common  fowl,  forms  an  article  of  food ;  and 
an  anomalous  animal,  the  Cheiromys,  or  Aye-Aye,  intermediate  be- 
tween the  Quadrumana  and  the  llodents,  has  only  been  found  in  this 
island. 

AMERICAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

No  species  of  animal  has  been  yet  extirpated  in  America,  which 
is  the  richest  zoological  province,  possessing  537  species  of  mamma- 
lia, of  which  480  are  its  own ;  yet  no  country  has  contributed  so 


CHAP.  XXXII.         AMERICAN     QUADRUPEDS.  461 

little  to  the  stock  of  domestic  animals.  With  the  exception  of  the 
Llama  and  Alpaca,  and  the  Turkey,  and  perhaps  some  sheep  and 
dogs,  America  has  furnished  no  animal  or  bird  serviceable  to  man, 
while  it  has  received  from  Europe  all  its  domestic  animals  and  its 
civilized  inhabitants. 

Arctic  America  possesses  most  of  the  valuable  fur-bearing  animals 
that  are  found  in  Siberia ;  and  they  were  very  plentiful  till  the  un- 
sparing destruction  of  them  has  driven  those  yet  remaining  to  the 
high  latitudes,  where  the  hunters  that  follow  them  are  exposed  to 
great  hardships.  Nearly  2,000,000  of  skins  were  brought  to  Eng- 
land in  the  year  1835,  most  of  which  were  taken  in  the  forest  re- 
gions ;  the  barren  grounds  are  inhabited  by  the  Arctic  fox,  the  polar 
hare,  by  the  brown  and  the  white  bear,  a  formidable  animal  which 
often  lives  on  tte  ice  itself.  The  Reindeer  lives  on  the  lichens  and 
mosses  of  these  barren  grounds,  and  wanders  to  the  shores  of  the 
Polar  Ocean :  its  southern  limit  in  Europe  is  the  Baltic  Sea,  in 
America  it  is  the  latitude  of  Quebec.  Some  of  the  fur-bearing 
quadrupeds  of  these  deserts  never  pass  the  65th  degree  of  N.  lat. ; 
the  greater  number  live  in  the  northern  forests,  as  the  black  bear, 
raccoon,  badger,  the  ermine,  and  four  or  five  other  members  of  the 
weasel  tribe,  the  red  fox,  the  polar  and  brown  lynxes,  the  beaver, 
the  musquash  or  inusk-rat,  of  which  half  a  million  are  killed  annu- 
ally, and  the  moose-deer,  whose  northern  range  ends  where  the 
aspen  and  willows  cease  to  grow.  The  grizzly  bear,  the  largest  and 
most  ferocious  of  its  kind,  inhabits  the  range  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
to  Mexico,  as  well  as  the  western  savannahs.  The  prairie-wolf,  the 
grey  fox,  the  Virginian,  hare,  live  in  the  prairies;  the  Wapiti,  a 
large  stag,  inhabits  those  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Mountains; 
and  the  Prongbuck,  an  antelope  fleeter  than  the  horse,  roams 
throughout  the  western  part  of  the  continent,  and  migrates  in  winter 
to  California  and  Mexico.  The  musk-ox  and  shaggy  bison  are  pecu- 
liar to  North  America.  The  musk-ox  travels  to  Parry's  Islands  in 
the  Arctic  regions,  yet  it  never  has  been  seen  in  Greenland  or  on 
the  north-western  side  of  the  continent.  The  shaggy  bison  goes  as 
far  south  as  the  Arkansas,  and  roams,  in  herds  of  thousands,  over 
the  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  and  on  both  sides  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains. It  seldom  wanders  farther  north  than  the  60th  parallel,  the 
southern  limit  of  the  musk-ox.  A  Marmot  known  by  the  name  of 
the  Prairie-Dog  is  universal  in  the  great  plains  from  which  it  derives 
its  name. 

There  are  at  least  eight  varieties  of  American  dogs,  several  of 
which  are  natives  of  the  far  north.  The  Lagopus,  or  Isatis,  native 
in  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  is  found  in  all  the  Arctic  regions  of 
America  and  Asia,  and  in  some  of  the  Kurile  Islands.  Dogs  are 
employed  to  draw  sledges  in  Newfoundland  and  Canada;  and  the 
Esquimaux  travel  drawn  by  dogs  as  well  as  by  reindeer.  The  dogs 
39* 


462  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXII. 

are  strong  and  docile.  The  Esquimaux  dogs  were  mute  till  they 
learned  to  bark  from  dogs  in  our  discovery  ships. 

There  are  13  species  of  the  ruminating  genus  in  North  America, 
including  the  Bison,  the  Musk-ox  of  the  Arctic  regions,  the  big- 
horned  sheep,  and  the  goat  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The  horse, 
now  roaming  wild  in  innumerable  herds  over  the  plains  of  South 
America,  was  unknown  there  till  the  Spanish  conquest.  The  quad- 
rupeds of  the  temperate  zone  are  distributed  in  distinct  groups : 
those  of  the  state  of  New  York,  consisting  of  about  40  species,  are 
different  from  those  of  the  Arctic  regions,  and  also  from  those  of 
South  Carolina  and  Georgia ;  while  in  Texas  another  assemblage  of 
species  prevails.  The  Raccoon,  the  Coatimondi,  and  the  Kinkajou 
are  all  natives  of  the  southern  States. 

There  are  118  species  of  rodentia,  or  gnawing  animals,  in  North 
America;  rats,  mice,  squirrels,  beavers,  &c.,  many  of  which,  espe- 
cially in  the  north,  appear  to  be  identical  with  those  in  the  high 
latitudes  of  Europe  and  Asia.  The  genera  of  very  different  latitudes 
are  often  representatives,  but  never  identical.  Squirrels  abound  in 
North  America ;  the  grey  squirrel  is  found  in  thousands. 

There  are  21  species  of  the  genus  Opossum  in  this  continent.  Of 
these  the  Virginian  opossum  inhabits  the  whole  extent  of  America 
between  the  great  Canadian  lakes  and  Paraguay,  and  also  the  West 
India  islands,  where  it  is  called  the  Manicou ;  and  two  other  animals 
of  that  tribe  live  in  Mexico.  There  is  a  Porcupine  in  the  United 
States  and  Canadian  forests  which  climbs  trees.  The  bats  are  diffe- 
rent from  those  in  Europe,  and,  excepting  two,  are  very  local.  In 
California  there  are  Ounces,  Polecats,  Bears,  and  a  species  of  Deer 
of  remarkable  size  and  speed. 

The  high  land  of  Mexico  forms  a  very  decided  line  of  division  be- 
tween the  fauna  of  North  and  that  of  South  America;  yet  some 
North  American  animals  are  seen  beyond  it,  particularly  two  of  the 
bears  and  an  otter,  which  inhabit  the  continent  from  the  ley  Ocean 
to  beyond  Brazil.  On  the  other  hand,  the  Puma,  Jaguar,  Opossum, 
Kinkajou,  and  Peccari  have  crossed  the  barrier  from  South  America 
to  California  and  the  United  States. 

In  the  varied  and  extensive  regions  of  South  America  there  are 
several  centres  of  a  peculiar  fauna  according  as  the  country  is  moun- 
tainous or  level,  covered  with  forest  or  grass,  fertile  or  desert,  but 
the  mammalia  are  inferior  in  size  to  those  of  the  Old  World.  The 
Iffrgcst  and  most  powerful  animals  of  this  class  are  confined  to  the 
Old  Continent.  The  South  American  quadrupeds  are  on  a  smaller 
scale,  more  feeble  and  more  gentle;  many  of  them,  as  the  toothless 
groups  including  the  Sloths,  are  of  anomalous  and  less  perfect,  struc- 
ture than  the  rest  of  the  quadruped  creation ;  but  the  fauna  of  South 
America  is  so  local  and  so  peculiar,  that  the  species  of  five  of  the 
terrestrial  orders,  which  are  indigenous  there,  are  found  nowhere  else. 


CHAP.  XXXII.       AMERICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  463 

The  monkey  tribe  exist  in  myriads  in  the  forests  of  tropical  Ame- 
rica and  Brazil,  but  they  are  not  seen  to  the  north  of  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien,  nor  farther  south  than  the  Eio  de  la  Plata.  They  differ 
widely  from  those  in  the  Old  World,  bearing  less  resemblance  to  the 
human  race ;  but  they  are  more  gentle  and  lively,  and,  notwithstand- 
ing their  agility,  are  often  victims  to  birds  and  beasts  of  prey. 

There  are  two  great  American  families  of  monkeys — the  Sapajous 
with  prehensile  tails,  by  which  they  suspend  themselves,  and  swing 
from  bough  to  bough.  Some  of  these  inhabitants  of  the  woods  are 
very  noisy,  especially  the  Araguato,  a  large  ape  whose  bawling  is 
heard  a  mile  off.  The  Howlers  are  generally  very  large,  and  have 
a  wider  range  than  any  of  the  genus ;  one  species,  the  mycetus  ru- 
n'manus,  or  Beelzebub,  ascends  the  Andes  to  the  height  of  11,000 
feet.  The  Cebus,  or  weepers,  which  are  frequently  brought  to 
Europe,  belong  also  to  this  family;  the  genus  has  a  greater  number 
of  species  than  any  other  in  the  New  World,  but  a  very  narrow 
location  ;  they  are  most  abundant  in  Guiana. 

The  Saquis,  or  bushy-tailed  monkeys,  form  the  other  division  of 
the  American  monkeys.  The  fox-monkey  sleeps  during  the  day ;  it 
frequents  the  deepest  forests  from  the  Orinoco  to  Paraguay.  Squir- 
rel-monkeys inhabit  the  banks  of  the  Orinoco,  and  the  nocturnal 
monkeys,  with  very  large  eyes,  live  in  Guiana  and  Brazil.  The 
Marmosets  are  pretty  little  animals,  easily  tamed,  especially  the 
Midas  leonina,  not  more  than  7  or  8  inches  long.  Some  American 
monkeys  have  no  thumb  on  the  forefoot,  as  the  Ateles  or  Spider 
monkeys ;  others  have  a  versatile  thumb  on  both  their  hands  and 
feet ;  whilst  a  third  kind  have  no  opposable  thumb  on  any  of  their 
feet. 

The  forests  are  also  inhabited  by  Opossums,  a  genus  of  the  mar- 
supial tribe,  or  animals  with  pouches,  in  which  they  carry  their 
young ;  they  are  somewhat  analogous  to  those  which  form  the  dis- 
tinguishing feature  of  the  Australian  fauna,  but  of  entirely  distinct 
forms  and  species.  Some  of  these  animals  are  no  larger  than  a  rat, 
and  they  mostly  live  on  trees.  One  is  aquatic,  the  Chironectes,  re- 
sembling a  small  otter,  and  appears  to  be  only  found  in  the  river 
Yapock  in  French  Guiana.  A  species  in  Surinam  carries  its  young 
upon  its  back.  All  the  opossums  and  the  Chironectes  of  this  coun- 
try have  thumbs  on  their  hind  feet,  opposable  to  the  toes,  so  that 
they  can  grasp ;  they  are,  moreover,  distinguished  from  the  Austra- 
lian family  by  a  long  prehensile  tail,  and  by  greater  agility.  The 
numerous  tribe  of  Sapajou  monkeys,  the  Ant-eaters,  the  Kinkajou, 
and  a  species  of  porcupine,  have  also  grasping  tails,  a  peculiarity  of 
many  South  American  animals.. 

Five  genera  and  20  species  of  the  Edentata  are  characteristic  of 
this  continent,  aud  confined  to  South  America :  they  are  the  *wo 
species  of  sloths,  the  Ai  and  the  Unau :  several  Armadilloes,  tno 


464  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXII. 

Chlamyphorus,  and  two  Ant-eaters.  The  animals  of  these  genera 
have  very  different  habits;  the  sloths,  as  their  name  implies,  are 
the  most  inactive  of  animals  :  they  inhabit  the  forests  from  the  south- 
ern limit  of  Mexico  to  Rio  de  Janeiro,  and  to  the  height  of  3000 
feet  on  the  Andes,  in  the  region  of  Palms  and  Scitaminese.  Of 
these  the  common  sloth  or  Ai  ranges  from  Mexico  to  Brazil ;  while 
the  Unau,  the  larger  of  the  two,  is  confined  to  Guiana  and  Brazil. 
The  Armadillo,  in  its  coat  of  mail,  is  in  perpetual  motion,  and  can 
outrun  a  man  in  speed.  They  live  on  all  the  plains  of  South  Ame- 
rica, as  far  south  as  Paraguay  and  the  Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres. 
The  one-banded  armadillo  rolls  itself  up  like  a  ball ;  the  nine-banded 
species  is  eaten  by  the  natives ;  the  giant  armadillo,  3  feet  long,  in- 
habits the  forests  only.  Most  species  of  these  animals  are  noctur- 
nal, and  burrow  in  the  earth  in  the  Pampas.  The  Chlamyphorus  is 
also  a  burrowing  animal,  peculiar  to  the  province  of  Mendoza  on  the 
eastern  slope  of  the  Chilian  Andes ;  they  have  the  faculty  of  sitting 
upright.  The  great  or  maned  Ant-eater,  larger  than  a  Newfound- 
land dog,  with  shorter'legs,  defends  itself  against  the  jaguar  with  its 
powerful  claws;  it  inhabits  the  swampy  savannahs  and  damp  forests 
from  Columbia  to  Paraguay,  and  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  foot  of 
the  Andes ;  its  flesh,  like  that  of  sonxe  other  American  animals,  has 
a  flavour  of  musk.  The  little  Ant-eater  has  a  prehensile  tail,  and 
lives  on  trees  in  the  tropical  forests,  feeding  on  the  larvae  of  bees, 
wasps,  honey,  and  ants ;  another  of  similar  habits  lives  in  Brazil  and 
Guiana.  The  cat  tribe  in  South  America  is  beautiful  and  powerful : 
the  Puma,  called  the  Lion  of  America,  is  found  both  in  the  moun- 
tains and  the  plains,  in  great  numbers ;  so  different  are  its  habits  in 
different  places,  that  in  Chile  it  is  timid  and  flies  from  a  dog ;  in 
Peru  it  is  bold,  though  it  rarely  attacks  a  man.  The  Jaguar,  which 
inhabits  the  lower  forests,  is  very  abundant,  and  so  ferocious  that  it  has 
been  known  to  spring  upon  Indians  in  a  canoe;  hunting  as  it  sometimes 
does  in  troops,  it  has  been  known  to  destroy  the  inhabitants  of  entire 
Indian  villages;  it  is  one  of  the  few  South  American  animals  that 
cross  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  being  found  in  California,  in  the  State 
of  Mississippi,  and  has  been  seen  as  far  north  as  Canada;  furnish- 
ing a  remarkable  analogy,  in  its  extensive  wanderings,  with  the 
Iloyal  Tiger  of  the  Old  World,  which,  as  we  have  already  seen,  is 
often  found  amidst  the  Siberian  moxintains  and  steppes. 

The  Vampire  is  a  very  large  bat,  much  dreaded  by  the  natives, 
because  it  enters  their  huts  at  night;  and,  though  it  seldom  attacks 
human  beings,  it  wounds  calves  and  small  animals,  which  some- 
times die  from  the  loss  of  blood.  The  other  South  American  bats 
are  nnocuous. 

The  only  ruminating  animals  except  the  deer  that  existed  in 
South  America  prior  to  the  Conquest  were  the  four  species  of  the 
genus  Auchenia — the  Llama,  the  Alpaca,  the  Vicuna,  and  the  Gua- 


CHAP.  XXXII.       AMERICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  465 

naco :  the  first  three  are  exclusively  confined  to  the  colder  and  more 
elevated  regions  of  the  Peruvian  Andes ;  the  last  has  a  wider  geo- 
graphical range,  extending  to  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  and  even  to 
the  southernmost  extremity  of  the  continent.  The  Llama  inhabits 
the  high  valleys  of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes,  its  favourite  region 
being  in  the  valley  of  the  lake  of  Titicaca :  it  was  the  only  beast 
of  burthen  possessed  by  the  aborigines ;  hence  we  find  it  wherever 
the  Incas  carried  their  conquests  and  civilization,  from  the  equator 
to  far  beyond  the  southern  tropic.  It  is  still  extensively  employed 
by  the  Indian  as  a  beast  of  burthen,  and  its  wool,  .though  coarse,  is 
used  by  the  natives.  Like  all  domestic  animals,  it  varies  in  colour : 
its  flesh  is  black,  disagreeable,  and  ill  tasted. 

The  Alpaca,  or  Paco,  a  gentle  and  handsome  animal,  although 
more  closely  allied  to  the  llama  than  any  of  its  congeners,  appears 
to  be  a  distinct  species :  it  lives  in  still  more  elevated  places  than 
the  llama,  its  favourite  haunts  being  on  the  streams  descending  from 
the  snowy  peaks  :  it  is  only  found  in  a  domestic  state ;  it  is  Veared 
for  its  wool,  which  is  extremely  fine,  silky,  and  long,  and  which  now 
bears  a  high  price,  from  its  introduction  into  some  of  our  finest 
woollen  tissues.  The  Vicuna  is  only  found  in  the  wild  state  in  the 
plains  on  the  Andes,  as  high  as  15,000  feet :  the  wool  is  much 
prized  for  its  fineness.  The  animal  has  a  shrill  whistle ;  it  is  easily 
tamed.  The  Guanaco,  by  some  naturalists  considered  erroneously 
as  the  parent  stock  of  the  llama  and  alpaca,  is  also  only  found  in 
the  wild  state :  it  extends  to  12°  S.  lat.,  is  very  abundant  and  in 
large  flocks  on  the  Bolivian  and  Chilian  Andes,  and  has  been  seen 
as  far  south  as  the  Straits  of  Magellan.  All  these  animals  feed 
principally  on  a  species  of  coarse  wiry  grass  called  ichu.1 

1  The  attention  of  the  scientific  world  in  France  has  been  recently  directed 
to  the  advantages  that  might  arise  from  the  naturalization  of  the  Llama 
tribe  in  Europe,  and  especially  of  its  two  most  useful  species,  the  Llama 
and  the  Alpaca.  M.  1.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  a  French  zoologist  of  high 
standing,  ignorant  probably  of  what  had  been  done  in  Great  Britain  on  the 
same  subject,  where  the  experiment  had  long  since  been  tried,  and  with 
very  inadequate  success,  has  presented  lately  some  papers  to  the  Academy 
of  Sciences  on  this  subject.  We  cannot  imagine,  even  if  the  naturalization 
of  the  Llama  on  a  large  scale  was  possible,  what  advantage  could,  arise 
from  it  to  our  agriculturists.  The  wool  of  the  Llama  is  coarse,  and  so  in- 
finitely inferior  to  the  commonest  qualities  of  sheep's  wool,  that  in  ita 
native  country  it  is  seldom  used  for  any  other  purpose  than  the  manufac- 
ture of  ropes,  of -a  rough  carpeting  and  packing-cloth,  and  for  the  coarsest 
apparel  of  the  poor  Indian.  As  to  its  use  as  a  beast  of  burden,  whilst  the 
Llama  eats  as  much  as  the  Ass,  it  does  not  carry  more  than  a  moiety  what 
he  can,  and  cannot  travel  one  half  of  the  same  daily  distance ;  besides,  the 
female  Llama  is  useless  in  this  respect.  The  flesh  of  the  Llama,  as  above 
stated,  is  greatly  inferior  to  that  of  any  of  our  domestic  animals,  even  of 
the  Italian  buffalo. 

As  to  the  Alpaca,  it  is  very  doubtful  if,  living  as  it  does  in  an  extremely 


466  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIL 

Several  species  of  deer  are  found  in  the  tropical  regions  of  South 
America,  and  a  remarkable  species,  with  fragile  hair  like  that  of 
the  roebuck,  the  cervus  (Andium),  as  high  as  11,000  feet  in  the 
Andes. 

The  Rodentia,  or  gnawers,  of  South  America,  are  very  numerous ; 
th.ere  are  92  in  Brazil  alone  :  there  are  only  8  species  of  squirrels 
and  64  species  of  rats  and  mice,  some  of  which  are  very  peculiar. 

The  Agoutis  represent  our  hares  in  the  plains  of  Patagonia,  in 
Paraguay,  &c.,  and  extend  as  far  as  Guiana.  The  tribe  of  the 
Cavias,  or  guinea-pigs,  are  found  in  Brazil,  and  some  species  in  the 
great  table-lands  of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes;  the  Echymys,  or 
prickly  rat,  is  an  inhabitant  of  the  banks  of  the  Rio  de  la  Plata  and 
Paraguay;  the  Vizcacha  of  the  Pampas,  a  burrowing  animal,  in- 
habits the  great  plain  of  Buenos  Ayres;  an  animal  bearing  the  same 

dry,  elevated,  and  clear  atmosphere,  it  would  ever  become  accustomed  to 
the  damp  and  variable  climate  of  our  northern  latitudes,  or  to  that  of  the 
great  European  chains  of  mountains,  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees,  and  if  it 
did,  that  its  wool  would  not  be  greatly  deteriorated.  The  Vicuna  is  purely 
a  wild  species,  and  has  hitherto  resisted  all  the  efforts  of  the  aborigines, 
the  most  patient  and  docile  of  the  human  race,  to  render  it  prolific,  when 
domesticated  in  its  native  country. 

It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  domestication  of  the  several  species  of 
Auchenia  in  Europe  would  be  a  costly  and  useless  experiment,  on  the  large 
scale  on  which  it  is  proposed  to  try  it ;  this  will  appear  evident  when  it  is 
known  that  in  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes  the  llama  and  alpaca  are  daily  -dis- 
appearing to  make  room  for  the  more  useful  and  profitable  breed  of  the 
common  European  sheep,  whilst,  as  a  beast  of  burden,  the  ass  is  every- 
where supplanting  it :  indeed  the  experiments  recently  made  on  a  large 
scale  and  at  considerable  expense  by  the  French  Government  have  proved 
a  complete  failure. 

Connected  with  this  subject,  a  very  singular  fact,  and,  if  well  established, 
a  very  curious  one,  has  been  announced  by  M.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire,  on  the 
authority  of  our  countryman,  Dr.  Weddell,  recently  returned  from  South 
America — that  a  cross-breed  between  the  Alpaca  and  the  Vicuna  had  been 
obtained  at  Macusani,  a  village  in  the  Andes  south  of  Cusco,  in  Peru ;  and 
that  the  mules  from  this  cross-breed  were  capable  of  reproducing  this 
newly  created  species  unaltered,  the  wool  of  which  is  represented  to  be  of 
a  very  valuable  quality.  Now,  if  there  exists  in  zoological  science  a  fact 
clearly  established,  it  is  this :  that  within  historical  periods  no  new  species 
of  vertebrate  animal  has  been  created  —  the  great  zoological  law  of  the 
immutability  of  species.  The  remains  of  the  several  wild  animals  which 
have  been  buried  for  more  than  30  centuries  in  the  catacombs  of  Egypt, 
and  in  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  are  perfectly  identical  with  those  now  exist- 
ing in  the  most  minute  details  of  their  anatomical  structure.  We  have 
examined,  in  the  case  referred  to,  the  evidence  adduced  by  Dr.  Weddell 
and  adopted  by  M.  Geoffrey  St.  Hilaire  in  support  of  this  doctrine,  a 
favourite  one  of  his,  and  we  do  not  consider  it  sufficient  to,  shake  the  con- 
clusion arrived  at  by  all-  the  great  zoologists  of  past  times,  and  by  the 
Cuviers,  the  HumboldtSv,  and  the  Owens  of  our  own  period,  as  to  the  im- 
possibility of  the  production  of  a  new  species  of  animals  by  domestication, 
or  the  creation  of  new  species  in  the  animal  creation. 


CHAP.  XXXII.       AMERICAN    QUADRUPEDS.  467 

name,  but  of  a  very  different  species,  is  frequent  in  the  rocky  dis- 
tricts of  the  Andes,  as  high  as  15,000  feet  above  the  sea;  and  the 
beautiful  Chinchilla,  nearly  allied  to  the  latter,  whose  fur  is  so 
highly  esteemed,  inhabits  the  same  regions,  at  the  same  great  eleva- 
tions, in  the  Andes  of  South  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Chile  :  the  best  fur 
of  the  chinchilla  is  collected  in  the  Bolivian  province  of  Potosi,  and 
in  the  Chilian  province  of  Copiapo.  The  largest  of  all  the  rodentia, 
the  Cabiai  (Myopotamus),  inhabits  the  banks  of  the  great  rivers  of 
tropical  America,  where  its  habits  resemble,  according  to  some  tra- 
vellers, those  of  the  hippopotamus.  The  Paca,  the  next  in  size,  is 
less  aquatic  in  its  habits,  and  lives  in  the  dense  forests  of  Brazil  and 
Paraguay. 

It  is  very  remarkable  that,  in  a  country  which  has  the  most  lux- 
uriant vegetation,  there  should  not  be  one  native  species  of  hollow- 
horned  ruminants,  as  the  ox,  sheep,  goat,  or  antelope ;  and  it  is  still 
more  extraordinary  that  the  existing  animals  of  South  America, 
which  are  so  nearly  allied  to  the  extinct  inhabitants  of  the  same 
soil,  should  be  so  inferior  in  size  not  only  to  them,  but  even  to  the 
living  quadrupeds  of  South  Africa,  which  is  comparatively  a  desert 
as  regards  its  vegetation.  The  quantity  of  vegetation  in  Britain  at 
any  one  time  exceeds  the  quantity  on  an  equal  area  in  the  interior 
of  Africa  very  considerably ;  yet  Mr.  Darwin  has  computed  that  the 
weight  of  10  of  the  largest  South  African  quadrupeds  is  24  times 
greater  than  that  of  the  same  number  of  quadrupeds  of  South  Ame- 
rica; for  in  South  America  there  is  no  animal  the  size  of  a  cow,  so 
that  there  is  no  relation  between  the  bulk  of  the  species  and  the 
vegetation  of  the  countries  they  inhabit. 

The  largest  animals  indigenous  in  the  West  Indian  islands  are  the 
Agouti,  the  Racoon,  the  Houtias,  a  native  of  the  forests  of  Cuba; 
the  Didelphous  carnivora  and  the  Kinkajou  are  common  to  them 
and  to  the  continent:  the  Kinkajou  is  a  solitary  instance  of  a  car- 
nivorous animal  with  a  prehensile  tail. 


AUSTRALIAN  QUADRUPEDS. 

Australia  is  not  farther  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  world  by 
geographical  position  than  by  its  productions.  Its  animals  are  crea- 
tures apart,  of  an  entirely  unusual  type;  few  in  species,  and  still 
fewer  individually,  if  the  vast  extent  of  country  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration; and  there  has  not  been  one  large  animal  discovered 
There  are  only  53  species  of  land  quadrupeds  in  Australia,  and 
there  is  not  a  single  example  of  the  ruminating  or  pachydermatous 
animals,  so  useful  to  man,  among  them.  There  are  no  native  horses, 
oxen,  or  sheep;  yet  all  these  thrive  and  multiply  on  the  grassy 
steppes  of  the  country,  which  seem  to  be  so  well  suited  to  them. 


468  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXII. 

There  are  none  of  the  monkey  tribe ;  indeed,  they  could  not  exist 
in  a  country  where  there  is  scarcely  any  fruit. 

Of  the  species  of  indigenous  quadrupeds,  40  are  found  nowhere 
else,  and  by  far  the  greater  number  are  marsupial,  or  pouched  ani- 
mals, distinguished  from  all  others  by  their  young  being  as  it  were 
prematurely  born  and  nourished  in  the  pouch  till  they  are  able  to 
fare  for  themselves.1  Though  all  the  members  of  this  numerous 
family  agree  in  this  circumstance,  they  are  dissimilar  in  appearance, 
internal  structure,  in  their  teeth  and  feet,  consequently  in  their 
habits;  two  genera  live  on  vegetable  food,  one  set  are  gnawers,  and 
another  toothless.  The  Kangaroo  and  the  Kangaroo-rat  walk  on 
their  hind  legs,  and  go  by  bounds,  springing  from  their  strong  tail ; 
the  kangaroo-rat  holds  its  food  in  its  paws  like  the  squirrel ;  the 
phalangers  live  on  trees,  and  swing  by  their  bushy  tail — some  bur- 
row in  the  sand ;  the  flying  opossum,  or  Petaurus,  peculiarly  an 
Australian  animal,  lives  at  the  foot  of  the  Blue  Mountains,  on  the 
leaves  of  the  Grum-tree ;  by  expanding  the  skin  of  its  sides  as  a 
parachute,  it  supports  itself  in  the  air  in  its  leaps  from  bough  to 
bough.  Several  of  the  genera  are  nocturnal,  a  characteristic  of 
many  Australian  animals. 

The  pouched  tribe  vary  in  size  from  that  of  a  large  dog  to  a 
mouse  ;  the  kangaroos,  which  are  the  largest,  are  easily  domesticated, 
and  are  used  for  food  by  the  natives.  Some  go  in  large  herds  in  the 
mountains,  others  live  in  the  plains;  however,  they  have  become 
scarce  near  the  British  colonies,  and,  with  all  other  native  animals, 
are  likely  to  be  soon  extirpated.  In  Van  Diemen's  Land  they  are 
less  persecuted;  several  species  exist  there.  The  kangaroos,  of 
which  there  are  perhaps  40  species,  are  more  widely  dispersed  than 
any  of  the  marsupial  animals  of  the  Old  World.  They  exist  not 
only  in  Australia  and  Tasmania,  but  also  in  New  Guinea.  Some 
are  limited  within  narrow  bounds :  the  banded  kangaroo,  the  hand- 
somest of  his  tribe,  is  found  only  in  the  islands  of  Shark  s  Bay,  on 
the  west  coast  of  Australia.  The  Wombat  is  peculiar  to  Australia, 
the  islands  in  Bass's  Strait,  and  Van  Diemen's  Land ;  to  which  the 
two  largest  carnivorous  marsupials  peculiarly  belong,  called  by  the 
natives  the  Tiger  Hyaena,  and  the  native  Devil;  both  are  nocturnal, 
predatory,  and  ferocious.  A  wild  dog  living  in  the  woods,  whose 
habits  are  ferocious,  is,  with  the  tiger  hyaena,  the  largest  carnivorous 
animal  in  Australia. 

The  gnawing  animals  are  aquatic  and  very  peculiar,  but  the  Eden- 

1  There  are  5  tribes,  15  genera,  and  nearly  150  species  of  living  marsu- 
pial animals,  amounting  to  about  one-twelfth  of  all  the  mammalia.  The 
Opossum  and  Chironectes  are  American ;  the  four  other  families  are  in- 
habitants of  Australia  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Of  the  latter  the 
Dasyuridse  and  Phalangers  are  nocturnal :  some  of  the  Dasyuridae  and  the 
Wombat  burrow  in  the  ground. 


CHAP.  XXXII.  AUSTRALIAN    QUADRUPEDS. 

tata  of  New  Holland  are  quite  anomalous ;  of  these  there  are  two 
genera,  the  Ornithorhynchus,  or  duck-billed  rnole,  and  the  Echidna; 
they  are  the  link  that  connects  the  Edentata  with  the  pouched  tribe, 
and  mammalia  with  oviparous  animals.  The  Ornithorhynchus  is 
about  14  inches  long,  and  covered  with  thick  brown  fur ;  its  head  is 
similar  to  that  of  a  quadruped,  ending  in  a  bill  like  that  of  a  duck : 
it  has  short  furry  legs  with  half-webbed  feet,  and  the  hind  feet  are 
armed  with  sharp  claws.  It  inhabits  burrows  on  the  banks  of 
rivers,  which  have  two  entrances,  one  above,  the  other  below  the 
level  of  the  water,  which  it  seldom  leaves,  feeding  on  insects  and 
seeds  in  the  mud. 

The  Echidna  is  similar  in  its  general  structure  to  the  Ornithorhyn- 
chus, but  entirely  different  in  external  appearance,  being  covered 
with  quills  like  the  porcupine ;  it  is  also  a  burrowing  animal,  sleeps 
during  winter,  and  lives  on  ants  in  summer. 

A  singular  analogy  exists  between  Australia  and  South  America 
in  this  respect,  that  the  living  animals  of  the  two  countries  are 
stamped  with  the  type  of  their  ancient  geological  inhabitants,  many 
of  which  are  gigantic  representatives  of  the  now  diminutive,  in  com- 
parison, existing  animals;  while  in  England  and  elsewhere  the  diffe- 
rence between  the  existing  and  extinct  generations  of  beings  is  most 
decided.  Australia  and  South  America  seem  still  to  retain  some  of 
those  conditions  that  were  peculiar  to  the  most  ancient  eras.  Thus 
each  tribe  of  the  innumerable  families  that  inhabit  the  earth,  the  air, 
and  the  waters,  has  a  limited  sphere.  How  wonderful  the  quantity 
of  life  that  now  is,  and  the  myriads  of  beings  that  have  appeared 
and  vanished  !'  Dust  has  returned  to  dust  through  a  long  succes- 
sion of  ages,  and  has  been  continually  remoulded  into  new  forms  of 
existence — not  an  atom  has  been  annihilated ;  the  fate  of  the  vital 
spark  that  has  animated  it,  with  a  vividness  sometimes  approaching 
to  reason,  is  one  of  the  deep  mysteries  of  Providence. 

1  Sir  Charles  Lyell  estimates  the  number  of  existing  species  of  animals 
and  vegetables,  independent  of  the  infusoria,  to  be  between  one  and  two 
millions,  which  must  surely  be  under  the  mark,  considering  the  enormous 
quantity  of  animal  life  in  the  ocean,  to  the  amount  of  which  we  have  not 
even  an  approximation.  If  the  microscopic  and  infusorial  existence  be 
taken  into  the  account,  the  surface  of  the  globe  may  be  viewed  as  one  mass 
of  animal  life — perpetually  dying — perpetually  renewed.  A  drop  of  stag- 
nant water  is  a  world  within  itself,  an  epitome  of  the  earth  and  its  succes- 
sive geological  races.  A  variety  of  microscopic  creatures  appear,  and  die ; 
in  a  few  days  a  new  set  succeeds ;  these  vanish  and  give  place  to  a  third 
set,  of  different  kinds  from  the  preceding ;  and  the  debris  of  all  remain  at 
the  bottom  of  the  glass.  The  extinction  of  these  creatures  takes  place 
without  any  apparent  cause,  unless  a  greater  degree  of  putrescence  of  the 
water  be  to  them  what  the  mighty  geological  catastrophes  were  to  beings  of 
higher  organization — the  introduction  of  the  new  is  not  more  mysterious  in 
one  case  than  in  the  other. 

40 


470  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXIII. 


CHAPTER  XXXIII. 

The  Distribution,  Condition,  and  future  Prospects  of  the  Human  Race. 

MORE  than  800,000,000  of  human  beings  are  scattered  over  the 
face  of  the  earth,  of  all  nations  and  kindreds  and  tongues,  and  in  all 
stages  of  civilization,  from  a  high  state  of  moral  and  intellectual  cul- 
ture, to  savages  but  little  above  the  animals  that  contend  with  them 
for  the  dominion  of  the  deserts  and  forests  through  which  they  roam. 
This  vast  multitude  is  divided  into  nations  and  tribes,  differing  in 
external  appearance,  character,  language,  and  religion.     The  manner 
in  which  they  are  distributed,  the  affinities  of  structure  and  language 
by  which  they  are  connected,  and  the  effect  that  climate,  food,  and 
customs  may  have  had  in  modifying  their  external  forms,  or  their 
moral  and  mental  powers,  are  subjects  of  much  more  difficulty  than 
the  geographical  dispersion  of  the  lower  classes  of  animals,  inasmuch 
as  the  immortal  spirit  is  the  chief  agent  in  all  that  concerns  the 
human  race.     The  progress  of  the  universal  mind  in  past  ages,  its 
present  condition,  and  the  future  prospects  of  humanity,  rouse  the 
deep  sympathies  of  our  nature  for  the  high  but  mysterious  destiny  of 
the  myriads  of  beings  yet  to  come,  who,  like  ourselves,  will  be  sub- 
ject for  a  few  brief  years  to  the  joys  and  sorrows  of  this  transient 
state,  and  fellow-heirs  of  eternal  life  hereafter. 

[The  population  of  the  globe  has  been  stated  as  follows,  and  is 
considered  sufficiently  accurate  for  comparison  : 

Caucasians  .......................................................  419,530,000 

Mongolians  ......................................................  406,470,700 

Malays  ............................................................     32,500,000 

Ethiopians  or  negro  race  .....................................     69,633,300 

American  or  copper-coloured  ...............................    10,287,000 

938,421,000 

They  are  classed  and  enumerated  according  to  their  religious 
belief,  as  follows  : 

Pagans  ............................................................  561,821,000 

Christians  .........................................................  252,565,000 

Mohammedans  ..................................................  120,165,000 

Jews  ...............................................................       3,930,000 


Sectarian  divisions  have  been  stated  as  follows  : 

Roman  Catholics  ...............................................  134,732,000 

Greek  Church  ...................................................    56,011,000 

Protestants  ......................................................    55,791,000 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  HUMAN    RACES.  471 

Monophysites 3,865,000 

Armenians 1,799,000 

Nestorians 367,000 

Christians 252,565,000 

Protestant  Sects. 

Lutherans 24,264,000 

Presbyterians  and  Congregationalists 12,760,000 

Episcopalians 14,905,000 

Methodists,  Baptists,  &c 3,862.000 

65,791,000 

According  to  the  above  statements,  only  a  little  more  than  one- 
fourth  of  the  entire  human  population  of  the  earth  is  under  Chris- 
tian rule.] 

Notwithstanding  the  extreme  diversity,  physical  and  mental,  in 
the  diiferent  races  of  men,  anatomists  have  found  that  there  are  no 
specific  differences — that  the  hideous  Esquimaux,  the  refined  and 
intellectual  Caucasian,  the  thick-lipped  Negro,  and  the  fair  blue-eyed 
Scandinavian,  are  mere  varieties  of  the  same  species.  The  human 
race  forms  five  great  varieties  marked  by  strong  distinctive  charac- 
ters. Many  nations  are  included  in  each ;  distinguished  from  one 
another  by  different  languages,  manners,  and  mental  qualities,  yet 
bearing  such  a  resemblance  in  general  physiognomy  and  appearance 
as  to  justify  a  classification  apparently  anomalous. 

The  Caucasian  group  of  nations,  which  includes  the  handsomest 
and  most  intellectual  portion  of  mankind,  inhabit  all  Europe,  except 
Lapland,  Finland,  and  Hungary;  they  occupy  North  Africa,  as  far 
as  the  20th  parallel  of  north  latitude,  Arabia,  Asia  Minor,  Persia, 
the  Himalaya  to  the  Brahmapootra,  all  India  between  these  moun- 
tains and  the  ocean,  and  the  United  States  of  North  America. 
These  nations  are  remarkable  for  a  beautifully-shaped  head,  regular 
features,  fine  hair,  and  symmetrical  form.  The  Greeks,  Georgians, 
and  Circassians  are  models  of  perfection  in  form,  especially  the  last, 
which  is  assumed  as  the  type  of  this  class  of  mankind;  of  which  it 
is  evident  that  colour  is  not  a  characteristic,  since  they  are  of  all 
shades,  from  the  fair  and  florid,  to  the  clear  dark  brown  and  almost 
black.  This  family  of  nations  has  always  been,  and  still  is,  the  most 
civilized  portion  of  the  human  race.  The  inhabitants  of  Hindostan, 
the  Egyptians,  Arabians,  Greeks,  and  Romans,  were  in  ancient  times 
what  European  nations  are  now.  The  cause  of  this  remarkable 
development  of  mental  power  is,  no  doubt,  natural  disposition,  for 
the  difference  in  the  capabilities  of  nations  seems  to  be  as  great  as 
that  of  individuals.  The  origin  of  spontaneous  civilization  and  supe- 
riority may  generally  be  traced  to  the  talent  of  some  master-spirit 
gaining  an  ascendency  over  his  countrymen.  Natural  causes  have 
also  combined  with  mental — mildness  of  climate,  fertility  of  soil ; 


472  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXITT. 

rivers  and  inland  seas,  by  affording  facility  of  intercourse,  favoured 
enterprise  and  commerce;  and  the  double-river  systems  in  Asia 
brought  distant  nations  together,  and  softened  those  hostile  antipa- 
thies which  separate  people,  multiply  languages,  and  reduce  all  to 
barbarism.  The  genius  of  this  family  of  nations  has  led  them  to 
profit  by  these  natural  advantages ;  whereas  the  American  Indians 
are  at  this  day  wandering  as  barbarous  hordes  in  one  of  the  finest 
countries  in  the  world.  An  original  .similarity  or  even  identity  of 
many  spoken  languages  maybe  adverted  to  as  facilitating  communi- 
cation and  mental  improvement  among  the  Caucasian  variety  in  very 
ancient  times. 

The  Mongol-Tartar  family  forms  the  second  group  of  nations. 
They  occupy  all  Asia  north  of  the  Persian  table-land  and  of  the 
Himalaya;  the  whole  of  eastern  Asia  from  the  Brahmapootra  to 
Behring's  Straits,  together  with  the  Arctic  regions  of  America  north 
of  Labrador.  This  family  includes  the  Tourkomans,  Mongol  and 
Tartar  tribes,  the  Chinese,  Indo-Chinese,  Japanese,  the  Esquimaux, 
and  the  Hungarians,  now  located  in  the  very  heart  of  Europe. 
These  nations  are  distingnished  by  broad  skulls  and  high  cheek- 
bones, small  black  eyes  obliquely  set,  long  black  hair,  and  a  yellow 
or  sallow  olive  complexion;  some  are  good-looking,  and  many  are 
well-made.  A  portion  of  this  family  is  capable  of  high  culture, 
especially  the  Chinese,  the  most  civilized  nation  of  eastern  Asia, 
although  they  never  have  attained  the  excellence  of  the  Caucasian 
group,  probably  from  their  exclusive  social  system,  which  has  sepa- 
rated them  from  the  rest  of  mankind,  and  kept  them  stationary  for 
ages;  the  peculiarity  and  difficulty  of  their  language  have  also 
tended  to  insulate  them.  The  Kalmuks,  who  lead  a  pastoral  wan- 
dering life  on  the  steppes  of  central  Asia,  and  the  Esquimaux,  have 
wider  domains  than  any  other  of  this  set  of  nations.  The  Kalmuks 
are  rather  a  handsome  people,  and,  like  all  who  lead  a  savage  life, 
have  acute  senses  of  seeing  and  hearing.  The  inhabitants  of  Fin- 
land and  Lapland  are  nearly  allied  to  the  Esquimaux,  who  are  spread 
over  all  the  high  latitudes  of  both  continents — a  diminutive  race, 
equally  ugly  in  face  and  form. 

Malayan  nations  occupy  the  Indian  Archipelago,  New  Zealand, 
Chatham  Island,  the  Society  group,  and  several  others  of  the  Poly- 
nesian islands,  together  with  the  Philippines  and  Formosa,  Min- 
danao, Gilolo,  the  high  lands  of  Borneo,  Sumbawa,  Timor,  New 
Ireland,  New  Guinea,  the  continents  of  Australia  and  Tasmania. 
The  Australians  and  the  Papuans,  who  inhabit  some  of  these  islands, 
are  the  most  degraded  perhaps  of  mankind.  They  are  very  dark, 
with  lank  coarse  black  hair,  flat  faces,  and  obliquely  set  eyes.  En- 
dowed with  great  activity  and  ingenuity,  they  are  mild  and  gentle, 
and  far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  social  life,  in  some  places;  in  others, 
ferocious  and  vindictive,  daring  and  predatory ;  and  from  their  mari- 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  HUMAN    RACES.  478 

time  position  and  skill,  they  are  a  migratory  race.  Several  branches 
of  this  class  of  nations  had  a  very  early  indigenous  civilization,  with 
an  original  literature  in  peculiar  characters  of  their  own. 

The  Ethiopian  nations  are  widely  dispersed ;  they  occupy  all  Af- 
rica south  of  the  Great  Desert — half  of  Madagascar.  The  distin- 
guishing characters  of  this  group  are,  a  black  complexion,  black 
woolly  or  frizzled  hair,1  thick  lips,  projecting  jaws,  high  cheek-bones, 
and  large  prominent  eyes.  A  great  variety,  however,  exists  in  this 
jetty  race :  some  are  handsome  both  in  face  and  figure,  especially 
in  Ethiopia;  and  even  in  western  Africa,  where  the  Negro  tribes 
live,  there  are  groups  in  which  the  distinctive  characters  are  less 
exaggerated.  This  great  family  has  not  yet  attained  a  high  place 
among  nations,  though  by  no  means  incapable  of  cultivation ;  part 
of  Ethiopia  appears  to  have  made  considerable  progress  in  civiliza- 
tion in  very  ancient  times.  But  the  formidable  deserts,  so  extensive 
in  some  parts  of  the  continent,  and  the  unwholesome  climates  in 
others,  have  cut  off  intercourse  with  civilized  nations ;  and  unfortu- 
nately, the  infamous  traffic  in  slaves,  to  the  disgrace  of  Christianity, 
has  made  the  nations  of  tropical  Africa  more  barbarous  than  they 
were  before :  while,  on  the  contrary,  the  Foulahs  and  other  tribes 
who  were  converts  to  Mahommedanisn^  400  years  ago,  have  now 
large  commercial  towns,  cultivated  grounds,  and  schools. 

The  American  race,  who  occupy  the  whole  of  that  continent  from 
62°  N.  lat.  io  the  Straits  of  Magellan,  are  almost  all  of  a  reddish 
brown  or  copper  colour,  with  long  black  hair,  deep-set  black  eyes, 
aquiline  nose,  and  often  of  handsome  slender  forms.  In  North 
America  they  live  by  hunting,  are  averse  to  agriculture,  slow  in  ac- 
quiring knowledge,  but  extremely  acute,  brave,  and  fond  of  war, 
and,  though  revengeful,  are  capable  of  generosity  and  gratitude. 
In  South  America  many  are  half-civilized,  but  a  greater  number  are 
still  in  a  state  of  complete  barbarism.  In  a  family  so  widely  scat- 
tered great  diversity  of  character  prevails,  yet  throughout  .the  whole 
there  is  a  similarity  of  manners  and  habits  which  has  resisted  all 
the  effects  of  time  and  climate. 

Each  of  these  five  groups  of  nations,  spread  over  vast  regions,  is 
accounted  one  family;  and  if  they  are  so  by  physical  structure, 
they  are  still  more  so  by  language,  which  expresses  the  universal 
mind  of  a  people,  modified  by  external  circumstances,  of  which  none 
have  a  greater  influence  than  the  geographical  features  of  the  coun- 
try they  inhabit — an  influence  that  is  deepest  in  the  early  stages  of 
society.  The  remnants  of  ancient  poetry  in  the  south  of  Scotland 

1  Wool  is  peculiar  to  quadrupeds,  the  hair  of  the  negro  only  resembles 
it.  Both  hair  and  wool  [are  solid  cylinders,  which]  consist  of  a  transpa- 
rent tube  or  sheath  containing  a  white  or  coloured  pith,  but  the  sheath  of 
hair  is  smooth,  whilst  that  of  wool  is  notched,  which  gives  it  the  felting 
property. 

40* 


474  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIII. 

partake  of  the  gentle  and  pastoral  character  of  the  country ;  while 
Celtic  verse,  and  even  the  spoken  language  of  the  Highlander,  are 
full  of  poetical  images  of  war  and  stern  mountain  scenery.  This  is 
particularly  to  be  observed  in  the  noble  strains  of  Homer,  and  in 
the  heroic  poems  of  the  early  Hindus,  which  reflect  the  lofty  and 
sublime  character  of  eastern  scenery.1  As  civilization  advances,  and 
man  becomes  more  intellectual,  language  keeps  pace  in  the  progress. 
New  words  and  new  expressions  are  added,  as  new  ideas  occur  and 
new  things  are  invented,  till  at  last  language  itself  becomes  a  study, 
is  refined  and  perfected  by  the  introduction  of  general  terms.  The 
improvement  in  language  and  the  development  of  the  mind  have 
been  the  same  in  all  nations  which  have  arrived  at  any  degree  of 
refinement,  and  shows  the  identity  of  human  nature  in  every  country 
and  climate.  The  art  of  printing  perpetuates  a  tongue,  and  great 
authors  immortalize  it ;  yet  language  is  ever  changing  to  a  certain 
degree,  though  it  never  loses  traces  of  its  origin.  Chaucer  and 
Spenser  have  become  obscure ;  Shakspeare  requires  a  glossary  for 
the  modern  reader;  and  in  the  few  years  that  the  United  States  of 
America  have  existed  as  an  independent  nation,  the  colloquial  lan- 
guage has  deviated  from  the  mother  tongue.  When  a  nation  de- 
generates, it  is  split  by  jealousy  and  war  into  tribes,  each  of  which 
in  process  of  time  acquires  a  peculiar  idiom,  and  thus  the  number 
of  dialects  is  increased,  though  they  still  retain  a  similarity ;  whereas 
when  masses  of  mankind  are  united  into  great  political  bodies,  their 
languages  by  degrees  assimilate  to  one  common  tongue,  which  re- 
tains traces  of  all  to  the  latest  ages.  The  form  of  the  dialects  now 
spoken  by  some  savage  tribes,  as  the  North  American  Indians,  bears 
the  marks  of  a  once  higher  state  of  civilization. 

More  than  2000  languages  are  spoken,  but  few  are  independent ; 
some  are  connected  by  words  having  the  same  meaning,  some  by 
grammatical  structure,  others  by  both ;  indeed  the  permanency  of 
language  ip  so  great,  that  neither  ages  of  conquest,  nor  mixing  with 
other  nations,  have  obliterated  the  native  idiom  of  a  people.  The 
French,  Spanish,  and  German  retain  traces  of  the  common  language 
spoken  before  the  Roman  conquest,  and  the  Celtic  tongue  still  exists 
in  the  British  Islands. 

.  By  a  comparison  of  their  dialects,  nations  far  apart,  and  differing 
in  every  other  respect,  are  discovered  to  have  sprung  from  a  com- 
mon, though  remote  origin.  Thus  all  the  numerous  languages 
spoken  by  the  American  Indians,  or  red  men,  are  similar  in  gram- 
matical structure  :  an  intimate  analogy  exists  in  the  languages  of  the 
Esquimaux  nations  who  inhabit  the  arctic  regions  of  both  continents. 

'  Valmiki,  the  Hindu  poet,  is  supposed  to  have  been  contemporary  with 
Homer,  if  not  his  predecessor:  his  great  work  is  the  '  Ramayana,'  an  he- 
roic poem  of  the  highest  order,  four  cantos  of  which  have  been  translated 
by  Gaspare  Corresio,  an  Italian,  in  1843. 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  HUMANRACES.  4/5 

Dialects  of  one  tongue  are  spoken  throughout  North  Africa,  as  far 
south  as  the  oasis  of  Siwah  on  the  east,  and  the  Canary  Islands  on 
the  west.  Another  group  of  cognate  idioms  is  common  to  the  in- 
habitants of  Equatorial  Africa,  while  all  the  southern  part  of  the 
continent  is  inhabited  by  people  whose  languages  are  connected. 
The  monosyllabic  speech  of  the  Chinese  and  Indo-Chinese  shows 
that  they  are  the  same  people ;  and  all  the  insular  nations  of  the 
Pacific  derived  their  dialects  from  some  tribes  on  the  continent  of 
India  and  the  Indian  Archipelago.  Cognate  tongues  are  spoken  by 
the  Tartars,  Mandtchoux,  Fins,  Laplanders,  many  of  the  Siberian 
nations,  and  by  the  Hungarians.  The  Syro-Arabian,  or  Semitic  lan- 
guages, as  the  Chaldee,  Arabic,  and  Hebrew,  are  evidently,  from 
their  grammatical  construction,  of  the  same  origin. 

The  Persian,  Greek,  Latin,  German,  and  Celtic  tongues  are  con- 
nected by  grammatical  structure,  and  words  expressive  of  the  same 
objects  and  feelings,  with  the  Sanscrit,  or  sacred  language  of  India  j 
consequently  the  nations  inhabiting  that  vast  extent  of  country  from 
the  mouths  of  the  Ganges  to  the  British  Isles,  the  coast  of  Scandi- 
navia and  Iceland,  must  have  had  the  same  origin.  "  The  words 
that  fall  thoughtlessly  from  our  lips  in  the  daily  vocations  of  life  are 
no  idle  sounds,  but  magic  symbols  which  preserve  for  ever  the  first 
migrations, of  the  race,  and  whose  antiquity  makes  Greece  and  Rome 
appear  but  of  yesterday."  ' 

1  The  words  which  one  nation  burrows  from  another  do  not  prove  an  ori- 
ginal connection:  it  is  the  "home-bred  speech,"  the  words  which  children 
learn  in  early  infancy,  that  show  a  common  origin,  such  as  those  of  near 
relationship,  of  first  necessity,  as  to  eat,  sleep,  walk,  &c.,  the  names  of  the 
most  ordinary  natural  objects,  the  numerals,  &c.  Tribes  or  families  of 
nations  long  separated  have  preserved  such  words  for  thousands  of  years, 
with  a  purity  that  makes  them  easily  to  be  recognized  as  having  sprung 
from  a  common,  stock.  However,  nothing  can  be  inferred  from  a  coinci- 
dence in  the  meaning  of  one  or  two  words  common  to  two  languages,  but 
Dr.  Thomas  Young  has  computed  that  if  three  words  were  identical  in  two 
languages,  the  odds  would  be  more  than  ten  to  one,  that  in  both  cases  they 
must  have  been  derived  from  a  common  parent  tongue ;  that  for  six  words 
the  chances  would  be  1700  to  1,  and  for  eight  words  in  common  100,000  to 
1 ;  so  that  in  the  two  latter  cases  the  evidence  would  be  little  short  of  cer- 
tainty that  the  languages  in  question,  and  consequently  the  natives  who 
speak  them,  had  a  common  origin. 

But  according  to  the  best  and  more  learned  school  of  modern  ethnogra- 
phers, the  affinity  of  languages  is  not  so  much  to  be  looked  for  in  the  coin- 
cidence of  words  as  in  the  grammatical  structure,  which  is  also  of  remark- 
able permanency.  A  similar  inflexion  of  nouns  and  form  of  roots  prevail 
trough  whole  groups  or  classes  of  languages  which  have  few  words  in  com- 
mon, the  words,  as  Klaproth  justly  remarks,  being  the  material  of  lan- 
guages, grammar  the  fashioning  or  formation  of  it.  The  Syro-Chaldaic, 
Hebrew,  Arabic,  and  Abyssinian  afford  a  striking  example  of  identity  in 
grammatical  structure.  In  the  languages  the  tenses  of  the  verbs  are  formed 
from  the  third  person,  of  the  preterite,  and  in  most  cases  the  roots  of  the 


476  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXXIII. 

The  number  of  languages  spoken  from  the  Ganges  to  Scandinavia, 
differing  so  widely  from  one  another,  is  a  proof  of  the  strength  of 
individual  character  in  nations,  which  can  so  powerfully  impress  its 
peculiarities  on  the  same  mother  tongue.  In  fact  every  nation,  as 
well  as  every  individual,  has  its  own  physical,  moral,  and  intellectual 
organization,  which  influences  its  language  and  its  whole  existence. 

In  the  Indo-European  nations,  which  have  been  dominant  for  ages, 
civilization  has  been  progressive,  though  not  without  interruptions. 
Providence  has  endowed  these  nations  with  the  richest  and  most  or- 
namental gifts.  Imagination  has  been  liberally  granted,  and  em- 
bodied in  all  that  is  sublime  and  beautiful  in  architecture,  sculpture, 
painting,  and  poetry.  In  strength  of  intellect  and  speculation,  in 
philosophy,  science,  laws,  and  the  political  principles  of  society,  they 
have  been  pre-eminent. 

The  prevailing  races  of  mankind  now  inhabiting  Europe  are  the 
Teutonic,  Celtic,  and  Sclavonian.  In  the  greater  part  of  the  conti- 
nent these  races  are  mixed,  but  the  blood  is  purely  Teutonic  through- 
out Iceland,  Scandinavia,  round  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  in  Denmark, 
Germany,  and  the  east  of  England  from  Portsmouth  to  the  Tyne. 
Pure  Celtic  blood  is  confined  to  the  Basque  Provinces  in  Spain,  the 
south  and  south-west  of  France,  a  part  of  the  Grisons  and  Switzer- 
land, and  some  part  of  Great  Britain.  The  Sclavonian  blood  is 
widely  dispersed  in  middle  Russia,  from  the  Ural  Mountains  to  the 
west  of  the  Valdai  table-land,  and  from  Novogorod  to  the  lower 
course  of  the  Don.  The  three  races  have  been  much  improved  by 
mixture,  in  appearance,  energy,  and  versatility  of  mind. 

It  is  extraordinary  that  nations  should  lose  their  vitality  without 
any  apparent  cause;  throughout  the  Indian  Archipelago  there  is  no 
longer  any  one  great  Malayan  nation ;  in  Europe  pure  Celtic  blood 
has  been  on  the  decline  for  20  centuries,  and  even  the  mixed  Celtic. 

verbs,  or  the  consonants  they  contain,  are  the  same,  and  follow  in  the  same 
order;  vowels  are  necessarily  used  when  the  words  are  spoken,  but  they 
are  constantly  omitted  when  the  langunges  are  written  and  printed,  since 
no  letters  or  characters  for  vowels  exist  in  the  alphabets  of  the  Semitic  or 
Syro-Arabian  group,  with  the  exception  of  the  Abyssinian,  which  has  a 
syllabary  but  no  real  alphabet.  In  religious  books  however,  or  difficult 
passages,  where  the  meaning  might  be  doubtful,  signs  are  occasionally 
added  for  the  vowels,  which  are  of  a  comparatively  modern  date :  thus  the 
two  words  which  mean  wrote  and  killed  in  the  three  languages  in  question 
are  printed  c  t  b  and  c  1 1,  but  when  spoken  they  become  c  t  a  b  and  c  t  al 
in  Syro-Chaldaic,  c  a  t  a  b  and  c  a  t  a  1  in  Hebrew,  c  a  t  a  b  a  and  c  a  t  a  1  a 
in  Arabic,  the  roots  or  consonants  being  the  same,  and  following  in  the 
same  order  in  all  three.  The  Hebrew  is  historically  known  to  have  sprung 
from  the  Syro-Chaldaic,  for  Abraham  spoke  Chaldaic. 

In  Sanscrit  the  roots  are  syllables  instead  of  consonants,  and  the  pecu- 
liarity of  the  Chinese,  the  Indo-Chinese,  and  Bhutan  languages,  is  that  the 
words  consist  of  but  one  syllable,  and  that  each  word  derives  its  meaning 
from  its  position  in  a  sentence. 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  POPULATION    OP    EUROPE.  477 

variety  has  not  increased  in  proportion  to  the  Teutonic,  although  for 
2000  years  they  have  been  exposed  to  the  same  external  circum- 
stances. 

At  present  the  Teutonic  race,  including  the  inhabitants  of  North 
America  and  the  British  colonies,  considerably  outnumber  the  Celtic, 
though  its  numbers  were  far  inferior  in  ancient  times.  The  Teutonic 
variety  has  subdued  and  even  exterminated  the  other  varieties  in  its 
progress  towards  the  west ;  it  is  undoubtedly  the  most  vigorous,  both 
in  body  and  mind,  of  all  mankind,  and  seems  destined  to  conquer 
and  civilize  the  whole  world.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  whatever  the 
cause  may  be, that  the  Celts  are  invariably  Koman  Catholic,  while 
the  Teutonic  population  is  inclined  to  Protestanism. 

Various  other  races  inhabit  Europe,  much  inferior  in  numbers  to 
those  above  mentioned,  though  occasionally  mixed  with  them,  as  the 
Turks,  Fins,  the  Samojedes,  who  live  on  the  shores  of  the  White 
Sea  and  in  the  north-east  of  Russia,  and  the  Hungarians,  the  higher 
class  of  which  are  a  fine  race  of  men,  and  on  a  par  with  the  most 
civilized  of  the  European  nations.1  There  are  many  mixed  Tartar 
tribes,  chiefly  in  the  south  and  east  of  the  Russian  territories ;  also 
Jews  and  Gipsies,  who  live  among  all  nations,  yet  mix  with  none.2 

1  Europe  had  been  inhabited  before  the  arrival  of  the  Asiatic  tribes,  con- 
sequently some  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  more  remote  regions  are  probably 
the  aborigines  of  the  country. 

2  EUROPEAN  POPULATION. 
Pure  blood. 

Teutonic  52,000,000 

Sclavonian  50,000,000 

Celtic  12,000,000 

Magyar 9,000,000 

Fins  and  Samojedes 3,000,000 

Tatar  2,000,000 

Jews...... 2,000,000 


Total  European  population  of  pure  blood 130,000,000 

Mixed  blood  in  Europe.' 

Teutonic  Celtic 22,000,000 

Teutonic  Sclavonian 6,000,000 

Teutonic  mixed  -with  Walloons  in  Belgium 1,200,000 

Teutonic  Northmen  in  Normandy 1,500,000 

Celtic  in  its  different  crosses 56,000,000 

Sclavonian  6,000,000 

Lettons  2,000,000 

Turks  4,000,000 

Turco-Tatar-Sclavonic  in  centre,  south-east,  and  east 

of  Russia  2,600,000 

Kalmuc,  between  the  rivers  Volga  and  Ural  300,000 


The  number  of  people  of  mixed  blood  in  Europe  ...  .  101,600,000 


478  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIII. 

The  inhabitants  of  Great  Britain  are  of  Celtic  and  Teutonic 
origin.  The  Celtic  Tblood  is  purest  in  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly 
Islands,  in  "Wales,  and  the  Isle  of  Man :  in  the  highlands  of  Scot- 
land and  the  Hebrides,  it  is  more  mixed  than  is  generally  supposed, 
as  plainly  appears  from  the  frequency  of  red  hair  and  blue  eyes.  In 
some  parts  of  Ireland  there  is  pure  Celtic  blood,  but  throughout  the 
greater  part  of  that  country  it  is  mixed,  although  the  Celtic  charac- 
ter predominates ;  but  in  Ulster,  where  the  earliest  colony  settled, 
the  blood  is  purely  Teutonic.  In  Ireland  the  difference  in  the  or- 
ganization of  the  two  races  is  strongly  marked :  placed  under  the 
same  circumstances,  the  Teutonic  part  of  the  population  has  pros- 
pered, which,  unfortunately,  has  not  been  the  case  with  the  Celtic.1 

The  dialects  spoken  in  the  Celtic  districts  are  closely  allied  to  the 
Semitic  languages  of  Asia,  aud  to  one  another.  The  Cornish  is 
worn  out,  the  Manx  is  nearly  so,  and  the  Gaelic  is  declining  fast  in 
the  highlands  of  Scotland. 

The  Roman  invasion  had  no  effect  on  the  Anglo-Saxon  or  old 
English,  a  language  of  Teutonic  origin,  but  the  Normans  in  ancient 
times  had  altered  it  considerably,  and  in  modern  times  the  English 
tongue  has  unfortunately  been  corrupted  by  the  introduction  of 

The  total  population  of  Europe,  pure  and  mixed,  amounts  to  about  232 
millions,  including  600,000  Gipsies.  The  Teutonic  population  in  the  United 
States  of  North  America  and  in  the  British  colonies  amounts  to  20  millions ; 
so  that  the  total  number  of  people  of  Teutonic  blood  is  rather  more  than 
100  millions. — Notes  accompanying  the  Ethnographic  Map  of  Europe,  by 
J)r.  Gustaf  Kombst :  '  Phys.  Atlas.'  By  a  more  recent  census  the  popula- 
tion of  Europe  amounts  to  240,000,000. 

1  POPULATION  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  AND  IRELAND. 
On  an  average  the  pure-Hooded  population  amounts  to 
Teutonic  in  England,  Scotland,  and  in  the  east  and 

north-east  of  Ireland 10,000,000 

Celtic  in  Cornwall,  Wales,  the  Scottish  Highlands,  and 
Ireland  6,000,000 


The  pure-blooded  inhabitants  amount  to  16,000,000 

Mixed  blood. 

Mixture  in  which  the  Teutonic  blood  predominates  ...    6,000,000 
Mixture  in  which  the  Celtic  blood  predominates 4,090,000 

10,000,000 

In  all  26,000,000  of  inhabitants. 

Notes  accompanying  the  Ethnographic  Map  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land, by  Gustaf  Kombst:  '  Phys.  Atlas.' 

The  fear  that  Britain  may  be  ruined  by  over-population  mny  be  allayed 
by  considering  that  we  are  ignorant  of  the  immense  treasures  and  inex- 
haustible resources  of  the  natural  world — that  the  ingenuity  of  man  is 
infnite,  and  will  continually  discover  new  powers  and  innumerable  com- 
N  nations  that  will  furnish  sources  of  wealth  and  happiness  to  millions. 


CHAP.  XXXIII.       DIVEBSITY    O  1'    CO      OUR.  479 

French,  Latin,  and  Latinized  words.  Scotch  spoken  throughout  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland  is  a  language  independent  of  the  English, 
though  of  the  same  stock ;  it  is  derived  from  the  low  German,  the 
Frisian,  Dutch,  and  Flemish,  and  differs  widely  from  the  Anglo- 
Saxon. 

No  circumstance  in  the  natural  world  is  more  inexplicable  than 
the  diversity  of  form  and  colour  in  the  human  race.  It  had  already 
begun  in  the  antediluvian  world,  for  "  there  were  giants  in  the  land 
in  those  days."  No  direct  mention  is  made  of  colour  at  that  time 
unless  it  was  the  mark  set  upon  Cain,  "  lest  any  one  finding  him 
should  kill  him,"  may  allude  to  it.  Perhaps,  also,  it  may  be  inferred 
that  black  people  dwelt  in  Ethiopia,  or  the  land  of  Gush,  which 
means  black  in  the  Hebrew  language.  At  all  events,  the  difference 
now  existing  must  have  arisen  after  the  flood,  consequently  all  must 
have  originated  with  Noah,  whose  wife,  or  the  wives  of  his  sons, 
may  have  been  of  different  colours,  for  aught  we  know. 

Many  instances  have  occurred  in  modern  times  of  albinos  and 
red-haired  children  having  been  born  of  black  parents,  and  these 
have  transmitted  their  peculiarities  to  their  descendants  for  several 
generations;  but  it  may  be  doubted  whether  pure-blooded  white 
people  have  had  perfectly  black  offspring.  The  varieties  are  much 
more  likely  to  have  arisen  from  the  effects  of  climate,  food,  customs, 
and  civilization  upon  migratory  groups  of  mankind ;  and  of  such,  a 
few  instances  have  occurred  in  historical  times,  limited,  however,  to 
small  numbers  and  particular  spots;  but  the  great  mass  of  nations 
had  received  their  distinctive  characters  at  a  very  early  period.  The 
permanency  of  type  is  one  of  the  most  striking  circumstances,  and 
proves  the  length  of  time  necessary  to  produce  a  change  in  national 
structure  and  colour.  A  nation  of  Ethiopians  existed  3450  years 
ago,  which  emigrated  from  a  remote  country  and  settled  near  Egypt, 
and  there  must  have  been  black  people  before  the  age  of  Solomon, 
otherwise  he  would  not  have  alluded  to  colour,  even  poetically.  The 
national  appearance  of  the  Ethiopians,  Persians,  and  Jews,  has  not 
varied  for  more  than  3000  years,  as  appears  from  the  ancient  Egyp- 
tian paintings  in  the  tomb  of  Rhainses  the  Great,  discovered  at 
Thebes  by  Belzoni,  in  which  the  countenance  of  the  modern  Ethio- 
pian and  Persian  can  be  readily  recognised,  and  the  Jewish  features 
and  colour  are  identical  with  those  of  the  Israelites  daily  met  with 
in  London.  Civilization  is  supposed  to  have  great  influence  on 
colour,  having  a  tendency  to  make  the  dark  shade  more  general, 
and  it  appears  that,  in  the  crossing  of  two  shades,  the  offspring 
takes  the  complexion  of  the  darker,  and  the  form  of  the  fairer.  But 
as  there  is  no  instance  of  a  new  variety  of  mankind  having  been 
established  as  a  nation  since  the  Christian  era,  there  must  either 
have  been  a  greater  energy  in  the  causes  of  change  before  that  time, 
or,  brief  as  the  span  of  man  on  earth  has  been,  a  wrong  estimate 


480  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXIII. 

of  time  antecedent  to  the  Christian   period  must  have  made  it 
shorter.1 

Darkness  of  complexion  has  been  attributed  to  the  sun's  power 
from  the  age  of  Solomon  to  this  day — "  Look  not  upon  me,  because 
I  am  black,  because  the  sun  hath  looked  upon  me;"  and  there  can 
be  no  doubt  that,  to  a  certain  degree,  the  opinion  is  well  founded. 
The  invisible  rays  of  the  solar  beams,  which  change  vegetable 
colours,  and  have  been  employed  with  such  remarkable  effect  in  the 
Daguerreotype,  act  upon  every  substance  on  which  they  fall,  pro- 
ducing mysterious  and  wonderful  changes  in  their  molecular  state — 
man  not  excepted.2 

Other  causes  must  have  been  combined  to  occasion  all  the  varie- 
ties we  now  see,  otherwise  every  nation  between  the  tropics  would 
be  of  the  same  hue,  whereas  the  sooty  Negro  inhabits  equatorial 
Africa,  the  Red  man  equinoctial  America,  and  both  are  mixed  with 
fairer  tribes.  In  Asia,  the  Rohillas,  a  fair  race  of  Affghan  extrac- 
tion, inhabit  the  plains  north  of  the  Ganges ;  the  Bengalee  and  the 
mountaineers  of  Nepaul  are  dark,  and  the  Mahrattas  are  yellow. 
The  complexion  of  man  varies  with  height  and  latitude;  some  of 
the  inhabitants  of  the  Himalaya  and  Hindoo  Koosh  are  fair,  and 
even  a  red-haired  race  is  found  on  the  latter.  There  are  fair-haired 
people  with  blue  eyes  in  the  Ruddhua  mountains  in  Africa.  The 
Kabyles,  that  inhabit  the  country  behind  Tunis  and  Algiers,  are 
similar  in  complexion  to  the  nations  in  high  northern  latitudes. 
This  correspondence,  however,  only  maintains  with  regard  to  the 
northern  hemisphere,  for  it  is  a  well-known  fact  that  the  varieties 
of  the  numerous  species  in  the  great  southern  continents  are  much 

1  From  the  discrepancies  in  the  chronological  systems,  it  is  evident  that 
the  actual  period  of  man's  creation  is  not  accurately  known.     The  Cheva- 
lier Bunsen  has  ascertained  from  monumental  inscriptions,  that  the  suc- 
cessive Egyptian  dynasties  may  be  traced  back  to  Meres,  3640  years  before 
the  Christian  era,  and  from  the  high  state  of  civilization  during  the  reign 
of  that  prince,  proved  by  the  magnificence  of  the  works  then  executed,  he 
infers  that  the  Egyptians  must  have  existed  500  years  previous  to  their 
consolidation  into  one  empire  by  him,  which  goes  back  to  the  received 
period  of  man's  creation.     Compared  with  geological  periods,  man  is  of 
very  recent  creation,  as  appears  from  the  vast  extent  of  uninhabited  land., 
but  which  would  require  ages  and  ages  to  people,  even  if  the  increase  of 
population  were  as  rapid  as  in  the  United  States  of  North  America.     Dr. 
Pritchard  says  that  the  Hebrew  chronology  has  been  computed  with  som« 
approximation  to  truth  up  to  the  arrival  of  Abraham  in  Palestine,  but  that 
we  can  never  know  how  many  centuries  may  have  elapsed  from  that  event 
to  the  time  when  "  the  first  man  of  clay  received  the  image  of  God  and  th* 
breath  of  life." 

2  Dark-coloured  substances  absorb  more  of  the  sun's  heat  than  lighS- 
coloured  ones ;  therefore,  the  black  skins  of  the  natives  of  tropical  climates 
absorb  more  heat  than  fair  skins ;  but,  from  some  unknown  cause,  the 
black  skin  is  protected  from  a  degree  of  heat  that  would  blister  a  fair  one. 


.  XXXIJI.     FLEXIBILITY   OP  CONSTITUTION.  481 

more  similar  in  physical  characters  to  the  native  races  of  the  torrid 
zone  than  any  of  the  aboriginal  people  of  the  northern  regions. 
Even  supposing  that  diversity  of  colour  is  owing  to  the  sun's  rays 
only,  it  is  scarcely  possible  to  attribute  the  thick  lips,  the  woolly 
hair,  and  the  entire  difference  of  form,  extending  even  to  the  very 
bones  and  skull,  to  anything  but  a  concurrence  of  circumstances, 
not  omitting  the  invisible  influence  of  electricity,  which  pervades 
every  part  of  the  earth  and  air — and  possibly  terrestrial  magnetism. 
The  rarity  of  air  also  affects  the  structure  of  the  human  frame,  and 
even  modifies  the  most  important  functions  of  life,  for  the  people 
who  have  for  centuries  inhabited  the  heights  of  the  Andes  have  a 
more  capacious  chest,  and  lungs  of  a  larger  volume,  than  other  races 
of  men,  according  to  Dr.  Prichard. 

The  flexibility  of  man's  constitution  enables  him  to  live  in  every 
climate,  from  the  equator  to  the  ever-frozen  coasts  of  Nova  Zembla 
and  Spitzbergen,  and  that  chiefly  by  his  capability  of  bearing  the 
most  extreme  changes  of  temperature  and  diet,  which  are  probably 
the  principal  causes  of  the  variety  in  his  form.  It  has  already  been 
mentioned,  that  oxygen  is  inhaled  with  the  atmospheric  air,  and  also 
taken  in  by  the  pores  in  the  skin ;  part  of  it  combines  chemically 
with  the  carbon  of  the  food,  and  is  expired  in  the  form  of  carbonic 
acid  gas  and  water ;  that  chemical  action  is  the  cause  of  vital  force 
and  heat  in  man  and  animals.  The  quantity  of  food  must  be  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  quantity  of  oxygen  inhaled,  otherwise  disease 
and  loss  of  strength  would  be  the  consequence.  Since  cold  air  is 
incessantly  carrying  off  warmth  from  the  skin,  more  exercise  is  re- 
quisite in  winter  than  in  summer,  in  cold  climates  than  in  warm ; 
consequently  more  carbon  is  necessary  in  the  former  than  in  the 
latter,  in  order  to  maintain  the  chemical  action  that  generates  heat 
and  to  ward  off  the.  destructive  effects  of  the  oxygen,  which  inces- 
santly strives  to  consume  the  body.  Animal  food,  wine,  and  spirits, 
contain  many  times  more  carbon  than  fruit  and  vegetables,  therefore 
animal  food  is  much  more  necessary  in  a  cold  than  in  a  hot  climate. 
The  Esquimaux,  who  lives  by  the  chase,  and  eats  10  or  12  pounds 
weight  of  meat  and  fat  in  24  hours,  finds  it  not  more  than  enough 
to  keep  up  his  strength  and  animal  heat,  while  the  indolent  inhabi- 
tant of  Bengal  is  sufficiently  supplied  with  both  by  his  rice  diet. 
Clothing  and  warmth  make  the  necessity  for  exercise  and  food  much 
less,  by  diminishing  the  waste  of  animal  heat.  Hunger  and  cold 
united  soon  consume  the  body,  because  it  loses  its  power  of  resisting 
the  action  of  the  oxygen,  which  consumes  part  of  our  substance, 
when  food  is  wanting.  Hence  nations  inhabiting  warm  climates 
have  no  great  merit  in  being  abstemious,  nor  are  those  guilty  of 
committing  an  excess  who  live  more  freely  in  colder  countries.  The 
arrangement  of  Divine  Wisdom  is  to  be  admired  in  this  as  in  all 
other  things,  for,  if  man  had  only  been  capable  of  living  on  vege- 


482  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXIII. 

table  food,  he  never  could  have  had  a  permanent  residence  beyond 
the  latitude  where  corn  ripens.  The  Esquimaux,  and  all  the  inhab- 
itants of  the  very  high  latitudes  of  both  continents,  live  entirely  on 
lish  and  animal  food.  What  effects  the  difference  of  food  may  have 
upon  the  intellect  is  not  known. 

A  nation  or  tribe  driven  by  war,  or  any  other  cause,  from  a  warm 
to  a  cold  country,  or  the  contrary,  would  be  forced  to  change  their 
food  both  in  quality  and  quantity,  which  in  the  lapse  of  ages  might 
produce  an  alteration  in  the  external  form  and  internal  structure. 
The  probability  is  still  greater,  if  the  entire  change  that  a  few  years 
produces  in  the  matter  of  which  the  human  frame  is  composed  be 
considered.  At  every  instant  during  life,  with  every  motion,  volun- 
tary and  involuntary,  with  every  thought  and  every  exercise  of  the 
brain,  a  portion  of  our  substance  becomes  dead,  separates  from  the 
living  part,  combines  with  some  of  the  inhaled  oxygen,  and  is  re- 
moved. By  this  process  it  is  supposed  that  the  whole  body  is 
renewed  every  7  years;  individuality,  therefore,  depends  on  the 
spirit,  which  retains  its  identity  during  all  the  changes  of  its  earthly 
house,  and  sometimes  even  acts  independently  of  it.  When  sleep 
is  restoring  exhausted  nature,  the  spirit  is  often  awake  and  active, 
crowding  the  events  of  years  into  a  few  seconds,  and,  by  its  uncon- 
sciousness of  time,  anticipates  eternity.  Every  change  of  food,  cli- 
mate, and  mental  excitement  must  have  their  influence  on  the  re- 
production of  the  mortal  frame ;  and  thus  a  thousand  causes  may 
co-operate  to  alter  whole  races  of  mankind  placed  under  new  cir- 
cumstances, time  being  granted. 

The  difference  between  the  effects  of  manual  labour  and  the  ef- 
forts of  the  brain  appears  in  the  intellectual  countenance  of  the 
educated  man,  compared  with  that  of  the  peasant,  though  even  he 
is  occasionally  stamped  with  nature's  own  nobility.  The  most  savage 
people  are  also  the  ugliest.  Their  countenance  is  deformed  by  vio- 
lent unsubdued  passions,  anxiety,  and  suffering.  Deep  sensibility 
gives  a  beautiful  and  varied  expression,  but  every  strong  emotion  is 
unfavourable  to  perfect  regularity  of  feature ;  and  of  that  the  Greeks 
were  well  aware  when  they  gave  that  calmness  of  expression  and 
repose  to  their  unrivalled  statues.  The  refining  effects  of  high  cul- 
ture, and,  above  all,  the  Christian  religion,  by  subduing  the  evil 
passions,  and  encouraging  the  good,  are  more  than  anything  calcu- 
lated to  improve  even  the  external  appearance.  The  countenance, 
though  perhaps  of  less  regular  form,  becomes  expressive  of  the 
amiable  and  benevolent  feelings  of  the  heart,  the  most  captivating 
of  all  beauty.1 

*  The  countenances  of  the  Fuegians  brought  to  England  in  1830  by  Cap- 
tain FitzRoy  improved  greatly  in  expression  by  their  intercourse  with 
civilized  men,  but  they  had  not  returned  to  their  savage  brethren  more 
than  a  year  before  their  whole  appearance  was  completely  changed ;  the 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  INDIVIDUALITY.  483 

Thus  an  infinite  assemblage  of  causes  may  be  assigned  as  having 
produced  the  endless  varieties  in  the  human  race ;  but  the  fact  re- 
mains an  inscrutable  mystery.  But  amidst  all  the  physical  vicissi- 
tudes man  has  undergone,  the  species  remains  permanent;  and  let 
those  who  think  that  the  difference  in  the  species  of  animals  and 
vegetables  arises  from  diversity  of  conditions,  consider,  that  no  cir- 
cumstances whatever  can  degrade  the  form  of  man  to  that  of  the 
monkey,  or  elevate  the  monkey  to  the  form  of  man. 

Animals  and  vegetables,  being  the  sources  of  man's  sustenance, 
have  had  the  chief  influence  on  his  destiny  and  location,  and  have 
induced  him  to  settle  in  those  parts  of  the  world  where  he  could 
procure  them  in  greatest  abundance.  Wherever  the  chase  or  the 
spontaneous  productions  of  the  earth  supply  him  with  food,  he  is 
completely  savage,  and  only  a  degree  further  advanced  where  he 
plants  the  palm  and  the  banana ;  where  grain  is  the  principal  food, 
industry  and  intelligence  are  most  perfectly  developed,  as  in  the  tem- 
perate zone.  On  that  account  the  centres  of  civilization  have  gene- 
rally been  determined,  not  by  a  hot,  but  by  a  genial  climate,  fertile 
soil,  by  the  vicinity  of  the  sea-coast  or  great  rivers,  affording  the 
means  of  fishing  and  transport,  which  last  has  been  one  of  the  chief 
causes  of  the  superiority  of  Europe  and  Southern  Asia.  The  mine- 
ral treasures  of  the  earth  have  been  the  means  of  assembling  great 
masses  of  men  in  Siberia  and  the  table-land  of  the  Andes,  and  have 
given  rise  to  many  great  cities,  both  in  the  Old  and  the  New  World. 
Nations  inhabiting  elevated  table-lands  and  high  ungenial  latitudes 
have  been  driven  there  by  war,  or  obliged  to  wander  from  countries 
where  the  population  exceeded  the  means  of  living — a  cause  of  mi- 
gration to  which  both  language  and  tradition  bear  testimony.  The 
belief  in  a  future  state,  so  universal,  shown  by  respect  for  the  dead, 
has  no  doubt  been  transmitted  from  nation  to  nation.  The  American 
Indians,  driven  from  their  hunting-grounds,  still  make  pilgrimages 
to  the  tombs  of  their  fathers;  and  these  tribes  alone,  of  all  uncivil- 
ized mankind,  worship  the  Great  Spirit  as  the  invisible  God  and 
Father  of  all  —  a  degree  of  abstract  refinement  which  could  hardly 
have  sprung  up  spontaneously  among  a  rude  people,  and  which  must 
have  been  transmitted  from  races  who  held  the  Jewish  faith. 

It  is  probable  that  America  had  been  peopled  from  Asia  before 
the  separation  of  the  continents  by  Behring's  Straits,  and  there  is 
reason  to  believe  that  the  location  of  various  races  of  mankind,  now 
insulated,  may  have  taken  place  before  the  separation  of  the  lands 
by  mediterranean  seas;  whilst  others,  previously  insulated,  may  be 
now  united  by  the  drying  up  of  inland  seas ;  as  those  which  covered 

look  of  intelligence  they  had  acquired  was  gone ;  and  when  compared  with 
likenesses  that  had  been  taken  of  them  when  in  England,  they  were  not  to 
be  recognised  as  the  same  persons. 


484  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXXIII. 

the  Sahara  Desert,  and  the  great  hollow  round  the  Caspian  Sea,  of 
which  it  and  the  Black  Sea  are  probably  the  remnants. 

M.  Bone"  has  observed  that  mountain  chains  running  nearly  east 
and  west  establish  much  more  striking  differences  among  nations 
than  those  which  extend  from  north  to  south  —  a  circumstance  con- 
firmed by  observation  through  the  history  of  mankind.  The  Scan- 
dinavian Alps  have  not  prevented  the  countries  on  both  sides  from 
being  occupied  by  people  of  a  common  descent;  while  the  feeble 
barrier  of  the  Cheviot  Hills,  between  England  and  Scotland,  and 
the  moderate  elevation  of  the  Highland  mountains,  have  prevented 
the  amalgamation  of  the  Anglo-Saxons  and  the  Celts,  even  in  a  period 
of  high  civilization.  The  Franks  and  Belgians  are  distinct,  though 
separated  by  hills  of  still  less  elevation.  For  the  same  reason  the 
Spaniards  and  Italians  differ  far  more  from  their  neighbours  on  the 
other  side  of  the  eastern  and  western  chains,  than  the  Spaniards  do 
from  the  Portuguese,  or  the  Piedmontese  from  the  Provencals.  A 
similar  distinction  prevails  throughout  Asia ;  and  in  America,  where 
all  the  principal  chains  run  north  and  south,  there  is  but  one  cop- 
per-coloured race  throughout  the  continent,  which  stretches  over 
more  climates  than  Europe  and  Africa,  or  even  than  Asia  and  Aus- 
tralia united.  It  is  along  chains  running  north  and  south  that  the 
fusion  of  languages  takes  place,  and  not  along  those  of  an  easterly 
and  westerly  direction.  From  Poland,  for  instance,  there  are  inter- 
mediate insensible  gradations  through  Germany  into  France ;  while 
in  crossing  from  a  German  district  of  the  Alps  to  the  valleys  of 
Italy,  different  tribes  and  different  languages  are  separated  by  a 
single  mountain.  Even  wars  and  conquest  have  ever  been  more 
easy  in  one  direction  than  in  the  other.  The  difference  in  the  fauna 
and  flora  on  the  two  sides  of  the  great  table-land  and  mountains  of 
Asia  is  a  striking  illustration  of  the*influence  which  high  lands  run- 
ning east  and  west  have  on  natural  productions,  and  thus,  both 
directly  and  indirectly,  they  affect  the  distribution  of  mankind. 

The  circumstances  which  thus  determine  the  location  of  nations, 
and  the  fusion  or  separation  of  their  languages,  must,  conjointly 
with  moral  causes,  operate  powerfully  on  their  character.  The  minds 
of  mankind,  as  well  as  their  fate,  are  influenced  by  the  soil  on  which 
they  are  born  and  bred.  The  natives  of  elevated  countries  are  at- 
tached to  their  mountains ;  the  Dutch  are  as  much  attached  to  their 
meadows  and  canals ;  and  the  savage,  acquainted  only  with  the  dis- 
comforts of  life,  is  unhappy  when  brought  among  civilized  man. 
Early  associations  never  entirely  leave  us,  however  much  our  position 
in  life  may  alter;  and  strong  attachments  are  formed  to  places  which 
generate  in  us  habits  differing  from  those  of  other  countries. 

The  Baltic  and  Mediterranean  Seas  have  had  no  inconsiderable 
share  in  civilizing  Europe ;  one  combined  with  a  cold  and  gloomy 
climate,  the  other  with  a  warm  and  glowing  sky,  have  developed 


CHAP.  XXXIII.       CIVILIZING    INFLUENCES.  485 

dissimilar  characters  in  the  temperament  and  habits  of  the  surround- 
ing nations,  originally  dissimilar  iu  race.  The  charms  of  climate 
and  the  ease  with  which  the  necessaries  of  life  are  procured  were 
favourable  to  the  development  of  imagination  in  the  more  southern 
nations,  and  to  an  indolent  enjoyment  of  their  advantages.  In  the 
north,  on-  the  contrary,  the  task  imposed  upon  man  was  harder,  and 
perhaps  more  favourable  to  strength  of  character.  The  Dutch  owe 
their  industry  and  perseverance  to  their  unceasing  struggle  against 
the  encroachments  of  the  ocean ;  the  British  are  indebted  to  their 
insular  position  for  their  maritime  disposition,  and  to  the  smallness 
of  their  country  and  the  richness  of  their  mines,  for  their  manu- 
facturing and  colonizing  habits  j  the  military  propensities  of  the 
French,  to  the  necessity  of  maintaining  their  independence  among 
the  surrounding  nations,  as  well  as  to  ambition  and  the  love  of 
fame. 

Thus  external  circumstances  materially  modify  the  character  of 
nations,  but  the  original  propensities  of  race  are  never  eradicated, 
and  they  are  nowhere  more  prominent  than  in  the  progress  of  the 
social  state  in  France  and  England.  The  vivacity  and  speculative 
disposition  of  the  Celt  appear  in  the  rapid  and  violent  changes  of 
government  and  in  the  succession  of  theoretical  experiments  in 
France ;  while  in  Britain  the  deliberate  slowness,  prudence,  and 
accurate  perceptions  of  the  Teuton  are  manifest  in  the  gradual  im- 
provement and  steadiness  of  their  political  arrangements.  "  The 
prevalent  political  sentiment  of  Great  Britain  is  undoubtedly  con- 
servative, in  the  best  sense  of  the  word,  with  a  powerful  under- 
current of  democratic  tendencies.  This  gives  great  power  and 
strength  to  the  political  and  social  body  of  this  country,  and  makes 
revolutions  by  physical  force  almost  impossible.  It  can  be  said, 
without  assumption  or  pretension,  that  the  body  politic  of  Britain  is 
in  a  sounder  state  of  health  than  any  other  in  Europe ;  and  that 
those  know  very  little  of  this  country,  who,  led  away  by  what  they 
see  in  France,  always  dream  of  violent  and  revolutionary  changes  in 
the  constitution.  Great  Britain  is  the  only  country  in  Europe  which 
has  had  the  good  fortune  to  have  all  her  institutions  worked  out  and 
framed  by  her  in  a  strictly  organic  manner;  that  is,  in  accordance 
with  organic  icants,  which  require  different  conditions  at  different 
and  successive  stages  of  national  development — and  not  by  theoreti- 
cal experiments,  as  in  many  other  countries  which  are  still  in  a  state 
of  excitement  consequent  upon  these  experiments.  The  social  cha- 
racter of  the  people  of  this  country,  besides  the  features  which  they 
have  in  common  with  other  nations  of  Teutonic  origin,  is,  on  the 
whole,  domestic,  reserved,  aristocratic,  and  exclusive." ' 

1  Johnston's  'Physical  Atlas.' 

The  average  age  of  a  nation,  or  the  mean  duration  of  life,  has  a  conside- 

41* 


486  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.          CHAP.  XXXIII. 

In  speculating  upon  the  effects  of  external  circumstances,  and  on 
the  original  dispositions  of  the  different  races  of  mankind,  the  sta- 
tionary and  unchanged  condition  is  a  curious  phenomenon  in  the 
history  of  nations.  The  inhabitants  of  Hindostan  have  not  advanced 
within  the  historical  period ;  neither  have  the  Chinese.  The  Peru- 
vians and  Mexicans  had  arrived  at  a  considerable  degree  of  civiliza- 
tion, at  which  they  became  stationary,  never  having  availed  them- 
selves of  their  fine  country  and  noble  rivers ;  and  their  conquerors, 
the  Spaniards,  degenerated  into  the  same  apathy  with  the  conquered. 
The  unaccountable  gipsies  have  for  ages  maintained  their  peculiari- 
ties in  all  countries ;  so  have  the  Jews  and  Armenians,  who,  by  the  ' 
perseverance  with  which  they  have  adhered  to  their  language  and 
institutions,  have  resisted  the  influence  of  physical  impressions. 

The  influence  of  external  circumstances  on  man  is  not  greater 
than  his  influence  on  the  material  world.  He  cannot  create  power, 
it  is  true,  but  he  dexterously  avails  himself  of  the  powers  of  nature 
to  subdue  nature.  Air,  fire,  water,  steam,  gravitation,  his  own  mus- 
cular strength,  and  that  of  animals  rendered  obedient  to  his  will,  are 
the  instruments  by  which  he  has  converted  the  desert  into  a  garden, 
drained  marshes,  cut  canals,  made  roads,  turned  the  course  of  rivers, 
cleared  away  forests  in  one  country,  and  planted  them  in  another. 
By  these  operations  he  has  altered  the  climate,  changed  the  course 
of  local  winds,  increased  or  diminished  the  quantity  of  rain,  and 
softened  the  rigour  of  the  seasons.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  the  cold 
in  France  was  so  intense,  that  it  was  thought  impossible  to  ripen 
grapes  north  of  the  Cevennes :  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  were 
every  winter  covered  with  ice  thick  enough  to  bear  any  weight. 
Man's  influence  on  vegetation  has  been  immense,  but  the  most  im- 
portant changes  had  been  effected  in  the  antediluvian  ages  of  the 
world.  Cain  was  a  tiller  of  the  ground.  The  olive,  the  vine,  and 
the  fig-tree  have  been  cultivated  time  immemorial :  wheat,  rice,  and 
barley,  have  been  so  long  in  an  artificial  state,  that  their  origin  is 
unknown ;  even  maize,  which  is  a  Mexican  plant,  was  in  use  among 
the  American  tribes  before  the  Spanish  conquest ;  and  tobacco  was 
already  used  by  them  to  allay  the  pangs  of  hunger,  to  which  those 
who  depend  upon  the  chase  for  food  must  be  exposed.  Most  of  the 

rable  influence  on  the  character  of  a  people.  The  average  age  of  the  popu- 
lation of  England  and  Wales  is  26  years  7  months.  By  the  census  the 
average  age  of  the  population  of  the  United  States  of  North  America  is  22 
years  2  months.  In  England  there  are  1365  persons  in  every  10,000,  "who 
have  attained  50  years  of  age,  and  consequently  of  experience :  "while  in 
the  United  States  only  830  in  each  10,000  have  arrived  at  that  age :  hence 
in  the  United  States  the  moral  predominance  of  the  young  and  passionate 
is  greatest.  In  Ireland  there  are  1050  persons  in  every  10,000  of  the  popu- 
lation, above  50  years  of  age,  to  exercise  the  influence  of  their  age  and 
experience  upon  the  community — an  influence  that  will  diminish  with  the 
progress  of  emancipation. 


CHAP.  XXXIH.      EXTERNAL    INFLUENCES.  487 

ordinary  culinary  vegetables  have  been  known  for  ages,  and  ifc  ig 
remarkable  that  in  these  days,  when  our  gardens  are^  adorned  with 
innumerable  native  plants  in  a  cultivated  state,  few  new  grains,  vege- 
tables, or  fruits  have  been  reclaimed ;  the  old  have  been  produced  in 
infinite  variety,  and  many  brought  from  foreign -countries  :  yet  there 
must  exist  many  plants  capable  of  cultivation,  as  unpromising  in 
their  wild  state  as  the  turnip  or  carrot. 

Some  families  of  plants  are  more  susceptible  of  improvement  than 
others,  and,  like  man  himself,  can  bear  almost  any  climate.  One 
kind  of  wheat  grows  to  62°  N.  latitude ;  rye  and  barley  are  hardier, 
and  succeed  still  farther  north ;  and  few  countries  are  absolutely 
without  grass.  The  cruciform  tribe  abounds  in  useful  plants :  indeed 
that  family,  together  with  the  solanum,  the  papilionaceous  and  um- 
belliferous tribes,  furnish  most  of  our  vegetables.  Many  plants, 
like  animals,  are  of  one  colour  only  in  their  wild  state,  and  their 
blossoms  are  single.  Art  has  introduced  the  variety  we  now  see  in 
the  same  species,  and,  by  changing  the  anthers  of  the  mild  flowers 
into  petals,  has  produced  double  blossoms  :  by  art,  too,  many  plants, 
natives  of  warm  countries,  have  been  naturalized  in  colder  climates. 
Few  useful  plants  have  beautiful  blossoms  —  but  if  utility  were  the 
only  object,  of  what  pleasure  should  we  be  deprived  !  Refinement 
is  not  wanting  in  the  inmates  of  a  cottage  covered  with  roses  and 
honeysuckle ;  and  the  little  garden  cultivated  amidst  a  life  of  toil 
tells  of  a  peaceful  home. 

Among  the  objects  which  tend  to  the  improvement  of  our  race, 
the  flower-garden  and  the  park  adorned  with  native  and  foreign  trees 
have  no  small  share  :  they  are  the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  British 
Islands;  and  the  love  of  a  country  life,  which  is  so  strong  a  passion, 
is  chiefly  owing  to  the  law  of  primogeniture,  by  which  the  head  of 
a  family  is  secured  in  the  possession  and  transmission  of  his  undivided 
estate,  and  therefore  each  generation  takes  pride  and  pleasure  in 
adorning  the  home  of  its  forefathers. 

Animals  yield  more  readily  to  man's  influence  than  vegetables, 
and  certain  classes  have  greater  flexibility  of  disposition  and  struc- 
ture than  others.  Those  only  are  capable  of  being  perfectly  reclaimed 
that  have  a  natural  tendency  for  it,  without  which  man's  endeavours 
would  be  unavailing.  This  predisposition  is  greatest  in  animals 
which  are  gregarious  and  follow  a  leader,  as  elephants,  dogs,  horses, 
and  cattle  do  in  their  wild  state ;  yet  even  among  these  some  species 
are  refractory,  as  the  buifalo,  which  can  only  be  regarded  as  half-re- 
claimed. The  canine  tribe,  on  the  contrary,  are  capable  of  the  great- 
est attachment,  not  the  dog  only,  man's  faithful  companion,  but  even 
the  wolf,  and  especially  the  hjaena,  generally  believed  to  be  so  fero- 
cious. After  an  absence  of  many  months,  a  hyaena  which  had  been 
the  fellow-passenger  of  a  friend  of  the  author's  in  a  voyage  from 
India,  recognised '  his  voice  before  he  came  in  sight,  and  on  seeing 


488  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXIII. 

him  showed  the  greatest  joy,  lay  down  like  a  dog  and  licked  his 
hands.  He  had  been  kind  to  it  on  the  voyage,  and  no  animal  for- 
gets kindness,  which  is  the  surest  way  of  reclaiming  them.  There 
cannot  be  a  greater  mistake  than  the  harsh  and  cruel  means  by 
which  dogs  and  horses  are  too  commonly  trained ;  but  it  is  long 
before  man  learns  that  his  power  is  mental,  and  that  it  is  intellect 
alone  that  has  given  him  dominion  over  the  earth  and  its  inhabi- 
tants, of  which  so  many  far  surpass  him  in  physical  strength.  The 
useful  animals  were  reclaimed  by  the  early  inhabitants  of  Asia,  and 
it  is  very  remarkable,  notwithstanding  the  enterprise  and  activity  of 
the  present  times,  that  among  the  multitudes  of  animals  that  inhabit 
America,  Central  and  Southern  Africa,  Australia  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago,  4  only  have  been  domesticated,  yet  many  may  be  capa- 
ble of  becoming  useful  to  man.  Of  35  species  of  which  we  possess 
one  or  more  domestic  races,  31  are  natives  of  Asia,  Europe,  and 
North  Africa;  these  countries  are  far  from  being  exhausted,  and  a 
complete  hemisphere  is  yet  unexplored.  An  attempt  has  been  made 
to  domesticate  the  Llama,  the  Dziggetai,  Zebra,  and  some  species  of 
Indian  deer,  but  the  success  is  either  doubtful  or  the  attempt  has  not 
been  followed  up.  Little  has  been  left  for  modern  nations  but  the 
improvement  of  the  species,  and  in  that  they  have  been  very  suc- 
cessful. The  variety  of  horses,  dogs,  cattle,  and  sheep  is  beyond 
number.  The  form,  colour,  and  even  the  disposition,  may  be  mate- 
rially altered,  and  the  habits  engrafted  are  transmitted  to  the  off- 
spring, as  instinctive  properties  independent  of  education.  Domestic 
fowls  go  in  flocks  on  their  native  meads  when  wild.  There  are, 
however,  instances  of  solitary  birds  being  tamed  to  an  extraordinary 
degree,  as  the  raven,  one  of  the  most  sagacious. 

Man's  necessities  and  pleasure  have  been  the  cause  of  great 
changes  in  the  animal  creation,  and  his  destructive  propensity  of 
still  greater.  Animals  are  intended  for  our  use,  and  field-sports  are 
advantageous  by  encouraging  a  daring  and  active  spirit  in  young 
men ;  but  the  utter  destruction  of  some  races,  in  order  to  protect 
those  destined  for  his  pleasure,  is  too  selfish.  Animals  soon  acquire 
a  dread  of  man,  which  becomes  instinctive  and  hereditary;  in  newly 
discovered  uninhabited  countries,  birds  and  beasts  are  so  tame  as  to 
allow  themselves  to  be  caught;  whales  scarcely  got  out  of  the  way 
of  the  ships  that  first  navigated  the  Arctic  Ocean,  but  now  they  uni- 
versally have  a  dread  of  the  common  enemy  :  whales  and  seals  have 
been  extirpated  in  various  places :  sea-fowl  and  birds  of  passage  are 
not  likely  to  be  extinguished,  but  many  land  animals  and  birds  are 
vanishing  before  the  advance  of  civilization.  Drainage,  cultivation, 
cutting  down  of  forest?,  and  even  the  introduction  of  new  plants  and 
animals,  destroy  some  of  the  old,  and  alter  the  relations  between 
those  that  remain.  The  inaccessible  cliffs  of  the  Himalaya  and 
Andes,  will  afford  a  refuge  to  the  eagle  and  condor,  but  the  time 


CHAP,  xxxiii.          MAN'S  FREE-WILL.  489 

will  come  when  the  mighty  forests  of  the  Amazon  and  Orinoco  will 
disappear  with  the  myriads  of  their  joyous  inhabitants.  The  lion, 
the  tiger,  and  the  elephant  will  be  known  only  by  ancient  records. 
Man,  the  lord  of  the  creation,  will  extirpate  the  noble  creatures  of 
the  earth — but  he  himself  will  ever  be  the  slave  of  the  canker-worm 
and  the  fly.  Cultivation  may  lessen  the  scourge  of  the  insect  tribe, 
but  God's  great  army  will  ever,  from  time  to  time,  appear  suddenly 
— no  one  knows  from  whence ;  the  grub  will  take  possession  of  the 
ground,  and  the  locust  will  come  from  the  desert  and  destroy  the 
fairest  prospects  of  the  harvest. 

Though  the  unreclaimed  portion  of  the  animal  creation  fe  falling 
before  the  progress  of  improvement,  yet  man  has  been  both  the 
voluntary  and  the  involuntary  cause  of  the  introduction  of  new 
animals  and  plants  into  countries  in  which  they  were  not  natives. 
The  Spanish  conquerors  little  thought  that  the  descendants  of  the 
few  cattle  and  horses  they  allowed  to  run  wild,  would  resume  the 
original  character  of  their  species,  and  roam  in  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands over  the  savannahs  of  South  America.  Wherever  man  is, 
civilized  or  savage,  there  also  is  the  dog,  but  he  too  has  in  some 
places  resumed'  his  native  state  and  habits,  and  hunts  in  packs. 
Domestic  animals,  grain,  fruit,  vegetables,  and  the  weeds  that  grow 
with  them,  have  been  conveyed  by  colonists  to  all  settlements. 
Birds  and  insects  follow  certain  plants  into  countries  in  which  they 
were  never  seen  before.  Even  the  inhabitants  of  the  waters  change 
their  abode  in  consequence  of  the  influence  of  man.  Fish,  natives 
of  the  rivers  on  the  coast  of  the  Mexican  Gulf,  have  migrated  by 
the  canals  to  the  heart  of  North  America ;  and  the  raytilus  poly- 
morphus,  a  shell-fish  brought  to  the  London  Docks  in  the  timbers 
of  ships  from  the  brackish  waters  of  the  Black  Sea  and  its  tributary 
streams,  has  spread  into  the  interior  of  England  by  the  Croydon 
and  other  canals. 

The  influence  of  man  on  man  is  a  power  of  the  highest  order, 
far  surpassing  that  which  he  possesses  over  animate  or  inanimate 
nature.  It  is,  however,  as  a  collective  body,  and  not  as  an  indivi- 
dual, that  he  exercises  this  influence  over  his  fellow-creatures.  The 
free-will  of  man,  nay,  even  his  most  capricious  passions,  neutralize 
each  other,  when  large  numbers  of  men  are  considered.  Professor 
Quetelet  has  most  ably  proved,  that  the  greater  the  number  of  in- 
dividuals, the  more  completely  does  the  will  of  each,  as  well  as  all 
individual  peculiarities,  moral  or  physical,  disappear,  and  allow  the 
series  of  general  facts  to  predominate,  which  depend  upon  the  causes 
by  which  society  exists  and  is  preserved.  The  uniformity  with  which 
the  number  of  marriages  in  Belgium  occurred  in  20  years,  places 
the  neutralization  of  the  free-will  of  the  individual  man  beyond  a 
doubt,  and  is  one  of  many  instances  of  the  importance  of  average 
quantities  in  arriving  at  general  laws. 


490  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXXIII. 

Certainly  no  event  in  a  man's  life  depends  more  upon  his  free 
will  than  his  marriage ;  yet  it  appears  from  the  records  in  Brussels, 
that  nearly  the  same  number  of  marriages  take  place  every  year,  in 
the  towns  as  well  as  in  the  country ;  and,  moreover,  that  the  same 
constancy  prevails  in  each  province,  though  the  numbers  of  the 
people  are  so  small,  that  accidental  causes  might  be  more  likely  to 
affect  the  general  result  than  when  the  numbers  are  larger.  In  fact, 
the  whole  affair  passes  as  if  the  inhabitants  of  Belgium  had  agreed 
to  contract  nearly  the  same  number  of  marriages  annually,  at  each 
stage  of  life.  Young  people  may  possibly  be  in  some  degree  under 
the  control  of  parents,  but  there  can  be  no  restraint  on  the  free  will 
of  men  of  30  and  women  of  60  years  of  age ;  yet  the  same  number 
of  such  incongruous  marriages  do  annually  take  place  between  men 
and  women  at  those  unsuitable  ages  —  a  fact  which  almost  exceeds 
belief.  The  day  fixed  for  a  wedding  is  of  all  things  most  entirely 
dependent  on  the  will  of  the  parties,  yet  even  here  there  is  a  regu- 
larity in  the  annual  recurrence.  (See  Table  on  next  page.) 

With  regard  to  crimes  also,  M.  Quetelet  observes  that  the  same 
number  of  crimes  of  the  same  description  are  committed  annually, 
with  remarkable  uniformity,  even  in  the  case  of  those  crimes  which 
would  seem  most  likely  to  baffle  all  attempt  at  prediction.  The 
same  regularity  occurs  in  the  sentences  passed  on  criminals :  in 
France,  in  every  hundred  trials  there  were  sixty-one  convictions  re- 
gularly, year  after  year. 

Forgetfulness,  as  well  as  free-will,  is  under  constant  laws;  the 
number  of  undirected  letters  put  into  the  post-office  in  London  and 
in  Paris  is  very  nearly  the  same  year  after  year  respectively  —  in 
London  they  amount  to  2000;  so  that  even  the  deviations  from 
free-will  prove  the  generality  and  the  constancy  of  the  laws  that 
govern  us. 

Scientific  discoveries  and  social  combinations,  which  put  in  prac- 
tice great  social  principles,  are  not  without  a  decided  influence ;  but 
these  causes  of  action,  coming  from  man,  are  placed  out  of  the 
sphere  of  the  free-will  of  each :  so  that  individual  impulse  has  less 
to  do  with  the  progress  of  mankind  than  is  generally  believed. 
When  society  has  arrived  at  a  certain  point  of  advancement,  certain 
discoveries  will  naturally  be  made;  the  general  mind  is  directed 
that  way,  and  if  one  individual  does  not  hit  upon  the  discovery,  an- 
other will.  Therefore  in  the  disputes  and  discussions  of  different 
nations  for  the  honour  of  particular  inventions  or  discoveries,  as  for 
example  the  steam-engine,  a  narrow  view  of  the  subject  is  taken ; 
they  properly  belong  to  the  age  in  which  they  are  made,  without 
derogating  from  the  merits  of  those  benefactors  of  mankind  who 
have  lessened  his  toil  or  increased  his  comfort  by  the  efforts  of  their 
genius.  The  time  had  come  for  the  invention  of  printing,  and 
printing  was  invented ;  and  the  same  observation  is  applicable  to 


CHAP.  XXXIII. 


MAN'S    FREE-WILL. 


491 


many  objects  in  the  physical,  as  well  as  to  the  moral  world.     In  the 
present  disturbed  state  of  society  the  time  is  come  for  the  termina- 


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492  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXIII. 

tion  of  the  feudal  system,  which  will  be  swept  away  by  the  force  of 
public  opinion,  though  individuality  merges  in  these  general  move- 
ments. 

Though  each  individual  is  accountable  to  God  for  his  conduct,  it 
is  evident  that  the  great  laws  which  regulate  mankind  are  altogether 
independent  of  man's  will,  and  that  liberty  of  action  is  perfectly 
compatible  with  the  general  design  of  Providence.  "  A  more  pro- 
found study  of  the  social  system  will  have  the  effect  of  limiting 
more  and  more  the  sphere  in  which  man's  free-will  is  exercised,  for 
the  Supreme  Being  could  not  grant  him  a  power  which  tends  to 
overthrow  the  laws  impressed  on  all  the  parts  of  creation :  He  has 
traced  his  limits,  as  He  has  fixed  those  of  the  ocean." 

Man  is  eminently  sociable ;  he  willingly  gives  up  part  of  his  free- 
will to  become  a  member  of  a  social  body ;  and  it  is  this  portion  of 
the  individuality  of  each  member  of  that  body,  taken  in  the  aggre- 
gate, which  becomes  the  directrice  of  the  principal  social  movements 
of  a  nation.  It  may  be  greater  or  less,  good  or  bad,  but  it  deter- 
mines the  customs,  wants,  and  the  national  spirit  of  a  people ;  it 
regulates  the  sum  of  their  moral  statistics ;  and  it  is  in  that  manner 
that  the  cultivation  or  savageness,  the  virtues  or  the  vices  of  indi- 
viduals have  their  influence.  It  is  thus  that  private  morality  be- 
comes the  base  of  public  morality. 

The  more  man  advances  in  civilization  the  greater  will  be  his  col- 
lective influence,  for  knowledge  is  power;  and  at  no  time  did  the 
mental  superiority  of  the  cultivated  races  produce  such  changes  as 
they  do  at  present,  because  they  have  extended  their  influence  to  the 
uttermost,  parts  of  the  earth  by  emigration,  colonization  and  com- 
merce. In  civilized  society  the  number  of  people  in  the  course  of 
time  exceeds  the  means  of  sustenance,  which  compels  some  to  emi- 
grate; others  are  induced  by  a  spirit  of  enterprise  to  go  to  new 
countries,  some  for  the  love  of  gain,  others  to  fly  from  oppres- 
sion. 

The  discovery  of  the  New  World  opened  a  wide  field  for  emigra- 
tion. Spain  and  Portugal,  the  first  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  ac- 
quired dominion  over  some  of  the  finest  parts  of  South  America, 
which  they  have  maintained  till  lately  a  change  of  times  has  ren- 
dered their  colonies  independent  states.  Liberal  opinions  have 
spread  into  the  interior  of  that  continent,  in  proportion  to  the  fa- 
cility of  communication  with  the  cities  on  the  coasts,  from  whence 
European  ideas  are  disseminated.  Of  this,  Venezuela  and  Chile  are 
instances  where  civilization  and  prosperity  have  advanced  more 
rapidly  than  in  the  interior  parts  of  South  America,  where  the 
Andes  are  higher  and  the  distance  from  the  sea  greater.  Civiliza- 
tion has  been  impeded  in  many  of  the  smaller  states  by  war,  and 
those  broils  inevitable  among  people  unaccustomed  to  free  ins.titu- 
tions.  Brazil  would  have  been  further  advanced  but  for  slavery, 


CHAP.  XXXIII.       CIVILIZED    EMIGRATION.  493 

that  stain  on  the  human  race,  which  corrupts  the  master  as  much 
as  it  debases  the  slave. 

Some  of  the  native  South  American  tribes  have  spontaneously 
made  considerable  progress  in  civilization  in  modern  times ;  others 
have  benefited  by  the  Spanish  and  Portuguese  colonists ;  and  many 
have  been  brought  into  subjection  by  the  Jesuits,  who  have  in- 
structed them  in  some  of  the  arts  of  social  life.  But  these  Indians 
are  not  more  religious  than  their  neighbours,  and,  from  the  restraint 
to  which  they  have  been  subject,  have  lost  vigour  of  character  with- 
out improving  in  intellect ;  so  that  now  they  are  either  stationary  or 
retrograde.  Extensive  regions  are  still  the  abode  of  men  in  the 
lowest  state  of  barbarism :  some  of  the  tribes  inhabiting  the  silvas 
of  the  Orinoco,  Amazon,  and  Uruguay  are  cannibals. 

The  arrival  of  the  colonists  in  North  America  sealed  the  fate  of 
the  red  men.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Union,  too  late  awakened  to 
the  just  claims  of  the  ancient  proprietors  of  the  land,  have  recently, 
but  vainly,  attempted  to  save  the  remnant.1  The  white  man,  like 
an  irresistible  torrent,  has  already  reached  the  centre  of  the  conti- 
nent; and  the  native  tribes  now  retreat  towards  the  far  west,  and 
will  continue  to  retreat,  till  the  Pacific  Ocean  arrests  them,  and  the 
animals  on  their  hunting-grounds  are  exterminated.  The  almost 
universal  dislike  the  Indian  has  shown  for  the  arts  of  "peace,  has 
been  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  his  decline,  although  the  Che- 
rokee tribe,  which  has  lately  migrated  to  the  west  of  the  Mississippi, 
is  a  remarkable  exception;  the  greater  number  of  them  are  indus- 
trious planters  or  mechanics ;  they  have  a  republican  government, 
and  publish  a  newspaper  in  their  own  language,  in  a  character  lately 
invented  by  one  of  that  nation. 

No  part  of  the  world  has  been  the  scene  of  greater  iniquity  than 
the  West  Indian  islands — and  that  perpetrated  by  the  most  enlight- 
ened nations  of  Europe.  Tke  native  race  has  long  been  swept  away 
by  the  stranger,  and  a  new  people,  cruelly  torn  from  their  homes, 
have  been  made  the  slaves  of  hard  task-masters.  If  the  odious 
participation  in  this  guilt  has  been  a  stain  on  the  British  name,  the 
abolition  of  slavery  by  the  universal  acclamation  of  the  nation  will 
ever  form  one  of  the  brightest  pages  in  their  history,  so  full  of 
glory ;  nor  will  it  be  the  less  so,  that  justice  was  combined  with 

['  The  Republic  of  the  United  States  of  North  America  occupies  the 
territory  lying  between  the  25th  and  49th  degrees  of  north  latitude ;  and 
the  67th  and  130th  degrees  of  west  longitude.  It  extends  from  the  At- 
lantic to  the  Pacific  ocean,  3000  miles,  and  from  north  to  south  1700  miles, 
embracing  an  area  of  3,250,000  square  miles.  In  1850,  the  population 
was  23,257,723,  of  which  3,198,324  are  slaves. 

The  total  number  of  Indians  in  the  United  States  and  territories,  in- 
cluding California  and  Oregon,  is  estimated  at  388,229 ;  and  in  the  British 
North  American  possessions,  19,987.] 

42 


494  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXIII. 

mercy,  by  the  millions  of  money  granted  to  indemnify  the  proprie- 
tors. It  is  deeply  to  be  lamented  that  our  brethren  on  the  other 
side_of  the  Atlantic  have  not  followed  the  example  of  their  father- 
land ;  but  in  limited  monarchies  the  voice  of  the  people  is  listened 
to,  while  republican  governments  are  more  apt  to  become  its  slave. 
Unfortunately,  the  Northern  States  have  revoked  a  law  by  which 
they  had  nobly  declared  every  man  free  who  set  his  foot  on  their 
territory;  but  the  time  will  come  when  the  Union  will  sacrifice  in- 
terest to  justice  and  mercy. 

It  seems  to  be  the  design  of  Providence  to  supplant  the  savage  by 
civilized  man  in  the  continent  of  Australia  as  well  as  in  North  Ame- 
rica, though  every  effort  has  been  made  to  prevent  the  extinction  of 
the  natives.  Most  of  the  tribes  in  that  continent  are  as  low  in  the 
scale  of  mankind  as  the  cannibal  Fuegians,  whom  Captain  FitzRoy 
so  generously,  but  so  ineffectually,  attempted  to  reclaim.  Some  of 
the  Australians  are  faithful  servants  for  a  time,  but  they  almost 
always  find  the  restraint  of  civilized  life  irksome,  and  return  to  their 
former  habits,  though  truly  miserable  in  a  country  where  the  means 
of  existence  are  so  scanty.  Animals  and  birds  are  very  scarce,  and 
there  is  no  fruit  or  vegetable  for  the  sustenance  of  man. 

Slavery  has  been  a  greater  impediment  to  the  improvement  of 
Africa  than  even  the  physical  disadvantages  of  the  country — the 
great  arid  deserts  and  unwholesome  coasts.  A  spontaneous  civiliza- 
tion has  arisen  in  various  parts  of  Southern  and  Central  Africa,  ia 
which  there  has  been  considerable  progress  ia  agriculture  and  com- 
merce ;  but  civilized  man  has  been  a  scourge  on  the  Atlantic  coast, 
which  has  extended  its  baneful  influence  into  the  -heart  of  the  conti- 
nent, by  the  encouragement  it  has  given  to  warfare  among  the  natives 
for  the  capture  of  slaves,  and  for  the  introduction  of  European  vices, 
unredeemed  by  Christian  virtues. 

The  French  are  zealous  in  improving  the  people  in  Algiers,  but 
the  constant  warfare  in  which  they  have  been  embroiled  ever  since 
their  conquest  must  render  their  success  in  civilizing  the  natives  at 
least  remote.  The  inhabitants  of  those  extensive  and  magnificent 
countries  in  the  eastern  seas  that  have  long  been  colonized  by  the 
Dutch  have  made  but  little  progress  under  their  rule. 

The  British  colony  at  the  Cape  of  G-ood  Hope  has  had  considera- 
ble influence  on  the  neighbouring  rude  nations,  who  now  begin  to 
adopt  more  civilized  habits.  When  Mr.  Somerville  visited  Litako, 
the  natives  for  the  first  time  saw  a  white  person  and  a  horse,  and 
were  scantily  clothed  with  skins.  When  Dr.  Smith  visited  them  20 
years  afterwards,  he  found  the  chief  men  mounted  on  horseback, 
wearing  hats  made  of  rushes,  and  an  attempt  made  to  imitate  Euro- 
pean dress. 

Colonization  has  nowhere  produced  such  happy  results  as  among 
the  amiable  and  cultivated  inhabitants  of  India,  who  are  sensible  of 


CHAP.  XXXIII.  COLONIZATION.  495 

the  benefits  they  derive  from  the  impartial  administration  of  just  and 
equal  laws,  the  foundation  of  schools  and  colleges,  and  the  wide 
extension  of  commerce. 

All  the  causes  of  emigration  have  operated  by  turns  on  the  inhab- 
itants of  Britain,  and  various  circumstances  have  concurred  to  make 
their  colonies  permanent.  In  North  America,  that  which  not  many 
years  ago  was  a  British  colony  has  become  a  great  independent  nation, 
occupying  a  large  portion  of  the  continent.  .  The  Australian  conti- 
nent and  New  Zealand  will  in  after  ages  be  peopled  by  a  British 
race,  and  will  become  centres  of  civilization,  which  will  spread  its 
influence  to  the  uttermost  islands  of  the  Pacific.  These  splendid 
islands,  possessing  every  advantage  of  climate  and  soil,  with  a  popu- 
lation in  many  parts  far  advanced  in  the  arts  of  civilized  life,  indus- 
try, and  commerce,  though  in  others  savage,  will  in  time  come  in 
for  a  share  of  the  general  improvement.  The  success  that  has 
attended  the  noble  efforts  of  Sir  J.  Brooke  in  Borneo,  shows  how 
much  the  influence  of  an  active  and  benevolent  mind  can  in  a  short 
time  effect. 

The  colonies  on  the  continent  of  India  arc  already  centres  from 
which  the  culture  of  Europe  is  spreading  over  the  East. 

Commerce  has  not  less  influence  on  mankind  than  colonization, 
with  which  it  is  intimately  connected ;  and  the  narrow  limits  of  tho 
British  Islands  have  rendered  it  necessary  for  its  inhabitants  to 
exert  their  industry.  The  riches  of  our  mines  in  coal  and  metals, 
which  produce  a  yearly  income  of  24,000,000?.  sterling,  is  a  princi- 
pal cause  of  our  manufacturing  and  commercial  wealth ;  but  even 
with  these  natural  advantages,  more  is  due  not  only  to  our  talents 
and  enterprise,  but  to  our  high  character  for  faith  and  honour. 

Every  country  has  its  own  peculiar  productions,  and  by  an  unre- 
strained interchange  of  the  gifts  of  Providence  the  condition  of  all  is 
improved.  The  exclusive  jealousy  with  which  commerce  has  hith- 
erto been  fettered,  shows  the  length  of  time  that  is  necessary  to  wear 
out  the  effects  of  those  selfish  passions  which  separated  nations  when 
they  were  yet  barbarous.  It  required  a  high  degree  of  cultivation  tc 
break  down  those  barriers  consecrated  by  their  antiquity;  and  the 
accomplishment  of  this  important  change  evinces  the  rate  at  which 
the  present  age  is  advancing. 

A  new  era  in  the  history  of  the  world  began  when  China  was 
opened  to  European  intercourse ;  but  many  years  must  pass  before 
European  influence  can  penetrate  that  vast  empire,  and  eradicate 
those  illiberal  prejudices  by  which  it  has  so  long  been  governed. 

Two  important  triumphs  yet  remain  to  be  achieved  over  physical 
difficulties  by  the  science  and  energy  of  man,  namely,  the  junction 
of  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  Oceans  at  the  American  isthmus,  and  the 
union  of  the  Red  Sea  with  the  Mediterranean  at  that  of  Suez.  The 
first  seems  to  be  on  the  eve  of  accomplishment,  and,  in  conjunction 


PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIII. 

with  the  treasures  with  which  the  auriferous  districts  of  California 
abound,  may  hring  about  a  complete  revolution  in  the  commerce  of 
the  New  World ;  and  that  country,  hitherto  so  completely  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  globe,  and  so  little  known,  will  become  a  new 
centre  of  civilization,  whose  influence  will  be  diffused  over  the  wide 
Pacific  to  the  shores  of  the  eastern  continent;  the  expectation  of 
Columbus  will  then  be  realized — of  a  passage  to  the  East  Indies  by 
the  Atlantic.  Should  the  Mediterranean  and  Red  Sea  be  united  by 
a  water  communication,  Alexandria,  Venice,  and  the  other  mari- 
time cities  of  southern  Europe  may  regain,  at  least  in  part,  the 
mercantile  position  which  they  lost  by  the  discovery  of  Vasco  da 
Grama.1 

The  advantages  of  colonization  and  commerce  to  the  less  civilized 
part  of  the  world  are  incalculable,  as  well  as  to  those  at  home,  not 
only  by  furnishing  an  exchange  for  manufactures,  important  as  this 
is,  but  by  the  immense  accession  of  knowledge  of  the  earth  and  its 
inhabitants,  that  has  been  thus  attained. 

The  history  of  former  ages  exhibits  nothing  to  be  compared  with 
the  mental  activity  of  the  present.  Steam,  which  annihilates  time 
and  space,  fills  mankind  with  schemes  for  advantage  or  defence  :  but 
however  mercenary  the  motives  for  defence  may  be,  it  is  instrumental 
in  bringing  nations  together.  The  facility  of  communication  is 
rapidly  assimilating  national  character.  Society  in  most  of  the  capi- 
tals is  formed  on  the  same  model ;  and  as  the  study  of  modern  lan- 
guages is  now  considered  a  part  of  polite  education,  and  every  well- 
educated  person  speaks  more  than  one  modern  tongue,  one  of  the 
great  barriers  to  the  assimilation  of  character  amongst  nations  will 
be  removed. 

Science  has  never  been  so  extensively  and  so  successfully  culti- 

1  It  is  singular  that  the  British  should  for  years  have  possessed  such  ex- 
tensive territories  in  Asia  •without  having  explored  their  mineral  wealth. 
Perhaps  the  quantity  of  gold  recently  discovered  in  California  and  Africa 
may  call  the  attention  of  the  East  India  Company  to  the  subject.  Some  of 
the  richest  mining  districts  are  in  countries  where  primary  formation  has 
been  disturbed  by  igneous  action ;  and  as  that  is  eminently  the  case  along 
the  eastern  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  from  Aracan  to  the  peninsula  of 
Malacca,  mines  of  the  precious  metals  will  most  likely  be  found  on  that 
frontier,  possibly  in  Siam  and  the  Birman  empire.  The  interior  of  the 
Deccan  has  also  been  greatly  disturbed  by  ancient  volcanos ;  and  as  that 
country  is  said  to  bear  a  strong  analogy  in  structure  to  South  Africa,  it 
may  also  resemble  it  in  the  production  of  gold.  The  auriferous  territory 
in  California,  which  appears  to  be  at  least  400  miles  long  and  100  broad,  is 
an  alluvial  soil,  derived  from  the  destruction  of  ancient  sedimentary  rocks 
of  the  Paleozoic  period  traversed  by  porphyries,  syennites,  &c. 

[Great  Britain  has  abundantly  participated  in  the  gold-production  of  the 
world,  by  the  recent  discoveries  in  Australia,  which  promise  to  equal,  if 
not  to  surpass,  even  those  of  California.] 


CHAP.  XXXIII.       ADVANCE    OF     SCIENCE.  497 

vated  as  at  the  present  time :  the  collective  wisdom  and  experience 
of  Europe  and  the  United  States  of  America  is  now  brought  to  bear 
on  subjects  of  the  highest  importance  in  annual  meetings,  where  the 
common  pursuit  of  truth  is  as  beneficial  to  the  moral  as  to  the  in- 
tellectual character,  and  the  noble  objects  of  investigation  are  no 
longer  confined  to  a  philosophic  few,  but  are  becoming  widely  diffused 
among  all  ranks  of  society,  and  the  most  enlightened  governments 
have  given  their  support  to  measures  that  could  not  have  been  other- 
wise accomplished.1  Simultaneous  observations  are  made  at  nume- 

1  In  bringing  to  a  close  a  work  -which  may  in  some  measure  be  considered 
a  kind  of  Re'sume'  of  Natural  knowledge,  it  may  not  be  either  out  of  place 
here,  or  irrelevant  to  our  subject,  to  allude  more  particularly  to  the  encour- 
agement of  late  years  granted  to  scientific  investigation  by  our  own  Govern- 
ment. 

It  must  be  confessed  that  Great  Britain  for  a  long  time  remained  behind 
the  nations  of  the  continent  in  fostering  scientific  enterprise  and  research ; 
and  if  England  has  rivalled  in  most  branches  of  natural  knowledge,  and 
surpassed  in  some  every  other  people,  it  has  arisen  more  from  individual 
exertion,  and  that  spirit  of  association  winch  forms  so  happy  a  characte- 
ristic of  our  race,  and  which  has  in  our  political  institutions  so  mainly 
contributed  to  our  national  greatness  and  prosperity,  than  from  any  direct 
encouragement  from  our  rulers.  Whilst  France  and  other  continental 
nations  were  endowing  the  votaries  of  science,  were  lavishing  money  on 
scientific  expeditions,  and  founding  institutions  which  will  hand  down  the 
names  of  their  sovereigns  to  posterity  as  the  benefactors  of  mankind,  Eng- 
land had  done  little  in  the  same  track  beyond  fitting  out  the  memorable  ex- 
peditions of  Cook,  and  subsequently  those  of  Vancouver  and  Flinders,  and 
the  support  granted  to  our  great  national  Observatory,  which,  under  the 
direction  of  Bradley,  Maskelyne,  Pond,  and  Airy,  has  attained  a  degree  of 
celebrity  unequalled  by  any  Astronomical  foundation  in  ancient  or  modern 
times. 

The  conclusion  of  a  long  war,  in  opening  the  scientific  repositories  of  the 
continent  to  our  countrymen,  showed  us  how  much  our  great  institutions, 
with  the  above  solitary  exception,  were  behindhand,  not  only  in  extent  and 
utility,  but  in  the  liberality  with  which  they  were  conducted.  Possessing 
as  we  did  the  most  ample  means,  from  our  immense  colonial  possessions 
and  our  widely  extended  commerce,  to  add  to  the  stock  of  our  knowledge 
in  natural  history,  our  public  collections  were  infinitely  behind  those  of  the 
great  states  of  the  continent,  and  scarcely  on  a  par  with  those  of  the  sove- 
reigns of  a  second  and  even  third  rate  importance.  A  better  system  was 
loudly  called  for,  and  a  better  system  has  been  adopted.  Our  great  national 
repositorj',  the  Bi-itish  Museum  — and  I  here  refer  more  particularly  to  its 
scientific  and  antiquarian  department,  for  there  is  still  much  room  for  im- 
provement in  the  literary  —  has  in  a  few  years,  thanks  to  the  liberality  of 
Parliament  and  the  exertions  of  its  trustees  and  officers,  become  equal  in 
every  respect,  and  superior  in  many,  to  any  similar  institution  on  the  con- 
tinent. Two  establishments  have  been  created  within  the  last  dozen  of 
years  which  reflect  the  greatest  honour  on  the  statesman,  Sir  F.  Baring, 
then  Chancellor  of  the  Exchequer,  and  the  late  Earl  of  Besborough,  as 
chief  Commissioners  of  the  Woods  and  Forests,  who  fostered  them  in  theiv 
infancy,  and  on  the  talented  individuals  who  were  selected  to  carry  out  the 
enlightened  views  of  the  Government  —  the  Museum  of  Practical  Geology, 
42* 


498  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXIII. 

rous  places  in  both  hemispheres  on  electricity,  magnetism,  on  the 
tides  and  currents  of  the  air  and  the  ocean,  and  those  mysterious 

a  designation  that  conveys  a  very  inadequate  idea  of  the  extent  of  its  attri- 
butes or  of  its  utility,  and  the  Royal  Botanic  Gardens  at  Kew.  To  the 
first  the  public  is  already  indebted  for  a  geological  survey  and  map  of  the 
empire  such  as  never  had  been  planned  or  executed  in  any  other  country 
—  only  a  small  instalment,  however,  of  great  services  which  the  nation  and 
geological  science  are  likely  to  derive  from  the  labours  of  Sir  H.  Delabeche 
and  his  collaborators.  The  Royal  Gardens  at  Kew,  under  the  direction  of 
Sir  W.  J.  Hooker,  lose  nothing  when  compared  with  the  most  celebrated 
establishments  of  the  kind,  ancient  or  modern;  never  was  public  money 
better  bestowed,  or  in  a  way  to  convey  more  useful  instruction  and  gratifi- 
cation to  the  great  mass  of  the  community.  Whilst  every  German  univer- 
sity had  its  Museum  of  Comparative  Anatomy,  when  the  government  of 
revolutionary  France  had  placed  at  the  disposal  of  Cuvier  ample  means  to 
lay  the  basis  of  that  science  of  which  he  was  considered  to  be  the  founder, 
an  eminent  surgeon,  John  Hunter,  animated  by  the  love  of  science  alone, 
and  unaided  by  his  Government,  was  rendering  a  similar  service  to  Great 
Britain  in  laying  the  foundation  of  that  Museum  which  so  justly  bears  his 
honoured  name.  Thanks  to  the  liberality  of  the  Government,  and  to  the 
well-judged  appreciation  of  the  Royal  College  of  Surgeons,  the  Hunterian 
Collection  has  become  the  property  of  the  nation,  and  has  received  such 
additions  and  ameliorations  as  not  to  be  behind  any  of  those  of  the  conti- 
nent; whilst  in  point  of  arrangement,  facilities  granted  for  study,  and  real 
practical  utility,  it  infinitely  surpasses  them  all.  To  it  we  principally  are 
indebted  for  the  introduction  of  the  study  of  comparative  anatomy  into  this 
country,  and  for  the  possession  of  one  of  its  greatest  modern  expositors, 
Professor  Owen. 

It  may  appear  invidious,  at  a  time  when  every  department  of  our  Govern- 
ment is  showing  itself  so  desirous  of  promoting  the  cause  of  science,  to 
point  to  any  in  particular :  still  we  cannot  refrain  from  making  special  men- 
tion of  one  to  which  science  in  general,  and  more  particularly  that  branch 
of  it  which  forms  the  principal  object  of  this  work,  and  our  best  national 
interests  owe  a  lasting  debt  of  gratitude — the  Hydrogrnphic  department  of 
the  Admiralty ;  which,  under  its  present  able  chief,  Sir  Francis  Beaufort, 
has  attained  a  degree  of  eminence  unequalled  by  that  of  any  other  mari- 
time country.  The  Lords  of  the  Admiralty  have  profited  of  a  long  period 
of  tranquillity  to  extend  our  knowledge  over  almost  every  region  of  the 
globe,  conferring  thereby  an  immense  service  on  geographical  science,  and 
placing  in  the  hands  of  our  Royal  and  Commercial  marine  a  collection  of 
charts  and  nautical  instructions  unparalleled  in  the  history  of  navigation 
for  their  extent  and  exactitude.  Another  branch  of  inquiry,  closely  con- 
nected with  Hydrography  and  Navigation,  which  it  required  the  encourage- 
ment of  a  government  to  institute,  the  investigation  of  the  laws  of  terres- 
trial magnetism  and  meteorology,  has  been  very  liberally  provided  for  by 
Parliament,  and  most  ably  carried  out,  under  the  direction  of  Colonel 
Sabine,  by  the  establishment  of  special  observatories  in  our  widely  extended 
colonies,  and  by  the  publication  and  distribution  of  their  results. 

The  several  maritime  expeditions  undertaken  since  the  peace  in  a  purely 
scientific  view  reflect  the  highest  credit  on  the  departments  of  the  Govern- 
ment with  which  they  have  originated,  as  they  do  on  the  eminent  individuals, 
many  of  whom  still  live  to  enjoy  their  well-merited  fame,  who  have  carried 
out  their  country's  wishes.  The  names  of  Parry,  Franklin,  Back,  James  C. 
Ross  and  Richardson  will  be  preserved  in  the  memory  of  posterity  long 


CHAP.  XXXIII.        ADVANCE     OF     SCIENCE. 

vicissitudes  of  temperature  and  moisture,  which  bless  the  labours  of 
the  husbandman  one  year,  and  blight  them  in  another. 

The  places  of  the  nebula)  and  fixed  stars,  and  their  motions,  are 
known  with  unexampled  precision,  and  the  most  refmed  analyses 
embrace  the  most  varied  objects.  Three  new  satellites  and  nine 
new  planets  have  been  discovered  within  four  years,  and  one  of  these 
under  circumstances  the  most  unprecedented.  In  the  far  heavens, 
from  disturbances  in  the  motions  of  Uranus  which  could  not  be 
satisfactorily  accounted  for,  an  unknown  and  unseen  body  was  de- 
clared to  be  revolving  on  the  utmost  verge  of  the  solar  system ;  and 
it  was  found  in  the  very  region  of  the  heavens  pointed  out  by  ma- 
thematical analysis.  On  earth,  though  hundreds  of  miles  apart, 
that  invisible  messenger,  electricity,  instantaneously  conveys  the 
thoughts  of  the  invisible  spirit  of  man  to  man  —  results  of  science 
sublimely  transcendental. 

after  the  ephemeral  glory  of  their  professional  career  -will  have  been  for- 
gotten. 

Although  it  is  to  the  projectors  of  such  an  altered  state  of  things,  and  to 
the  statesmen  who  encouraged  and  brought  it  about,  that  our  first  acknow- 
ledgment is  due,  our  thanks  must  be  also  expressed  to  that  branch  of  the 
legislature  which,  holding,  as  it  rightly  does,  the  public  purse,  has  so  libe- 
rally come  forward  upon  every  occasion,  when  solicited,  in  granting  the 
means  to  promote  scientific  enterprise.  The  votary  of  science  therefore 
owes  to  the  House  of  Commons  the  expression  of  his  unmingled  gratitude. 

But,  in  paying  that  just  tribute  to  the  Ministers  of  the  Crown  and  to  Par- 
liament, we  must  not  pass  over  in  silence  the  encouragement  which  science 
has  in  every  department  met  with  from  the  East  India  Company.  Lords 
of  an  immense  territory,  the  Court  of  Directors,  and  its  servants  in  India, 
have  always  shown  themselves  ready  to  contribute  in  a  most  liberal  spirit 
to  the  extension  of  our  knowledge  of  their  widely  extended  empire.  The 
trigonometrical  surveys  of  India,  the  establishment  of  observatories,  the 
endowment  of  colleges  and  of  scientific  societies,  the  formation  of  collections 
of  natural  history  at  great  expense,  and  which  it  distributes  to  all  those 
who  are  likely  to  make  good  use  of  them,  the  publication  of  works  on  phy- 
sical researches,  on  natural  history,  of  astronomical  observations,  bestowed 
with  so  liberal  a  hand  on  men  of  science,  the  formation  of  such  a  map  of 
its  extended  dominions  and  of  charts  of  its  coasts  as  would  do  honour  to 
any  government,  must  place  the  East  India  Company  in  the  first  rank  of 
those  mighty  Potentates  of  the  earth  to  whom  science  will  both  now  and  in 
after  ages  feel  placed  under  the  most  lasting  obligations. 

Connected  with  our  Oriental  empire,  it  is  due  to  some  of  the  native  sove- 
reigns of  India  to  state  that  they  have  not  been  behindhand  in  imitating 
the  liberal  example  of  their  powerful  protectors.  Two  native  princes,  the 
Rajah  of  Travancore  and  the  King  of  Oude,  have  at  very  great  expense  es- 
tablished astronomical  observatories  in  their  tcrritoi-ies,  furnished  with 
European  instruments  of  the  most  delicate  construction,  and  placed  under 
the  direction  of  European  officers  amply  endowed  and  provided  for.  The 
peninsula  of  India  at  the  present  moment  possesses  four  astronomical  ob- 
servatories little  behind  those  of  Europe  as  regards  the  means  of  observa- 
tion: until  lately  there  did  not  exist  one  public  observatory  in  the  whole 
extent  of  the  United  States  of  America. 


500  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.       CHAP.  XXXITI. 

Vain  would  be  the  attempt  to  enumerate  the  improvements  in 
machinery  and  mechanics,  the  canals  and  railroads  that  have  been 
made,  the  harbours  that  have  been  improved,  the  land  that  has  been 
drained,  the  bridges  that  have  been  constructed ;  and  now,  although 
Britain  is  inferior  to  none  in  many  things,  and  superior  to  all  in 
some,  one  of  our  most  distinguished  engineers'  declares  that  we  are 
scarcely  beyond  the  threshold  of  improvement.  To  stand  still  is  to 
retrograde ;  human  ingenuity  will  always  keep  pace  with  the  un- 
foreseen, the  increasing  wants  of  the  age.  "Who  knows  what  may 
yet  be  in  store  for  our  use ;  what  new  discovery  may  again  change 
the  tide  of  human  affairs ;  what  hidden  treasures  may  yet  be  brought 
to  light  in  the  air  or  in  the  ocean,  of  which  we  know  so  little ;  or 
what  virtues  there  may  be  in  the  herbs  of  the  field,  and  in  the  trea- 
sures of  the  earth  —  how  far  its  hidden  fires,  or  stores  of  ice,  may 
yet  become  available  :  ages  can  never  exhaust  the  treasures  of  na- 
ture or  the  talent  of  man."2  It  would  be  difficult  to  follow  the 
rapid  course  of  discovery  through  the  complicated  mazes  of  magnetism 
and  electricity ;  the  action  of  the  electric  current  on  the  polarized 
sun-beam,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  modern  discoveries,  leading 
to  relations  hitherto  unsuspected  between  that  power  and  the  com- 
plex assemblage  of  visible  and  invisible  influences  on  solar  light,  by 
one  of  which  nature  has  recently  been  made  to  paint  her  own  like- 
ness. It  is  impossible  to  convey  an  idea  of  the  rapid  succession  of 
the  varied  and  curious  results  of  chemistry,  and  its  application  to 
physiology  and  agriculture;  moreover,  distinguished  works  have 
lately  been  published  at  home  and  abroad  on  the  science  of  mind, 
which  has  been  so  successfully  cultivated  in  our  own  country. 
Geography  has  assumed  a  new  character,  by  that  unwearied  search 
for  accurate  knowledge  and  truth  that  marks  the  present  age,  and 
physical  geography  is  altogether  a  new  science. 

The  spirit  of  nautical  and  geographical  discovery,  begun  in  the 
15th  century,  by  those  illustrious  navigators  who  bad  a  new  world 
to  discover,  is  at  this  day  as  energetic  as  ever,  though  the  results 
are  less  brilliant.  Neither  the  long  gloomy  night  of  a  polar  winter, 
nor  the  danger  of  the  ice  and  the  storm,  deter  our  gallant  seamen 
from  seeking  a  better  acquaintance  with  "  this  ball  of  earth,"  even 
under  its  most  frowning  aspect ;  and  that,  for  honour,  which  they 
are  as  eager  to  seek,  even  in  the  cannon's  mouth.  Nor  have  other 
nations  of  Europe  and  America  been  without  their  share  in  these 
bold  adventures.  The  scorching  sun  and  deadly  swamps  of  the 
tropics  as  little  prevent'the  traveller  from  collecting  the  animals  and 
plants  of  the  present  creation,  or  the  geologist  from  investigating 
those  of  ages  long  gone  by.  Man  daily  indicates  his  birthright  as 
lord  of  the  creation,  and  compels  every  land  and  sea  to  contribute 
to  his  knowledge. 

1  Sir  John  Rennie.  a  Charles  Babbage,  Esq. 


CHAP.  XXXin.       ANTIQUARIAN    RESEARCH.  501 

The  most  distinguished  modern  travellers,  following  the  noble 
example  of  Baron  Humboldt,  the  patriarch  of  physical  geography, 
take  a  more  extended  view  of  the  subject  than  the  earth  and  its 
animal  and  vegetable  inhabitants  afford,  and  include  in  their  re- 
searches the  past  and  present  condition  of  man,  the  origin,  manners, 
and  languages  of  existing  nations,  and  the  monuments  of  those  that 
have  been.  Geography  has  had  its  dark  ages,  during  which  the 
situation  of  many  great  cities  and  spots  of  celebrity  in  sacred  and 
profane  history  had  been  entirely  lost  sight  of,  which  are  now  disco- 
vered by  the  learning  and  assiduity  of  the  modern  traveller.  Of 
this,  Italy,  Egypt,  the  Holy  Land,  Asia  Minor,  Arabia,  and  the 
valleys  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  with  the  adjacent  mountains 
of  Persia,  are  remarkable  instances,  not  to  mention  the  vast  region 
of  the  East,  and  the  remote  centres  of  aboriginal  civilization  in  the 
New  World.  The  interesting  discoveries  of  Mr.  Layard,  who  pos- 
sesses every  acquirement  that  could  render  a  traveller  competent  to 
accomplish  so  arduous  an  undertaking,  have  brought  to  light  the 
long-hidden  treasures  of  the  ancient  Nineveh,  where  its  own  pecu- 
liar style  of  art  had  existed  anterior  to  that  of  Egypt.  In  many 
parts  of  the  world  the  ruins  of  cities  of  extraordinary  magnitude 
and  architecture  show  that  there  are  wide  regions  of  whose  original 
inhabitants  we  know  nothing.  The  Andes  of  Peru  and  Mexico 
have  remains  of  civilized  nations  before  the  age  of  the  Incas.  Mr. 
Pentland  has  found  numerous  remains  of  Peruvian  monuments  in 
every  part  of  the  great  valley  of  the  Peru-Bolivian  Andes,  and 
many  parts  of  the  imperial  capital  Cusco  little  changed  from  what 
they  were  at  the  downfall  of  Atahualpa.  Mr.  Stephens  has  disco- 
vered in  the  woods  of  Central  America  the  ruins  of  great  cities, 
adorned  with  sculpture  and  pictorial  writings,  vestiges  of  a  people 
far  advanced,  who  had  once  cultivated  the  soil  where  these  entangled 
forests  now  grow.  Picture-writings  have  been  discovered  by  Sir 
Robert  Schomburgk  on  rocks  in  Guiana,  similar  to  those  found  in 
the  United  States  and  in  Siberia.  Magnificent  buildings  still  exist 
in  good  preservation  all  over  eastern  Asia,  and  many  in  a  ruinous 
state  belong  to  a  period  far  beyond  written  record. 

Ancient  literature  has  furnished  a  subject  of  still  more  interesting 
research,  from  which  it  is  evident  that  the  mind  of  man  is  essentially 
the  same  under  very  different  circumstances :  every  nation  far  ad- 
vanced in  civilization  has  had  its  age  of  poetry,  the  drama,  romance, 
and  philosophy,  each  stamped  with  the  character  of  the  people  and 
times,  and  still  more  with  their  religious  belief.  Our  profound  Ori- 
ental scholars  have  made  known  to  Europeans  the  refined  Sanscrit 
literature  of  Hindostan,  its  schools  of  philosophy  and  astronomy, 
its  dramatic  writings  and  poetry,  which  are  original  and  beautiful, 
and  to  these  the  learned  in  Greece  and  Italy  have  contributed. 

The  riches  of  Chinese  literature  and  their  valuable  geography 


502  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.        CHAP.  XXXIII. 

were  introduced  into  Europe  by  the  French  Jesuits  of  the  last  cen- 
tury, and  followed  up  with  success  by  the  French  and  English  phi- 
losophers of  the  present :  to  France  we  also  owe  much  of  our 
knowledge  of  the  poetry  and  letters  of  Persia ;  and  from  the  time 
that  Dr.  Young  deciphered  the  inscriptions  on  the  Rosetta  Stone, 
Egyptian  hieroglyphics  and  picture-writing  have  been  studied  by 
the  learned  of  France,  England,  and  Italy,  and  we  have  reason  to 
expect  much  new  information  from  the  more  recent  researches  of 
Professor  Lepsius  of  Berlin.  The  Germans,  indeed,  have  left  few 
subjects  of  ancient  literature  unexplored,  even  to  the  language 
written  at  Babylon  and  Nineveh  —  the  most  successful  attempt  to 
decipher  which  is  due  to  a  distinguished  countryman  of  our  own, 
Colonel  Rawlinson.1 

The  press  has  overflowed  with  an  unprecedented  quantity  of  lite- 
rature, some  of  standard  merit,  and  much  more  that  is  ephemeral, 
suited  to  all  ranks,  on  every  subject,  with  the  aim,  in  our  own  coun- 
try at  least,  to  improve  the  people,  and  to  advocate  the  cause  of 
morality  and  virtue.  All  this  mental  energy  is  but  an  effect  of 
those  laws  which  regulate  human  affairs,  and  include  in  their  gene- 
rality the  various  changes  that  tend  to  improve  the  condition  of 
man. 

The  fine  arts  do  not  keep  pace  with  science,  though  they  have 
not  been  altogether  left  behind.  Painting,  like  poetry,  must  come 
spontaneously,  because  a  feeling  for  it  depends  upon  innate  sympa- 
thies in  the  human  breast.  Nothing  external  could  affect  us,  unless 
there  were  corresponding  ideas  within ;  poetically  constituted  minds 
of  the  highest  organization  are  most  deeply  impressed  with  whatever 
is  excellent.  All  are  not  gifted  with  a  strong  perception  of  the 
beautiful,  in  the  same  way  as  some  persons  cannot  see  certain  colours, 
or  hear  certain  sounds.  Those  elevated  sentiments  which  constitute 
genius  are  given  to  few;  yet  something  akin,  though  inferior  in  de- 
gree, exists  in  most  men.  Consequently,  though  culture  may  not 
inspire  genius,  it  cherishes  and  calls  forth  the  natural  perception  of 
what  is  good  and  beautiful,  and  by  that  means  improves  the  tone  of 
the  national  mind,  and  forms  a  counterpoise  to  the  all-ubsorbing 
useful  and  commercial. 

Historical  painting  is  successfully  cultivated  both  in  France  and 
Germany.  The  Germans  have  modelled  their  school  on  the  true 
style  of  the  ancient  masters.  They  have  become  their  rivals  in 
richness  and  beauty  of  colouring,  and  are  not  surpassed  in  vividness 
of  imagination,  nor  in  variety  and  sublimity  of  composition,  which 
is  poetry  of  the  highest  order  embodied.  Sculpture  and  architecture 

1  The  most  ancient  forms  of  writing  are  supposed  to  be  Himyarltlo  lately 
found  in  Arabia,  and  that  of  the  Phoenicians,  which  is  the  origin  of  all  the 
alphabets  of  ancient  and  modern  Europe,  and  probably  the  form  of  letters 
in  which  the  sacred  Scriptures  were  written. — (Prichard.) 


CHAP.  XXXIII.      LITERATURE  —  FINE   ARTS.  50'J 

are  also  marked  by  that  elevated  and  pure  taste  which  distinguish 
their  other  works  of  art.1  French  artists,  following  in  the  same 
steps,  have  produced  historical  works  of  great  merit.  Pictures 
representing  scenes  of  domestic  life  have  been  painted  with  much 
expression  and  beauty  by  our  own  artists ;  and  British  landscapes, 
like  some  painted  by  German  artists,  are  not  mere  portraits  of  na- 
ture, but  pictures  of  high  poetical  feeling,  and  the  excellence  of 
their  composition  has  been  acknowledged  all  over  Europe,  by  the 
popularity  of  the  engravings  which  illustrate  many  of  our  modern 
books.  The  encouragement  given  to  this  branch  of  art  at  home 
may  be  ascribed  to  the  taste  for  a  country  life,  so  general  in  England. 
Water-colour  painting,  which  is  entirely  of  British  growth,  has  now 
become  a  favourite  style  in  every  country,  and  is  brought  to  the 
highest  perfection  in  our  own. 

The  Italians  have  had  the  merit  of  restoring  sculpture  to  the 
pure  style  which  it  had  lost,  and  that  gifted  people  have  produced 
"*  gome  of  the  noblest  specimens  of  modern  art.  The  greatest  genius 
of  his  time  left  the  snows  of  the  far  North  to  spend  his  days  in 
Rome,  the  head-quarters  of  art;  and  our  own  sculptors  of  eminent 
talents  have  established  themselves  in  Rome,  where  they  find  a 
more  congenial  spirit  than  in  their  own  country,  in  which  the  com- 
positions of  Flaxman  were  not  appreciated  till  they  had  become  the 
admiration  of  Europe.  Munich  can  boast  of  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  modern  sculpture  and  architecture. 

The  Opera,  one  of  the  most  refined  of  theatrical  amusements  in 
every  capital  city  of  Europe,  displays  the  excellence  and  power  of 
Italian  melody,  which  has  been  transmitted  from  age  to  age  by  a 
succession  of  great  composers.  German  music,  partaking  of  the 
learned  character  of  the  nation,  is  rich  in  original  harmony,  which 
requires  a  cultivated  taste  to  understand  and  appreciate. 

Italy  is  the  only  country  that  has  had  two  poetical  eras  of  the 
highest  order;  and,  great  as  the  Latin  period  was,  that  of  Dante 
was  more  original  and  sublime.  The  Germans,  so  eminent  in  every 
branch  of  literature,  have  also  been  great  as  poets ;  the  power  of 
Goethe's  genius  will  render  his  poems  as  permanent  as  the  language 
in  which  they  are  written.  France  is,  as  it  long  has  been,  the  abode 
of  the  Comic  Muse ;  and  although  that  nation  can  claim  great  poets 
of  a  more  serious  cast,  yet  the  language  and  the  habits  of  the  people 
are  more  suited  to  the  gay  than  the  grave  style.  Though  the  British 

1  The  works  of  Cornelius  and  Kaulbach  bear  testimony  to  the  justice  of 
the  observations  in  the  text.  In  drawing,  nothing  can  be  more  beautiful 
. — in  composition,  nothing  can  be  more  varied  or  sublime.  The  '  Destruc- 
tion of  Jerusalem,'  by  Kaulbach,  in  which  a  powerful  genius  has  combined 
the  truth  of  the  historian  with  the  imagination  of  the  poet,  and  executed 
with  the  hand  of  a  master,  might  bear  comparison  even  with  the  Italian 
fichool  of  colouring. 

V 


504  PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIII. 

may  have  been  inferior  to  other  nations  in  some  branches  of  the  fine 
arts,  yet  poetry,  immeasurably  the  greatest  and  most  noble,  redeems, 
and  more  than  redeems  us.  The  nation  that  produced  the  poetry  of 
Chaucer,  Spenser,  Shakspeare  and  Milton,  with  all  the  brilliant 
train,  down  nearly  to  the  present  time,  must  ever  hold  a  distin- 
guished place,  as  an  imaginative  people.  Shakspeare  alone  would 
stamp  a  language  with  immortality.  The  British  novels  stand  high 
among  works  of  imagination,  and  they  have  generally  had  the  merit 
of  advancing  the  cause  of  morality.  Had  French  novelists  attended 
more  to  this,  their  knowledge  of  the  human  heart  and  the  brilliancy 
of  their  composition  would  have  been  more  appreciated. 

Poetry  of  the  highest  stamp  has  fled  before  the  utilitarian  spirit 
of  the  age ;  yet  there  is  as  much  talent  in  the  world,  and  imagina- 
tion too,  at  the  present  time,  as  at  any  former  period,  though  directed 
to  different  and  more  important  objects,  because  the  whole  aspect  of 
the  moral  world  is  altered.  The  period  is  come  for  one  of  those  im- 
portant changes  in  the  minds  of  men  which  occur  from  time  to  time, 
and  form  great  epochs  in  the  history  of  the  human  race.  The  whole 
of  civilized  Europe  could  not  have  been  roused  to  the  enthusiasm 
which  led  them  to  embark  in  the  Crusades  by  the  preaching  of  Peter 
the  Hermit,  unless  the  people  had  been  prepared  for  it ;  and  men 
were  ready  for  the  Reformation  before  the  impulse  was  given  by 
Luther.  These  are  the  barometric  storms  of  the  human  mind. 

The  present  state  of  transition  has  been  imperceptibly  in  progress, 
aided  by  many  concurring  circumstances,  among  which  the  increas- 
ing intelligence  of  the  lower  orders,  and  steam  travelling,  have  been 
the  most  efficient.  The  latter  has  assisted  eminently  in  the  diffusion 
of  knowledge,  and  has  probably  accelerated  the  crisis  of  public  affairs 
on  the  continent,  by  giving  the  inhabitants  of  different  countries 
opportunities  of  intercourse,  and  comparing  their  conditions.  No 
invention  that  has  been  made  for  ages  has  so  levelling  a  tendency, 
which  accords  but  too  well  with  the  present  disposition  of  the  peo- 
ple. The  spirit  of  emancipation,  so  peculiarly  characteristic  of  this 
century,  appears  in  all  the  relations  of  life,  political  and  social.  On 
the  continent  of  Europe  it  has  shaken  the  whole  fabric  of  society, 
subverted  law  and  order,  and  ruined  thousands,  in  order  to  throw 
down  the  crumbling  remains  of  the  feudal  system.  The  violence 
with  which  these  changes  were  conducted,  has  naturally  led  to  a  re- 
action, but  the  present  attempt  to  inflict  upon  the  world  political  and 
spiritual  despotism,  must  be  ephemeral  in  its  turn,  being  directly 
opposed  to  the  irresistible  progress  of  the  human  mind.  The  same 
emancipating  spirit  which  has  thrown  young  and  old  into  a  state  of 
insubordination  and  rebellion  abroad,  has  been  quietly  but  gradually 
altering  the  relations  of  social  and  domestic  life  at  home.  Parent 
and  child  no  longer  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  one  another ;  even 
at  an  early  age  boys  assume  the  character  and  independence  of  men. 


OHAP.  XXXIII.          INCREASE    OP    BENEVOLENCE.  505 

which  may  perhaps  fit  them  sooner  for  taking  their  share  in  the 
affairs  of  the  world ;  for  it  must  be  acknowledged  that,  whether  from 
early  independence  or  some  other  cause,  no  country  has  produced 
more  youthful  and  able  statesmen  than  our  own ;  but,  at  the  same 
time,  it  places  them  on  a  less  amicable  and  more  dangerous  position, 
by  depriving  them  of  the  advice  and  experience  of  the  aged,  to  which 
the  same  deference  is  no  longer  paid.  The  working  man  considers 
his  interest  to  be  at  variance  with  that  of  the  manufacturer,  and  the 
attachment  of  servants  to  their  masters  is  nearly  as  extinct  in  Britain 
as  vassalage.  Ambition,  to  a  great  extent,  pervades  the  inferior  and 
middle  grades  of  society,  and  so  few  are  satisfied  with  the  condition 
in  which  they  were  born,  that  the  pressure  upwards  is  enormous. 
The  numerous  instances  of  men  rising  from  an  inferior  rank  to  the 
highest  offices  in  the  State  encourage  the  endeavour  to  advance  in 
society,  which  is  right  and  natural,  if  pursued  by  legitimate  means ; 
but  the  levelling  disposition  so  prevalent  abroad  is  as  pernicious  as  it  is 
impracticable.  So  long  as  men  are  endowed  with  different  disposi- 
tions and  different  talents,  so  long  will  they  differ  in  condition  and 
fortune,  and  this  is  as  strongly  marked  in  republics  as  in  any  other 
form  of  government ;  for  man,  with  all  his  attempts  to  liberate  him- 
self from  nature's  ordinances,  by  the  establishment  of  equal  laws  and 
civil  rights,  never  can  escape  from  them — inequality  of  condition  is 
permanent  as  the  human  race.  Hence  from  necessity  we  must  fulfil 
the  duties  of  the  station  in  which  we  are  placed,  bearing  in  mind 
that,  while  Christianity  requires  the  poor  to  endure  their  lot  with 
patience,  it  imposes  a  heavy  responsibility  on  the  rich. 

In  Britain,  respect  for  the  labouring  classes,  together  with  active 
benevolence,  form  the  counterpoise  to  the  evil  propensities  of  this 
state  of  transition ;  a  benevolence  which  is  not  confined  to  alms- 
giving, but  which  consists  in  the  earnest  desire  to  contribute  with 
energy  to  the  sum  of  human  happiness.  In  proportion  as  that  dis- 
position is  diffused  among  the  higher  classes,  and  the  more  they  can 
convince  the  lower  orders  that  they  have  an  ardent  desire  to  afford 
them  every  source  of  happiness  and  comfort  that  is  in  their  power, 
so  much  sooner  will  the  transient  evils  pass  away,  and  an  improved 
state  of  things  will  commence ;  kindly  and  confident  feelings  will 
then  take  the  place  of  coldness  and  mistrust. 

The  continual  increase  of  that  disinterested  benevolence  and  libe- 
ral sentiment,  which  in  our  own  country  is  the  most  hopeful  and  con- 
soling feature  of  the  age,  manifests  itself  in  the  frequency  with  which 
plans  for  ameliorating  the  condition  of  the  lower  classes  are  brought 
before  Parliament;  in  the  societies  formed  for  their  relief;  and  in 
the  many  institutions  established  for  their  benefit  and  comfort. 

Three  of  the  most  beneficial  systems  of  modern  times  are  due  to 
the  benevolence  of  English  ladies — the  improvement  of  prison  dis- 
cipline, savings-banks,  and  banks  for  lending  small  sums  to  the  poor. 
43 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY.         CHAP.  XXXIII. 

The  success  of  all  has  exceeded  every  expectation,  and  these  admi- 
rable institutions  are  now  adopted  by  several  foreign  countries.  The 
importance  of  popular  and  agricultural  education  is  becoming  an 
object  of  attention  to  the  more  enlightened  governments;  and  one 
of  the  greatest  improvements  in  education  is,  that  teachers  are  now 
fitted  for  their  duties,  by  being  taught  the  art  of  teaching.  The 
gentleness  with  which  instruction  is  conveyed  no  longer  blights  the 
joyous  days  of  youth,  but,  on  the  contrary,  encourages  self-educa- 
tion, which  is  the  most  efficient. 

The  system  of  infant-schools,  established  in  many  parts  of  Europe 
and  throughout  the  United  States  of  America,  is  rapidly  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people.  The  instruction  given  in  them  is  suited 
to  the  station  of  the  scholars,  and  the  moral  lessons  taught  are  often 
reflected  back  on  the  uneducated  parents  by  their  children.  More- 
over, the  personal  intercourse  with  the  higher  orders,  and  the  kind- 
ness which  the  children  receive  from  them,  strengthen  the  bond  of 
reciprocal  good  feeling.  Since  the  abolition  of  the  feudal  system, 
the  separation  between  the  higher  and  the  lower  classes  of  society 
has  been  increasing ;  but  the  generous  exertions  of  individuals,  whose 
only  object  is  to  do  good,  is  now  beginning  to  correct  a  tendency 
that,  unchecked,  might  have  led  to  the  worst  consequences  to  all 
ranks.  We  learn  from  statistical  reports  that  the  pains  taken  by 
individuals  and  associations  are  not  without  their  effect  upon  the  cha- 
racter of  the  nation.  For  example,  during  the  eleven  years  that 
preceded  1846,  in  which  the  criminal  returns  indicated  the  intellec- 
tual condition  of  persons  accused,  there  were  31  counties  in  England 
and  Wales,  in  which  not  one  educated  woman  was  called  before  a 
court  of  law,  in  a  population  of  2,617,653  females.1 

Crime  has  generally  decreased  in  proportion  to  the  religious  and 
moral  education  of  the  people  :  the  improvement  in  the  morality  of 
the  factory-children  is  immense  since  Government  appointed  in- 
spectors to  superintend  their  health  and  education ; 2  and  indeed  the 

1  Twenty  of  these  counties  were  in  England  and  11  in  Wales,  and  so  few 
crimes  took  place  among  educated  women  in  the  other  counties  during  the 
11  years  mentioned,  that  the  annual  proportion  of  accusations  against  edu- 
cated females  was  only  1  in  1,349,059.  During  the  year  1846  only  48  edu- 
cated persons  were  convicted  of  crimes  out  of  the  whole  population  of 
England  and  Wales,  and  none  were  sentenced  to  death.  And  during  the 
years  1845  and  1846  there  were  15  counties  in  England  and  11  in  Wales  in 
which  no  well-educated  person  was  convicted  of  any  crime.  The  number 
of  accusations  among  educated  persons  in  Scotland  is  greater,  because  edu- 
cation is  more  general,  and  because  the  quantity  of  ardent  spirits  used  in 
Scotland  is  five  times  greater  than  in  England.  Crime  is  very  much  below 
the  average  in  the  mining  districts,  and  it  is  still  less  frequent  in  Wales  and 
in  the  mountainous  country  in  the  North  of  England.  The  accomplish- 
ments of  a  well-educated  person  in  these  statistical  records  consist  merely 
in  being  able  to  read  and  write  fluently. — '  London  Statistical  Journal.' 

'  Every  factory-child  is  limited  to  48  hours  of  labour  in  the  week,  and 


CHAP.  XXXIII.         PROGRESSIVE    CHRISTIANITY.  507 

improvement  in  the  condition  of  the  whole  population  appears  from 
the  bills  of  mortality,  which  unquestionably  prove  that  the  duration 
of  human  life  is  continually  increasing  throughout  Great  Britain.1 

The  voluntary  sacrifices  that  were  made  in  1847  to  relieve  the 
necessities  of  a  famishing  nation  evince  the  humane  disposition  of 
the  age.  But  it  is  not  one  particular  and  extraordinary  case,  how- 
ever admirable,  that  marks  the  general  progress  —  it  is  not  in  the 
earthquake  or  the  storm,  but  in  the  "still  small  voice  of  consolation 
heard  in  the  cabin  of  the  wretched,  that  is  the  prominent  feature  of 
the  charities  of  the  present  time,  when  the  benevolent  of  all  ranks 
seek  for  distress  in  the  abodes  of  poverty  and  vice,  to  aid  and  to 
reform.  No  language  can  do  justice  to  the  merit  of  those  who 
devote  themselves  to  the  reformation  of  the  children  who  have  hitherto 
wandered  neglected  in  the  streets  of  great  cities ;  in  the  unpromising 
task  they  have  laboured  with  patience,  undismayed  by  difficulties 
that  might  have  discouraged  the  most  determined  —  but  they  have 
had  their  reward,  they  have  succeeded.2  The  language  of  kindness 
and  sympathy,  never  before  heard  by  these  children  of  crime  and 
wretchedness,  is  saving  multitudes  from  perdition.  But  it  would 
require  a  volume  to  enumerate  the  exertions  that  are  making  for  the 
accommodation,  health,  and  improvement  of  the  people,  and  the 
devotion  of  high  and  low  to  the  introduction  of  new  establishments 
and  the  amelioration  of  the  old.  Noble  and  liberal  sentiments  mark 
the  proceedings  of  public  assemblies,  whether  in  the  cause  of  nations 
or  of  individuals,  and  the  severity  of  our  penal  laws  is  mitigated  by 
a  milder  system.  Happily  this  liberal  and  benevolent  spirit  is  not 
confined  to  Britain,  it  is  universal  in  the  States  of  the  American 
Union,  and  it  is  spreading  widely  through  the  more  civilized  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

No  permanently  retrograde  movement  dan  now  take  place  in  civil- 
ization ;  the  diffusion  of  Christian  virtues  and  of  knowledge  ensures 

the  children  must  by  law  attend  school  at  least  two  hours  a  day  for  six 
days  out  of  the  seven,  besides  a  Sunday  school — one  penny  being  deducted 
out  of  each  shilling  of  wages  for  education.  The  inspectors  have  the  power 
of  establishing  schools  where  wanted,  and  of  dismissing  incompetent 
teachers.  The  engagement  of  factory-children  in  Britain  lasts  till  they  are 
13,  in  the  United  States  it  ends  at  15  years  of  ages. — '  Statistical  Journal.' 
1  The  average  duration  of  the  life  of  sovereigns  is  greater  in  modern  than 
in  ancient  times,  but  it  is  still  lower  than  any  other  class  of  mankind.  The 
most  favourable  average  for  them  is  70-05  years;  for  the  English  aristo- 
cracy it  is  71-69;  for  the  English  gentry,  74-00;  for  the  learned  profes- 
sions, 73-62;  for  English  literary  and  scientific  men  it  is  72-10;  for  the 
army  and  navy,  71-99;  and  for  the  professions  of  the  fine  arts,  71-15. — 
'  London  Statistical  Journal.' 

a  There  are  62  Ragged  Schools  in  London,  and  Government  undertakes 
to  send  annually  to  the  colonies  150  of  such  of  the  scholars  as  choose  to 
go. — 'London  Statistical  Journal.' 


508  PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY.      CHAP.  XXXIII. 

the  progressive  advancement  of  man  in  those  high  moral  and  intel- 
lectual qualities  that  constitute  his  true  dignity.  But  much  yet  re- 
mains to  be  done  at  home,  especially  in  rqligious  instruction  and  the 
prevention  of  crime;  and  millions  of  our  fellow-creatures  in  both 
hemispheres  are  still  in  the  lowest  grade  of  barbarism.  Ages  and 
ages  must  pass  away  before  they  can  be  civilized ;  but  if  there  be 
any  analogy  between  the  period  of  man's  duration  on  earth  and  that 
of  the  frailest  plant  or  shell-fish  of  the  geological  periods,  he  must 
still  be  in  his  infancy ;  and  let  those  who  doubt  of  his  indefinite  im- 
provement compare  the  first  revolution  in  France  with  the  last,  or 
the  state  of  Europe  in  the  middle  ages  with  what  it  is  at  present. 
For,  during  the  recently  disturbed  condition  of  the  Continent  and 
the  mistaken  means  which  the  people  employ  to  improve  their  posi- 
tion, crime  is  less  frequent  and  less  atrocious  than  it  was  in  former 
times,  and  the  universal  indignation  it  now  raises  is  a  strong  indica- 
tion of  improvement.  In  our 'own  country,  men  who  seem  to  have 
lived  before  their  time  were  formerly  prosecuted  and  punished  for 
opinions  which  are  now  sanctioned  by  the  legislature,  and  acknow- 
ledged by  all.  The  moral  disposition  of  the  age  appears  in  the  re- 
finement of  conversation.  Selfishness  and  evil  passions  may  possibly 
ever  be  found  in  the  human  breast,  but  the  progress  of  the  race  will 
consist  in  the  increasing  power  of  public  opinion,  the  collective  voice 
of  mankind  regulated  by  the  Christian  principles  of  morality  and 
justice.  The  individuality  of  man  modifies  his  opinions  and  belief; 
it  is  a  part  of  that  variety  which  is  a  universal  law  of  nature ;  so 
that  there  will  probably  always  be  a  difference  of  views  as  to  reli- 
gious doctrine,  which,  however,  will  become  more  spiritual,  and  freer 
from  the  taint  of  human  infirmity ;  but  the  power  of  the  Christian 
religion  will  appear  in  purer  conduct,  and  in  the  more  general  prac- 
tice of  mutual  forbearance,  charity,  and  love. 


APPENDIX. 


TABLE    OP    HEIGHTS    ABOVE    THE    SEA    OP    SOME    REMARKABLE 
POINTS   OP   THE   GLOBE. 


EUROPE. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  &.G. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Mont  Blanc  

15,739 

Alps,  P.« 

P.  S.a 

Monte  Rosa  

15,210 

"      L. 

}> 

Mont  Cervin  

14,836 

"    p. 

M 

Finsterarhorn  

14  026 

"      B 

EicliiTian 

Jungfrau  

13,672 

"      B. 

n 

Le  G£ant  du  M.  Blanc....  

13,786 

"      P. 

P.  S 

Mont  Coinbin  

14,124 

"      P. 

» 

13,272 

"     G. 

n 

Monte  Viso  

13  599 

"      C     • 

>» 

Ortler  Spitz  

12  851 

"     R 

A.  S 

Le  Grand  Rioburent  

11,063 

"      M 

P.  S 

Drey  Herrn  Spitz  

10  122 

"      Car 

A   S 

Mont  Terglou  

9  386 

"      J 

Passes  of  the  Alps:  — 
Col  du  Geant  

11  2383 

"      P 

Saussure 

Col  de  St.  Theodule  

11  185 

"      P 

P  S 

Pass  of  Great  St.  Bernard  

8  173 

"      P. 

i> 

La  Furka  

8  714 

"      L 

S  S 

"           Mont  Moro  

8  937 

"      L 

P  S 

"           Le  Tavernette  

9  827 

"      C. 

"           Mont  Iseran  

9  196 

"      G 

n 

or  Col  des  Fenetres  
"          of  the  Stelvio  

9,581 
9  177 

"     P. 

"      R 

» 

A  S 

1  The  letters  affixed  indicate  the  part  of  the  Alps  to  which  each  locality  belongs  — M., 
Maritime;  C,,  Cottian;  G.,  Grecian;  P.,  Pennine;  L.,  Lepontine;  B.,  Bernese,  or  Hel- 
vetian; R.,  Rhetian;  J.,  Julian;  Car.,  Carniac. 

*  The  authorities  on  which  these  heights  are  given  are — the  Piedmontese  Surveys  (P.  S.), 
ns  published  in  1845,  in  the  work  entitled  «Le  Alpi  che  cingono  ritalia,'  1  vol.  8vo;  the 
Austrian  Survey  (A.  S.),  as  given  in  the  splendid  Maps,  published  by  the  Austrian  Govern- 
ment, of  the  Regno  Lombardo-Veheto,  in  84  sheets;  and  the  Swiss  Trigonometrical  Sur- 
vey, by  Eichinan,  1  vol.  4to,  1840. 

8  The  first  eight  passes  are  only  fit  for  foot-passengers,  and  in  certain  seasons  for 
mules:  the  remaining  eleven  offer  carriage-roads,  and  are  generally  open  at  all  seasons 
of  the  year,  witli  the  exception  of  the  Stelvio. 

43*    .  (509) 


510 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[APP. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  <tc. 

Heights 
in  P^nglish 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Pass  of  Bernardino  

7,015 

Alps,  R. 

A    S 

the  Splugen  

6,946 

R. 

n 

St.  Gothard  

6,808 

R. 

S.  S. 

Mont  Cenis  

6,772 

G. 

P.  S. 

Simplon  

6,578 

L. 

Tende  

6,159 

M. 

M 

Mont  Genevre  

6,119 

C. 

(I 

Brenner  

4  659 

R. 

A  S 

Pontebba  

3  625 

J. 

)> 

11,168 

Pyrenees 

A.  B.  L.* 

Mont  Perdu  Peak  

10,994 

Mabore  Cylinder  of  

10,899 

Maladetta       "         

10,886 

L 

Vignemale      "         

10,820 

Pic  du  Midi  

9,540 

Canigou  

9,137 

Passes  of  the  Pyrenees  :  — 
Pass  or  Port  d'Oo  

9843 

)» 

d'Estaube  

8,402 

» 

de  Garvanie  

7,654 

)) 

de  Tourmalet  

7,143 

n 

Pic  de  Sancy  

6  188 

France 

Plomb  du  Cantal  

6,093 

Mont  Mezen  

5,795 

» 

4806 

» 

Ballon  des  Vosges  

4,688 

» 

Mont  Ventoux  

6,263 

» 

Mulahacen  

11  483 

Spain 

Sierra  de  Gredos  

10,552 

Bory 

Estrella  

7,526 

i, 

Siete  Picos  

7,244 

»7 

PeSa  Laza  

8,222 

» 

El  Gador  

6,575 

77 

Rojas  Cle- 

Monte   Corno,    or   Gran   Sasso 
d'ltalia  

9  521 

Italy,  Apen- 
nines 

mente 

Monte  Vellino  

7,851 

De  Prony 

Termenillo  Grande  

7,212 

7> 

Schouw 

Monte  Amaro  di  Majella  

9  113 

J7 

n 

Monte  Cimone  

6  975 

7> 

» 

5  794 

Tuscany 

>T 

Vesuvius,  Punta  del  Palo,  Aug. 
1847      

3  947 

Kingdom  of 
Naples 

Moute  Somma  

3  869 

n 

n 

Monte  CaTi  (Mons  Albanus)  
St.  Oreste  or  Soracte.... 

3,202 
2.140 

Campagna 
of  Rome 

Schouw 

*  Heights  taken  from  the  list  published  in  the  French  '  Annuaire  du  Bureau  des  Longi- 
tudes,' converted  from  metres  into  English  feet. 


APP.] 


TABLE    OF     HEIGHTS. 


Nam  is  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Passes  of  the  Apennines  :  — 
Pass  of  Noviordi  Giovi  

1,550 

Apennines 

Schow 

La  Bochetta  
"          I'ietramala  

2,550 
3,294 

» 
» 

Islands  of  the  Mediterranean:  — 
Monte  Rotondo  

8,767 

Corsica 

A  B  L 

"       d'Oro  

8,701 

)> 

Generargenta  

6,004 

Sardinia 

La  Marmora 

Mount  Etna  

10,874 

Sicily 

W  H  Smyth 

Pizzo  di  Cane  

6,509 

» 

A  B  L 

Mount  Eryx  

3,894 

» 

» 

Stromboli  •  

2,687 

Lipara  Isles 

De  Borch> 

Greece  and  Morea  :  — 
Mount  Guiona  

8,538 

Peytier  * 

8,068 

»» 

Taygetus,  Mont  St.  Elias  

7,904 

» 

Mont  Olonas  

7,293 

)> 

"     Kelmos  

7,726 

M 

"     Athos  

6,778 

De  Borcb. 

"     Helicon  

5,738 

Delphi  

5,725 

Mont  Hymettus  

3,378 

» 

Central  Europe  :  — 
Ruska  Joyana  

9  912 

E  Carpaths 

Malte  Brun 

Budosch,  Transylvania  

9,593 

» 

A  B  L. 

Surrul  

9  593 

Mount  Tatra,  highest  point  

8  524 

W  Carpaths 

Wahlenberg 

Csabi  Peak  

8  314 

Lomnitz  Peak  
Riesenkoppe,    in    the   Riesenge- 
berge  

8,861 
5  394 

» 
Germany 

A.  B.  L. 

Feldberg  in  the  Schwarzwald  .... 

Belchenberg        " 
Kandelberg         " 

Schneeberg  Riescngebirg6  

4,675 

4,642 
4,160 

4  784 

)> 

M 
II 

» 

French  En- 
gineers 

Bohnenber- 
ger 

4265 

» 

Charpentier 

Sonnenwerbel,  in  the  Erzgebirge 
Rachelberg  in  the  Bohmerwald... 
Steinberg   Moravia  

4,124 
4,561 
3  511 

» 
» 
)) 

Sternberg 
David 

Brocken,  Hartz  

3,658 

n 

Zach 

Schneeberg,  in  the  Fichtelgebirge 
Blessberg,  in  the  Thuringerwald. 

3,461 
2,748 

» 

Goldfuss 
Zach 

1  Heights  determined  during;  the  French  expedition  to  the  Morea  by  Captains  Peytier 
and  Boblaye,  and  published  in~the  'Connaissance  des  Temps'  for  1839. 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[APP. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Glockner,  in  the  Thuringerwald.. 
Gross  Feldberg,   in  the   Taunus 
Chain  

2,231 

2,775 

Germany 
>» 

Zach 
Schmidt 

Lowenberg,  in  the  Siebengebirge 

Norway  and  Sweden:  — 
Skagtoltend  Lat  61°  24' 

2,024 
8,101 

M 

Scandinavian 

Nose 
Keilhau 

Koldetind  

7,224 

Mountains 
>i 

Sognefield  

7,182 

» 

Hagelstcim 

Mugnafield  Lat.  61°  20/ 

7,215 

» 

Forsell 

Schneehattan  62°  20' 

8,120 

M 

Eismark 

Pighoettan  62°    2' 

6,788 

» 

Hagelstam 

Sulitelma  67°    5' 

6,178 

It 

Wahlenberg 

Langfield  61°  53' 

6,598 

)) 

Hagelstam 

Melderskin  60°    0' 

4,859 

M 

Von  Buch 

Lyngen  Mountains..          69°  30' 

Great  Britain  :  — 
Ben  Nevis  

4,300 
4,368 

M 

Scotland 

» 
Jameson 

Cairntoul,  Aberdeenshire  

4,223 

H 

Playfair 

Ben  Avon                            

3,931 

II 

Ben  Lawers,  Grampians  

3,945 

N 

Schihallieu                       

3,564 

» 

Snowdon  

3,557 

Wales 

ROY 

3,550 

H 

Cam  Llewellyn  

3,471 

n 

Cross  Fell,  Cumberland..  

3,383 

England 

Jameson 

Helvyllen                        

3,313 

n 

H 

Skiddaw              "           

3,038 

» 

Dr.  Young 

Schunner  Fell,  Yorkshire  

2,388 

H 

Smith 

Coniston  Fell,  Lancashire  

2,575 

N 

Cheviot  Hills  

2,657 

N 

M 

Pentland  Hills  

1,878 

Scotland 

Playfair 

Curran  Tual   Kerry  

3,412 

Ireland 

Nimmo 

Sleib  Donnard  

3,146 

M 

•  »> 

Nephin,  Mayo  

2,644 

II 

Jameson 

Mourne  Mountains,  Down  

2,493 

N 

Ben  More,  Isle  of  Mull  

3,100 

Hebrides 

» 

Hecla,  Isle  of  S.  Uist  

3,002 

» 

Bou6 

Cuchullin,  Isle  of  Skye  

2,995 

>i 

M'Culloch 

Mount  llona  

3,593 

Shetland 

Laing 

Iceland  and  Faroe  :  — 
Sncefials,  Jokull  

5,115 

Iceland 

A.  B.  L. 

Hecla  

5,210 

N 

ii 

Skalineefield,  Isle  Stromoe... 

2,172 

Feroe 

Stein 

APP.] 


TABLE    OP    HEIGHTS. 


513 


ASIA. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  <fcc. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

ICountries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Himalaya  Chain:  — 

28,178 

Sikkim 

Col.  Waugh1 

"                   E   Peak  

27,826 

n 

» 

Dwalaghiri  

28,080 

Nepaul 

Webb 

25,670 

Kumaoon 

Herbert 

25,312 

Sikkim 

Waugh 

25,500 

Nepaul 

Webb 

Dhaibun  

24,740 

24,005 

Sikkim 

Waugh 

23,929 

Tibet 

» 

23,175 

Sikkim 

)> 

22,000 

Dr.  Hookei 

23,500 

Tibet 

Strachey  a 

22,799 

Nepaul 

Webb 

Peak  No   12  

23,263 

~|  Between  the 

»            13      

22,313 

'   Kali  and  E. 

»            23  

22,727 

,'  branch    of 

»            25  

22,277 

j  the  Ganges 

St   George's  Peak  

22,500 

1  Between  the 

» 

St  Patrick's  Peak  

22,638 

>•  Ganges  and 

Gungoutri  Pyramid  

21,219 

j  Sutlej 

Jownlee  Peak  (highest).  

21,940 

Kumaoon 

21,000 

Tibet 

Strachey 

17,905 

Hindoo  Cush 

Burnes 

Peak  N  of  Cabul  

20232 

M 

» 

Passes  of  the  Himalaya  :  — 
Marsi  Niglak  Pass  

19,000 

Tibet 

Strachey 

18,600 

Dr.Thomson' 

18,500 

Cunningham 

18,313 

Gerard 

Langpya  Dhura  or  Doora  Ghaut.. 
Lipu  Lek  Pass  

17,750 

16,884 

Strachey 
Manson 

Niti  Ghaut  Pass  

16,814 

Gerard 

16,500 

Webb 

15,500 

» 

18,000 

Sikkim 

Dr.  Hooker* 

18,493 

Caucasus 

Fuss 

Kasbeck....               

16.530 

)> 

A.  C.' 

1  The  heights  of  Sikkim  Himalaya  are  the  results  of  the  observations  of  Colonel  Waugh, 
Director  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India.  See  'Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,' 
Nov.  1848. 

3  For  Lieut.  Strachcy's  observations  during  his  very  interesting  Journey  to  the  Sacred 
Lakes  of  Manasarowar,  &c.,  see  '  Journal  of  As.  Soc.  of  Bengal,'  Aug.  1848. 

3  See  Hooker's  '  Journal  of  Botany,'  May,  1849. 

*  Journal  of  Geographical  Society  of  London,  Vol.  xx.  p.  49. 

•The  Heights  followed  by  the  letters  A.  C.  have  been  taken  from  HumboMt's  'Asie 
Centrale.' 


514 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[APP. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heiffhts 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Demavend  

14  695 

Persia 

Thomson 

Ararat  

17  212 

>» 

Parrot 

Argseus  

13,197 

Asia  Minor 

A.  C. 

Beloukha  

11,062 

Altai' 

» 

Mount  Libanus  

9,517 

Syria 

A.  B.  L. 

Mount  Horeb  

8593 

n 

Ruppell 

Sinai    

7  498 

n 

» 

Jebel  Serbal  

6,760 

„ 

)> 

Kamen  Peak  

5,397 

Ural 

A.  C. 

Tremel  Peak... 

5.071 

» 

AFRICA,  AND  ISLANI 
Mount  Atlas  (Miltsin)  

)S  IN  1 

11,400 
15,008 
14,362 
20,000 

16,350 
15,740 

14,350 
3,816 

6,056 
12,172 
9,885 
7,730 
6,400 
4,400 
3,907 
2,770 
9,154 

8,815 
7,613 

3,570 
3,500 

HE  ATLAN 

Morocco 
Abyssinia 

"  in  the 
Mtns.    of 
the  Moon 
Southern 
Ethiopia 
Northern 
Ethiopia 
Abyssinia 
Cape  of  Good 
Hope 
Madeira 
Canaries 

Cape  Verde 
Islands 

Azores 

no. 

Washington 
Riippel 

Ans.  of  Phil 
D'Abbadie  ' 

A.  B.  L. 

VidaP 
Von  Buch 

Vidal 

rt 

Deville 

Capt.  King 

Vidal 

H 

"       Abba  Jarrat...  13°  10'  N. 
"       Buahat  13°  12'  N. 

'       Kilimandjaro..     4°    0'  S. 
(doubtful) 

Mount  Woso  Lat.    6°  30'  N. 
"       Dajan            "  13°  15'  N. 

"       Fatra             "   10°  42'  N. 
Table  Mountain  

Pico  Ruivo  

Peak  of  Teneriffe,  or  de  Teyde... 
Chahorra,  Teneriffe  

Pico  de  Cruz,  Palma  

Los  Pexos  Great  Canary  

Alto  Garaona,  Gornera  

San  Anton,  Ferro  

Asses'  Ears,  Fuestaventura  

Peak  of  Fogo  

Pico,  Island  of  San  Antonio  
Pico   Island  of  Pico  

Pico  de  Vara,  Island  of  St.  Mi- 
chael's    

Caldeira  de  Sta.  Barbara,  Ter- 
ceira  

From  a  MS.  list  of  a  great  number  of  Geographical  Positions  and  Heights  determined 
by  M.  A.  T.  d'Abbadie,  during  hia  travels  and  long  residence  in  Abyssinia,  communicated 
to  the  author  through  Mr.  Pentland. 

4  The  Heights  given  on  Captain  Vidal's  authority  are  taken  from  the  elaborate  Surveys 
of  Madeira,  the  Canaries,  and  Azores,  executed  under  his  direction,  and  published  by  the 
Admiralty. 


APP.] 


TABLE    OF     HEIGHTS. 


515 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  <tc. 

Heights 
iu  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

3,498 

Azores 

Vidal 

3,087 

j> 

» 

Caldeira  de  Corvo  ... 

2.460 

)> 

u 

AME 

North  America  :  — 
Mount  St.  Elias  

RICA. 

16,775 
17,717 
17,374 
15,705 
15,542 
15,170 
13,413 
14,925 
4,265 
13,160 
13,050 
11,480 

7,277 
5,108 
4,432 
4,370 

8,600 
8,280 
7,450 
8,730 
18,020 

17,034 
15,620 
19,535 

19,137 
18,875 
15,924 
21,424 
17,380 
16,424 
16,138 

N.  America 

Mexico 

> 

> 
> 
j 
» 

N.  America 
Mexico 

Guatemala 

» 

» 

Jamaica 
Guadaloupe 
Martinique 
St.  Vincent's 

Venezuela 
» 

Guiana 

» 

Andes  of  N. 

Grenada 
j» 

» 

Andes  of  the 
Equator 

A.  B.  L. 

>» 

Humboldt 

A.  B.  L. 

Humboldt 
» 

J> 

Basil  Hall 
» 

Phys.  Atlas 

Monnier 
Chisholm 

Humboldt 

Schomburgk 
Humboldt 

)> 

Bousingault 
Humboldt 

» 

H 
)) 

9) 

Bongeur 
Humboldt 
La  Conda- 
mine 

Popocatepetl  

Nevado  of  Toluca  

Perote  Mountain  

Fair  Weather  Mountain  

Jorullo  

Volcan  de  Fuego,  West  Peak  
"        East  Peak  
Irasu,  or  Volcano  of  Cartago  

West  Indies  :  — 
Blue  Mountains  

La  Soufriere  

Montagne  Pel6e  

South  America:  — 
La  Silla  de  Garaccas  

Cerro  de  Duida  

Roraima  Lat.  5°  30'  N. 

Plain  of  Bogota..  ,  

Volcano  of  Purace  

Cumbal  

Cayambe  

Cotopaxi  

Sangai'  

516 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[APP. 


Karoes  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heights 
in  Knglish 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

17  525 

Peru 

Pentland1 

Apu-Cunuranu  

17,590 

n 

Guaracoota  Peak,  Snow-line  
Cololo  Lat.  14°  58' 

16,217 
17,930 

Bolivia 

n 

» 

Volcano  of  Arequipa  

20  320 

Peru 

>» 

Quenuta  Lat  17°  41' 

18,765 

» 

Chipicani,  or  Nevado  of  Tacora.. 

19,745 
21,700 

» 

M 

n 

Farinacota  

22  030 

» 

» 

Sah  ji  in  a  

22  350 

i 

»» 

Gualateiri  Lat.  18°  23' 

21  960 

» 

» 

Ancoliuma,  S.  Peak  

21,286 

Bolivian 

}> 

"           N.  Peak  

21  043 

Andes 

H 

Chachacomani  N.  Peak  

20355 

M 

» 

Angel  Peak  Lat   16°  10' 

20  115 

n 

li 

Supaiwasi,  or  Huayna  Potosi  
Cacaca  Lat   16°  25' 

20,260 
18  210 

» 

M 
M 

La  Mesada,  S.  Peak  

19,356 

li 

II 

lllimaiii,  S.  Peak  

21,140 

)) 

» 

Mount  de  las  Litanias  

14,500 

n 

M 

Miriquiri  Peak  

16  100 

» 

» 

Cerro,  or  Mountain  of  Potosi  
of  Chorolque, 
near  Tupisa  

16,152 
16,550 

» 
» 

n 

Aconcagua  Mountain  

23,910 

Chile" 

Peak  of  Dona  Ana  

16  070 

» 

Fitzroy 

15000 

» 

Volcano  of  Antuco  

8  918 

» 

Volcano  of  Osorno,  or  LlanquLhue 
Yanteles  

7,550 
8  030 

» 
»> 

Fitzroy 
>» 

Miiichinrnfulava  Volcano  

8  000 

» 

>) 

Mount  Stokes  ... 

6.400 

Pataeonia 

M 

1  The  Heights  given  in  this  table  on  Mr.  Pentland's  authority  have  been  taken  from  his 
Map  of  'The  Laguna  of  Titicaca,  and  of  the  Valleys  of  Vucay,  Collao,  and  Desaguadero,' 
published  in  1848. 

3  As  stated  in  the  text,  p.  96.  The  height  here  assigned  to  the  Peak  of  Anconcagtia 
differs  700  feet  from  that  given  by  Captain  Fitzroy.  A  re-calculation,  however,  of  his 
elements  has  led  us  to  adopt  a  much  greater  elevation  for  the  giant  of  the  Chilian  Andes 
than  is  given  by  that  talented  officer. 

Captain  Fitzroy's  observations  place  the  summit  of  the  Peak  of  Aconcagua,  which  on 
his  chart  is  incorrectly  designated  as  a  volcano,  in  lat.  32°  38'  30",  long.  70=>  00'  30"  W., 
or  23'  23''  N.,  and  100'  45"  E.  of  Valparaiso,  or  its  nearest  distance  about  88-J^  geographi- 
cal miles.  From  a  station  near  Captain  Fitzroy's,  at  Valparaiso,  Captain  Beechey  found 
the  angle  of  elevation  of  Aconcagua,  by  several  very  careful  observations,  to  be  1°  55'  45", 
the  distance  from  this  station  to  the  Peak  being  88  74  geographical  miles.  From  a  discus- 
sion of  all  these  data,  the  compiler  of  this  table  has  deduced  for  the  height  of  Aconcagua 
A^IO  feet  above  the  sea. 

*  The  heights  given  on  Mr.  Domeyko's  authority  are  taken  from  his  very  interesting 
papers  on  the  Geology  and  Mines  of  Chile,  inserted  in  the  Annales  des  Mines,  1846, 
'47,  '48. 


APP.] 


TABLE    OP    HEIGHTS. 


517 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heights 
in  Knglisli 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  .situated. 

Authorities. 

Mount  Burney  

5  800 

Patagonia 

Fitzroy 

Mount  Sarmiento  

6,900 

Terra   del 

»i 

Mount  Darwin  

6  800 

Fuego 

» 

M 

Passes  of  the  Andes  :  — 

16,160 

Peru 

Gaye 

"        Altos  de  Toledo  

15  790 

»> 

Pentland 

Pacuani  

15,340 

Bolivia 

» 

Chullunquiani  

15,160 

M 

"         Vilcanota,  or  la  Raya  .... 
"         Las  Gualillas  

14,520 
14750 

Peru 
» 

» 

M 

Paramo  d'Assiiay  

15,528 

Equator 

Humboldt 

las  Guanacas  

14,708 

Boucreur 

"         Quindiu  

11,502 

N.  Grenada 

Humboldt 

"        el  Amorsadero  

12,850 

)> 

"        Come  Cabello, 
Lat.  27°  30'  S. 
"        Dona  Ana 
Lat  29°  36'  S. 
"        Portezuela  de  la  Laguna 
Lat.  30°  15'  S. 
"        La  Cumbre  

14,520 

14,829 

15,575 
12,450 

Chile 

M 

M 

» 

Domeyko 
» 

» 
Pentland 

"        las  Peuquenes,  E.  Pass... 
"        el  Portillo,        W.      " 

Mountains  of  Brazil:  — 
Itambe  

13,810 
14,370 

5,960 

» 
)) 

Domeyko 
Eschwege 

Villarica  chain,  Serra  da  Piedade 

5,830 

Itacolumi  

5,750 

» 

Isle  of  Bourbon,  highest  point  ... 
Mount  Ambotismene  

8,340 
11,506 

Madagascar 

Phys.  Atlas 
A.  B.  L. 

Adam's  Peak  

6,152 

Ceylon 

11,930 

Java 

Junghuhn 

11,030 

)> 

"       Gounnong    Pasama,     or 
Ophir  

13,840 

Sumatra 

Raffles 

4,500 

Kurile  Is. 

Phys.  Atlas 

Peak  of  Unimak  

8,593 

Aleutian  Is. 

M 

13,953 

Sandwich  Is. 

Wilkes 

»        Eoa  

13,760 

» 

Tobreonou  

12,250 

Otaheite 

Phys.  Atlas 

Mount  Wellington,  or  Kosciusco. 
"       Lindsay..  ..Lat.  28°  20'  S. 
Canobolas     "     33°  25'  S. 

6,500 
5,700 
4,551 
9,630 

New  Holland 

a 

N 

New  Zealand 

Strelizki 

Mitchell 
a 

Bidwell 

"       Egmont  

8,840 

» 

Dieifenbach 

Tongariro  Mountain  

6,200 

>> 

12,367 

)  Antarctic 

Sir  J.  C.  Ross 

"       Terror  ... 

10,884 

C      Lamia 

»» 

518 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


[APP. 


LAKES  AND  INLAND  SEAS. 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  &c. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorites. 

Sirikol,  source  of  the  Oxus  

15,630 

Pamer 

Wood 

Manasarowar  and  Raikas  Thai  ... 
Chutnurari  Lake  

15,250 
15  000 

Tibet 

Strachey 
Cunningham 

Titicaca  

12,847 

Peru-Bolivia 

Pentland 

2,825 

S.  Africa 

Murray 

Baikal  

1,535 

Asia 

A.  C 

Lake  of  Van  

566 

Turkey   in 

n 

Aral  

36 

Asia 
Asia 

M 

Caspian  Sea,  below  the  level  of  the 
Ocean  

82 

» 

Russian 

Dead  Sea   below  the  Ocean  

1  312 

Syria 

Survey 

Lake  of  Tiberias,  below  the  Ocean 
Lake  Superior  

328' 
596 

» 
N.  America 

"     of  Lucerne  

1,407 

Switzerland 

Eschnian 

"     of  Geneva  .., 

1.230 

» 

n 

HEIGHTS  OF  SOME  REMAR 
Rumihuasi.  Post  Station  

KABLE 

15,542 

14,960 
14,400 
14,376 
14,683 
13,690 
13,650 
13,454 
13,320 
12,870 
12,454 

12,235 
12,226 
11,870 
11,384 
9,543 
9,343 

INHABITE] 

Andes   of 
Peru 

Peru 
n 

n 

Bolivia 
Equator 
Bolivia 
Peru 
Bolivia 

Abyssinia 
j> 

Peru 

M 

Bolivia 

3  PLAGES. 

Gaye 

M 

Pentland 

n 

}> 
n 

Humboldt 

Pentland 
» 

»» 

D'Abbadie 
Pentland 
Humboldt 
Pentland 
Humboldt 
Pentland 

Ayavirini   Post  Station  

Pati,  Post  Station,  Lat.  16°    5'  S. 
Apo      "         "          "     16°  13'  S. 
Ancochallini,  farm  "     17°  35'  S. 
Tacora,  village  "     17°  47'  S. 
Calamarca  "     16°  54'  S. 

Antisana,  farm  

Potosi,  city  

Puno,  city  

Oruro,  city  

Arquaze,  highest  village  in  Ethi- 

Quito,  capital  of  the  Equator  .... 
Chuquisaca,  capital  of  Bolivia... 

ers  given  at  pp.  85  and  259  will  require  therefore  to  be  corrected.  The  mean  of  the 
barometrical  measurements  of  the  three  travellers  above  mentioned  gives  for  the  depres- 
sion of  the  Dead  Sea  1423£  feet,  or  one  hundred  feet  more  than  the  trigonometrical  mca- 
Burementa  by  I  ient .  Symonda 


APP.] 


TABLE    OP    HEIGHTS. 


519 


Names  of  Places,  Mountains,  <tc. 

Heights 
in  English 
Feet. 

Countries  in 
which  situated. 

Authorities. 

Bogota,  capital  of  New  Grenada. 
Mexico  

8,730 

7  570 

N.  Grenada 
Mexico 

Humboldt 

Arequipa   city  

7,852 

Peru 

Pentland 

Highest  villages  on  the  S.  side  of 
the  Himalaya  

13,000 

Kumaon 

Strachey 

Leh  

11  600 

Thibet 

Niti,  village  

11,473 

Kumaon 

Webb 

Canceling,  town  

7,165 

Sekim  Hima- 

Waugh 

Cabool  

6  382 

laya 
Afghanistan 

Burnes 

Saka,  capital  of  Enarea,  8°  11/N. 
Kandahar  

6,050 
5,563 

Ethiopia 

D'Abbadie 
Humboldt 

Teheran  

4  137 

Persia 

A.  C. 

Kashmir,  city  

5  818 

Kashmir 

Hugel 

Hospital  of  Great  St.  Bernard  ... 
"         of  St.  Gothard  

8,110 
6,808 

Alps,  P. 

A.  B.  L. 

H 

St.  Veran,  village  

6,693 

"      C. 

» 

Breuil   village  

6  584 

"      P. 

P.  S. 

Bareges  

4  072 

Pyrenees 

A.  B.  L. 

Briancon,  town  

4  285 

Alps,  M. 

H 

Jerusalem  

2  565 

Berton  and 

Madrid  

1  994 

Spain 

Rusegger 
A.  B.  L. 

Santiago,  capital  of  Chile  

1,750 

Chile 

Pentland 

Munich  

1  764 

A.  B  L. 

Geneva  

1  450 

Switzerland 

755 

Piedmont 

u 

Lima  

520 

Pentland 

Vienna  

436 

A.  B.  L. 

420 

Lombardy 

Paris   Observatory  

213 

,, 

Rome,  Capitol  

151 

Italy 

» 

Brelin  

131 

Prussia 

" 

GLOSSARY. 


A'uiES.    Lat.    A  fir-tree.    Specific  name  of  a  tree. 

ABYSSI'NICA.     Lat.     Ayssinian ;  belonging  or  relating  to  Abyssinia. 

ACA'CIA.  Gr.  ake,  a  point,  and  akios,  not  subject  to  worms;  a  thorny  tree.  A 
genus  of  the  family  Legutninosae  and  order  Mimosas.  About  300  species  are 
enumerated ;  many  of  them  yield  gum. 

ACA'CIA  AUA'BICA.    Arabian  acacia. 

ACA'CIAS.     Trees  belonging  to  the  genus  acacia. 

A'CID.  A  term  given  by  chemists  to  those  compound  bodies  which  unite  with 
salifiable  bases  to  form  salts  :  for  example,  a  compound  of  sulphur  and  oxygen, 
called  sulphuric  acid,  unites  with  magnesia  and  forms  a  salt  named  sulphate 
of  magnesia,  or  Epsom  salts. 

ACI'DULOUS.    Sourish ;  possessing  acid  properties. 

ACEOCHO'RDI.     Lat. ;  plural  of  acrochordus. 

ACROCHO'RDUS.  From  the  Greek  akrochordon,  a  wart.  A  genus  of  non-venomous 
ophidians,  whose  bodies  are  entirely  covered  by  scales  resembling  warts:  these 
scales,  or  rather  squamous  tubercles,  are  small,  numerous,  rhomboidal,  and 
surmounted  by  a  small  horn  or  point,  more  or  less  sharp. 

ADANSO'NIA.  A  genus  of  plants  named  in  honour  of  Michel  Adanson,  a  famous 
French  botanist,  born  in  1727.  Adanso'nia  digita'ta.  Sour  gourd,  or  African 
sour-sop.  Monkeys'  bread  or  Baobab  tree  of  Senegal,  which  is  considered  the 
largest,  or  rather  the  broadest  tree  in  the  world.  "  Several  measured  by  Adan- 
son, were  from  sixty-eight  to  seventy-eight  feet  in  circumference,  but  not  ex- 
traordinarily high.  The  trunks  were  from  twelve  to  fifteen  feet  high,  before 
they  divided  into  many  horizontal  branches,  which  touched  the  ground  at  their 
extremities ;  these  were  from  forty-five  to  fifty-five  feet  long,  and  were  so  large 
that  each  branch  was  equal  to  a  monstrous  tree ;  and  where  the  water  of  a 
neighboring  river  had  washed  away  the  earth,  so  as  to  leave  the  roots  of  one 
of  these  trees  bare  and  open  to  the  sight,  they  measured  110  feet  long,  without 
including  those  parts  of  the  roots  which  remained  covered.  It  yields  a  fruit 
which  resembles  a  gourd,  and  which  serves  for  vessels  of  various  uses ;  the 
bark  furnishes  a  coarse  thread,  which  they  form  into  ropes,  and  into  cloth  with 
which  the  natives  cover  their  middle  from  the  girdle  to  the  knees ;  the  small 
leaves  supply  them  with  food  in  times  of  scarcity,  while  the  large  ones  are 
used  for  covering  their  houses,  or,  by  burning,  for  the  manufacture  of  good 
soap.  At  Sierra  Leone  this  tree  does  not  grow  larger  than  an  orchard  apple 
tree."  London, 

A'DIT.  Lat.  adeo,  I  approach.  A  horizontal  shaft  or  passage  in  a  mine,  either 
for  access,  or  for  carrying  off  water. 

AFRICA'NUS.     Lat.     African ;  belonging  or  relating  to  Africa. 

AQAL'LOCHUM.  From  the  Gr.  aggalomai,  to  become  splendid.  A  resinous,  aro- 
matic wood,  burned  by  the  Chinese  and  Japanese  for  the  sake  of  its  agreeable 
odour,  from  the  Excceca'ria  aggal'locha.  Aloes  wood. 

A'GAIIOUS,     From  the  Gr.  a,  privative,  and  gamos,  marriage.     Having  no  sex. 
44  *  (521) 


522  GLOSSARY. 

A'GATE.  A  name  given  to  all  varieties  of  quartz  which  have  not  a  vitreous 
aspect;  are  compact,  semi-transparent,  and  whose  fracture  resembles  that  of 
wax.  Agates  are  of  various  colours  and  admit  of  a  fine  polish.  According 
to  Theophrastes  and  Pliny,  the  name  comes  from  the  river  Achates  in  Sicily, 
now  the  Drillo,  on  the  banks  of  which  the  first  agates  were  found. 

AGLA'IA.  '  From  the  Gr.  Aglaia,  beauty,  elegance.  A  genus  of  plants,  trees  or 
shrubs,  of  which  there  are  five  or  six  species  in  the  Island  of  Java.  The 
odora'ta  is  one. 

A'GUA.     Spanish.    Water. 

AI'RA.  From  the  Gr.  aira,  a  tare,  cookie  weed.  A  genus  of  the  family  of  Gramf- 
neae,  or  grasses,  of  the  tribe  of  Avenaceae.  Hair-grass.  A.  antarctica. 
Antarctic  hair-grass. 

AIR-PLANTS.  A  name  given  to  certain  parasitic  plants  which  were  supposed  to 
be  nourished  by  the  air  alone,  without  contact  with  the  soil.  There  are  some 
species  which  will  live  many  months  suspended  by  a  string  in  a  warm  apart- 
ment. 

AL'BA,    ") 

AL'BUS,  >    Lat.    White. 

AL'BUM,  J 

ALBI'NO.  Spanish.  From  the  Lat.  albm,  white.  Applied  to  individuals  of  the 
human  race,  (and  extended  also  to  some  other  animals),  who  have  white  hair; 
the  iris,  pinkish  or  very  pale ;  and  the  eyes  unable  to  bear  much  light.  Albi- 
nos are  most  frequent  in  the  negro  race ;  but  it  does  not  seem  to  be  true  that 
there  are  tribes  of  Albinos  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

ALBIT'MEN.  From  the  Lat.  albus,  white.  A  chemical  term,  applied  to  an  imme- 
diate organic  principle,  which  constitutes  the  chief  part  of  the  white  of  egg. 
Animal  and  vegetable  albumen  are  nearly  the  same  in  composition. 

AI/KALINE.     Having  properties  of  an  alkali. 

ALCHEMI'LLAS  or  ALCHEMI'LLA.  Arabic.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Rosa'- 
ceae.  The  A.  vulgaris,  common  ladies'  mantle. 

A'LGA.     Lat.     Sea-weed. 

ALG/K.  Plural  of  alga,  Name  of  a  sub-class  of  crypt6gamous  plants,  which  is 
subdivided  into  three  families :  the  PJiy'cece,  or  submerged  sea-weeds ;  the 
Lichens,  or  emerged  sea-weed,  and  the  Byaea'cece,  or  amphibious  sea-weeds. 
The  algae  or  sea- weeds  are  dgamous  plants  which  live  in  the  air,  on  the  surface 
or  at  the  bottom  of  fresh  or  salt  water;  they  are  remarkable  for  their  cellular 
or  filamentous  structure,  into  which  no  vessels  enter. 

ALHA'GI.  Arabic.  Genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Leguminosaj.  The  alhagi 
maurorum  grows  in  the  deserts  of  Egypt;  a  sweet,  gummy  substance  exudes 
from  the  bark  in  form  of  small  yellowish  grains,  which,  it  appears,  was  the 
manna  the  Hebrews  ate  while  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia  Petrea. 

AL'KALI  or  AL'CALI.  A  chemical  term  formerly  applied  to  potash  and  soda :  it 
now  embraces  the  oxides  of  potassium,  sodium,  lithium,  barium,  strontium  and 
calcium,  metals  which  decompose  water  at  ordinary  temperatures,  and  absorb, 
that  is,  combine  with  its  oxygen,  giving  out  heat  and  flame. 

A'LOE.  Name  of  a  genus  of  plants  which  includes  very  many  species.  The 
inspissated  juice  of  several  of  these  species  constitutes  the  varieties  of  the 
medicine  called  Soccotrine,  Barbadoes  aloes,  Ac. 

ALLU'VIA.    Lat.     Plural  of  alluvium. 

ALLU'VIAL.     Of  the  nature  of  alluvium. 

ALLU'VION,  1      From  the  Lat.  alluo,  I  wash  upon.    Gravel,  sand,  mud,  and  other 

ALLU'VIUM,  J  transported  matter,  washed  down  by  rivers  and  floods  upon  lands 
not  permanently  submerged  beneath  water.  A  deposit  formed  of  matter  trans- 
ported by  currents  of  water. 

ALPI'NUS          ^at"    ^P'ne  >  helonging  or  relating  to  the  Alps. 

ALU'MINCM  or  ALUMI'NIUM.     From  alit'men,  alum.     The  metalloid  which  forma 

the  basis  of  alum ;  of  alumina  or  pure  argil. 
&  MARY'LLIS.    From  the  Gr.  amarnsso,  to  be  resplendent.     A  nymph  in  ancient 

mythology.    Name  of  a  genus  of  plants,  forming  the  type  of  the  family  of 


GLOSSARY.  523 

Amaryllfdeas,  composed  of  about  sixty  species.  Generally  they  are  bulbous 
plants,  remarkable  for  the  size  and  beauty  of  their  flowers. 

AMBLYRHY'NCHUS.  From  the  Gr.  umblus,  obtuse,  and  ruychos,  snout.  Name  of 
a  genus  of  iguanian  reptiles. 

VMETHYST.  From  the  Gr.  amithvstos,  not  drunk.  The  ancients  gave  this  name 
to  a  stone  in  which  the  wine  red  colour  was  tempered  with  violet.  A  violet 
variety  of  hyaline  quartz. 

AMMO'NIA.  A  colourless  gas  of  a  peculiar,  pungent  odour.  It  causes  death  when 
respired ;  and  its  strong  alkaline  reaction  distinguishes  it  from  all  other  elastic 
fluids.  It  is  liberated  from  all  its  chemical  combinations  by  the  alkalis.  Spirits 
of  hartshorn  is  a  solution  of  this  gas. 

AMMONI'ACAL.     Of  the  nature  of  ammonia. 

AM'MONITE.  From  the  Lat.  Amman,  a  name  of  Jupiter.  A  fossil  so  called  from 
a  supposed  resemblance  to  the  horns  engraven  on  the  heads  of  Jupiter  Ammon. 
In  certain  parts  of  England  called  snake-stones.  Ammonites  are  fossil  shells, 
rolled  upon  the  same  plane,  consisting  of  a  series  of  separate  chambers,  like 
the  nautilus. 

AMOR'PHOUS.  From  the  Gr.  a,  privative,  and  morphe,  form.  Without  definite 
or  regular  shape. 

AMPE'LID^E.  Lat.  (ampelis),  name  of  a  family  of  birds  in  the  tribe  of  Denti- 
rdstres. 

AMPELI'DE^E.  From  the  Gr.  ampelos,  a  vine.  Name  of  the  family  of  Phaner6- 
gamous  plants,  which  includes  the  vine. 

AMPHI'BIOUS.  From  the  Gr.  amphibios,  two-lived.  Having  the  faculty  of  living 
in  two  elements. 

AMPHIU'MA.  From  the  Gr.  amphi,  both,  on  all  sides,  and  urna,  that  which  has 
been  moistened.  A  genus  of  Batrachians  in  which  lungs  but  no  bronchiaa 
exist  through  life.  Amphiu'ma  menop'oma.  A  kind  of  Batrachian  which  re- 
sembles the  Salamander.  It  is  found  in  Louisiana. 

A'MPLITUDE.  In  astronomy  denotes  the  angular  distance  of  a  celestial  body,  at 
the  time  it  rises  or  sets,  from  the  east  or  west  points  of  the  horizon.  It  is 
sometimes  used  to  designate  the  horizontal  distance  a  projectile  reaches  when 
thrown  from  a  gun. 

AM'YRIS.  From  the  Gr.  amuros,  not  perfumed.  A  genus  of  phanerogamous 
plants,  which  is  the  type  of  the  family  of  Amyri'deEe,  which  is  allied  to  the 
family  of  turpentines.  Am'yris  gileade'mis.  The  Balm  of  Gilead.  Am'yria 
kataf.  The  myrrh  tree.  Am'yris  opoba'lsamum.  The  opobalsam,  or  balsam 
of  Mecca. 

ANA'NAS.  Portuguese.  Pine-apple.  Genus  of  the  family  Bromclidcea},  and 
type  of  the  tribe  Anandceae. 

ANDRO'MEDA.  Mythological  name  of  a  constellation.  Genus  of  the  family  Eri- 
c&ceae,  and  type  of  the  tribe  Andromedeae  or  Andromedas. 

ANGE'LICA  ARCHENGE'LICA.  Garden  Angelica.  Roots  and  seeds  used  in  medi- 
cine as  an  aromatic  stimulant. 

ANGUI'NUS.     Lat.     Of  the  nature  of  a  snake;  belonging  or  relating  to  a  snake. 

A'NEROID.  From  the  Gr.  a  or  an,  privative,  without,  and  red,  to  flow.  A  name 
given  to  a  kind  of  barometer  which  is  constructed  without  a  liquid  to  counter- 
poise the  air.  The  Aneroid  barometer  consists  of  a  cylinder  of  copper  with  a 
very  thin  and  corrugated  end,  partially  exhausted  of  air,  and  hermetically 

,     sealed.     The  effect  of  the  varying  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  on'  the  thin  end 

'  is  magnified  by  a  system  of  levers,  so  as  to  affect  the  index  of  a  dial  like  that 
';'  of  a  watch  or  clock.  This  is  a  French  invention,  but  was  patented  in  England, 
in  the  year  1844.  See  Barometer. 

ANIMA'LCULA.     Lat.     Plural  of  Animalculum. 

ANIMA'LCULE.  A  diminutive  animal.  A  term  used  to  designate  animals  ^so  small 
that  they  cannot  be  seen  by  the  unassisted  eye. 

ANIMA'LCULUM.     Lat.     Animalcule. 

ANISA'TUM.  Lat.  Belonging  or  relating  to  aniseed.  Specific  name  of  the  tree 
which  produces  star-aniseed. 

ANO'LIS.  A  kind  of  Saurian,  called  anoli  in  the  Antilles.  Also  called,  long-toed 
lizard,  or  dactyloa. 


524  GLOSSARY. 

AN'NUAL.    From  the  Lat.  anting,  a  year.    Yearly.    A  plant  which  rises  from  the 

seed,  reaches  perfection,  and  perishes  within  a  year,  is  termed  an  annual. 
ANTA'KCTICA.     Lat.    Antarctic. 

ANTILO'PUS  MONTA'NA.   Mountain  Antelope.   A.  rupicapra.    Chamois.   A.  cervica- 
pra.    Common  Antelope.   A.  dorcas.    Gazelle.   A.  gasella.   Algazel.   A.  mhorr. 

Mhorr. 
A'NTHER.    From  the  Gr.  anthem,  a  flowery  herb.    In  botany :  the  essential  part 

of  the  stamen.    The  small  yellowish  body,  compared  to  a  diminutive  leaf  folded 

on  itself,  which  crowns  the  stamen,  and  in  which  the  pollen  is  formed. 
ANTIQUO'RUM.     Lat.     Of  the  ancients. 
APHE'LION.     From  the  Greek  apo,  from,  and  elios,  the  sun.    That  point  of  a 

planet's  orbit  most  distant  from  the  sun ;  opposed  to  perihelion. 
A'pHiDES.     Plural  of  aphis. 
A'PHIS.     Gr.    A  plant-louse ;  a  vine-fretter. 
APOCY'NE^;.     From  the  Gr.  apo,  far  from,  and  kuon,  dog.    Having  the  virtue  of 

driving  away  dogs ;  the  plant  which  kills  dogs.     Botanical  name  of  a  family 

of  which  the  genus  apo'cynum  is  the  type. 
A'PTENODY'TES.    From  the  Gr.  apten,  without  wings,  and  dutes,  diver.    A  genus 

of  birds.     A'ptenody'tes  patagonica.     A  species  of  penguin. 
A'PTERYX.     From  the  Gr.  apteros,  without  wings.     Name  of  a  genus  of  birds. 
A'QUEOTJS  HOCKS.    Are  those  formed  by  deposits  from  water. 
A'QUILA.     Lat.     An  eagle.     Aquila  albicilla.     The  fishing  eagle. 
ARATTCA'RIA.     From  Arauco.     Name  of  a  department  or  district  of  Chile  where 

the  first  species  was  seen.     Name  of  a  genus  of  the  family  of  Conifers.    Arau- 

ca'ria  excelsa.     The  Norfolk  Island  pine. 
AR'BUTUS.     Lat.    A  shrub.    A  genus  of  plants. 
ARCTOCE'PHALUS.     From  the  Gr.  arktos,  a  bear,  Jcephale,  head.    Name  of  a 

genus  of  mammals. 
AR'DEA.     Lat.     A  Heron.     Name  of  a  genus  of  birds.    Ar'dea  heliat.     The  Sun 

Bird. 
A'REA  OP  SUBSIDENCE.   A  geological  expression  used  to  designate  a  space  which 

has  settled. 
ARE'CA.     Cabbage-tree.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  P.ilmjc.     Are'ca 

catechu.     The  medicinal  or  betel-nut  palm. 

ARENA'CEOUS.     From  the  Lat.  are'na,  sand.     Sandy;  of  the  nature  of  sand. 
ARGEN'TEUM.     Lat.     Silvery ;  relating  to  silver. 
ARGENTI'FEROUS.   From  the  Lat.  argentum,  silver,  and  fero,  I  bear.    Containing 

silver. 

ARGILLA'CEOUS.     From  the  Lat.  aryilla,  clay  or  argil.     Of  the  nature  of  clay. 
ARGONAU'TA.     Lat.     From  the  Gr.  argo,  name  of  a  vessel,  and  nantes,  a  navi- 
gator.    Name  of  a  genus  of  cephalo'podous  mollusks. 
ARSIADI'LLO.     Spanish.     Diminutive  of  armada,  armed.     Name  of  a  mammal 

of  the  family  of  edentata  or  edentates. 
AROMA'TICUS.     Lat.     Aromatic ;  spicy. 
AR'SENIC.     A  metal  of  a  shining,  steel  gray  colour.     Heated  in  contact  with 

atmospheric  air,  it  rapidly  absorbs  oxygen,  and  forms  arseniov*  acid,  which  ia 

the  poison  commonly  called  arsenic,  or  rat's  lane.     Arsenic  is  found  in  its 

metallic  state,  in  the  form  oxide  or  arsenious  acid,  or  whito  arsenic;  and  com- 
bined with  sulphur,  forming  orpiment,  and  realgar. 

ARTEMI'SI^E.  )      A  tribe  of  plants,  of  which  the  genus  Artemisia  is  the  type. 
ARTEMISIAS.  J  Many  of  them  are  used  in  medicine. 
ARTE'SIAN.    From  Artois,  name  of  a  province  of  France  where  especial  attention 

has  been  given  to  a  means  of  obtaining  water,  which  consists  in  boring  vertical 

perforations  of  small  diameter  in  the  exterior  crust  of  the  earth,  frequently  of 

great  depth.     These  are  termed  Artesian  wells. 
ARTICULA'TA.    Lat.    From  articulus,  a  joint  or  articulation.   Articulated;  having 

joints  or  articulations. 
ASCLE'PIAS.     A  name  of  Escalapius.     A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants.     At- 

cle'pias  gigante'a.     Mudor  of  the  Hindoos.     The  milky  juice  is  very  caustic ; 

the   bark    of  the   root  as  well   as    the  juice   are  used   in    medicine  by  tho 

Asiatics. 


GLOSSARY.  525 

A'SPHALT.       1      From  the  Gr.  a,  privative,  and  spJialto,  I  slip,  or  aephaltos,  bitu- 
ASPHA'LTUM.  j  men.     Used  anciently  as   a  cement.    A  black,  brittle  bitumen, 

found  on  the  surface  and  banks  of  the  Dead  Sea,  hence  called  the  Asphaltio 

lake. 

ASPHODE'LE^;.    Name  of  a  family  of  phanerogamous  plants. 
ASPHYX'IA.     From   the  Gr.  a,  privative,  and  sphuxia,  pulse.     Without  pulse. 

Seeming  death  from  suspended  respiration,  from  any  cause,  such  as  drowning, 

strangulation,  or  suffocation. 
ASSI'MILATE.     From  the  Lat.  ad,  and  similare,  to  render  similar.     Assimilation 

is  the  act  by  which  living  bodies  appropriate  and  transform  into  their  own 

substan'ce,  matters  with  which  they  may  be  placed  in  contact^     In  man,  assi- 
milation is  a  function  of  nutrition. 
ASPLK'NIFO'LIA.    Compound  of  asplenium,  a  genus  of  ferns,  and  folia,  leaves. 

Having  leaves  resembling  those  of  the  asplenium. 
A'STER.     From  the  Gr.  aster,  a  star.     A  name  given  to  the  plant  by  the  Greeks 

in  allusion  to  the  radiate  form  of  the  flowers.   Name  of  a  genus  of  plants  which 

forms  the  type  of  the  asteroides  or  asters — literally,  star-Jlowers. 
ASTRA'GALI.    Lat.    Plural  of  Astragalus. 
ASTRAJGALTJS.    Lat.    Name  of  a  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants  of  the  family 

of  leguminOsoe. 
A'TOLL.    A  chaplet  or  ring  of  coral,  enclosing  a  lagoon  or  portion  of  the  ocean 

in  its  centre. 

AUCU'BA.  )      A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rhamnoides.    There  is  but  one 
AtrKu'BA.  j  species,  which  grows  in  Japan.     Aucuba  Japonica. 
APCHE'NIA.     From  the  Gr.  auchenio*,  belonging  to   the   head  or  neck.     Lat. 

Name  of  a  genus  of  mammals,  the  Llama.    Also,  a  genus  of  celeOpteroua 

insects. 
AURI'CULA.    Lat.    Little  ear.    A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants  of  the  family 

of  Primuldceae. 
ATJRI'FEHOUS.     From  the  Lat.  aurum,  gold,   and  fero,  1  bear.     Gold-bearing, 

containing  gold. 
ATJ'ROCHS.    An  alteration  of  the  German  Auerochs,  wild-bull.     Their  race  is  now 

almost  extinct ;  a  few  individuals  are  found  in  the  forests  of  Lithuania,  &c. 

AUSTRA'LIS  I     Lat>    BelonSing  °r  relating  to  the  south. 

AZA'LEA.  From  the  Gr.  azalea,  burned.  A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants  of 
the  family  of  Ericaceae. 

AZE'DARACH.  From  the  Arab.  Azadaracht,  a  namo  given  by  Avicenna  to  a 
plant. 

A'ZOTE.  )      From  the  Gr.  a,  privative,  and  zo'on,  life.     The  name  given  by 

AZO'TIC  GAS.  J  chemists  to  a  gas,  now  also  called  nitrogen,  which  will  support 
neither  respiration  nor  combustion.  It  constitutes  seventy-nine  per  cent,  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  enters  into  the  composition  of  all  animal  matter,  except 
fatty  substances,  and  into  a  certain  number  of  proximate  vegetable  principles. 

BACCI'FERUM.  Lat.  Compound  of  bacca,  a  berry,  and  fero,  I  bear.  Berry- 
bearing.  Specific  name  of  a  plant. 

BALANCE  OF  TORSION,  or  TORSION  BALANCE.  A  machine  invented  by  Coulomb 
for  measuring  the  intensities  of  electric  or  magnetic  forces,  by  establishing  an 
equilibrium  between  them  and  the  force  of  torsion. 

BAL^'NA.  Lat.  A  whale.  Name  of  a  genus  of  mammals,  belonging  to  the  order 
Cet&cea.  Bal&'na  mystece'tua.  The  common  whale.  Bala'na  gibbo'ea.  A 
kind  of  whale  which  has  five  or  six  protuberances  on  its  back. 

BAN'KSIA.    A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Prote^cese. 

BA'OBAB.     See  Adansonia. 

BA'RICM.  From  the  Gr.  bams,  heavy.  A  metal  obtained  from  bary'tes  by  Sir 
II.  Davy. 

BARO'METER.  From  the  Gr.  baros,  weight,  and  metron,  a  measure.  An  instru- 
ment for  measuring  the  weight  of  atmospheric  air. 

i,  }      ™™S™%  or  Bating  to  the  barometer. 


526  GLOSSARY. 

BABRINOTO'NIA.  A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Myrta'cese, 
and  the  type  of  the  tribe  of  Barringt6niae. 

BASA'LT.  An  Ethiopian  word.  A  black  or  bluish  gray  rock,  harder  than  glass, 
very  tenacious,  and  consequently  difficult  to  break;  it  is  homogeneous  in  ap- 
pearance, although  essentially  composed  of  pyroxene  and  feldspar,  with  a  large 
proportion  of  oxide  of  iron  or  titanium.  Basalt  is  considered  by  all  geologists 
to  be  a  product  of  igneous  formation. 

BASA'LTIC.     Belonging  or  relating  to  basalt.     x 

BATRAC'HIAN.  From  the  Gr.  ba'trachos,  a  frog.  The  name  given  by  naturalists 
to  those  reptiles  which  resemble  frogs  in  their  organization.  Batrachians 
form  the  fourth  order  in  the  class  of  Reptiles. 

BEATJFO'RTIA.  Name  of  a  genus  of  the  family  of  Myrt£ceae,  named  in  honour  of 
Mary,  the  Duchess  of  Beaufort,  who  encouraged  the  study  of  Botany. 

BE'LEMNITES.  From  the  Gr.  be'lemnon,  a  dart.  A  genus  of  dibranchiate  cepha- 
lopods,  the  shells  of  which  are  chambered  and  perforated  by  a  siphon,  but  in- 
ternal. They  are  long,  straight,  and  conical ;  and  commonly  called  "  thunder 
stones." 

BENJAMI'NA.  Lat.  Benjamin.  A  genus  of  plants;  also  the  specific  name  of  a 
plant. 

BERNI'CLA.  Generic  name  of  a  kind  of  goose,  having  a  short  beak.  Berni'cla 
cyana'ptera.  The  goose  of  Shoa. 

BER'YL.  A  mineral  allied  to  the  emerald.  It  is  transparent,  of  a  pale  green 
colour,  and  in  Brazil  it  is  sometimes  sold  under  the  name  of  emerald. 

BE'TEL.     The  leaf  of  the  betel  or  Siriboa  pepper. 

BE'TULA.  Lat.  Birch.  Name  of  a  genus  of  plants.  Be'tula  nana.  Dwarf 
birch. 

BETULOI'DES.  From  letula,  a  birch-tree,  and  Gr.  eidos,  resemblance.  Specific 
name  of  a  plant. 

BIGNO'NIA.  A  genus  of  plants  named  in  honour  of  the  AbbS  Bignon,  the  Libra- 
rian of  Louis  XIV. 

BIS'MUTH.     From  the  Germ.  Wismuth.    A  brittle,  yellowish  white  metal. 

BITD'MEN.    A  combustible  mineral,  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen. 

BI'XA  ORLEA'NA.    A  plant  which  produces  a  colouring  matter,  called  annotto. 

BO'A.    Name  of  a  genus  of  non-venomous  reptiles. 

BOHE'A.     Specific  name  of  a  tea-plant. 

BOM'BAX.  From  bombux,  one  of  the  Greek  names  of  cotton.  A  genus  of  plants 
of  the  family  Malvaceae.  Bombax  hcptapTiyllum.  A  kind  of  cotton-tree.  Bom- 
bax  ceiba.  The  cotton-wood  tree,  much  valued  for  making  canoes. 

BON'DUC.    A  synonym  of  the  Guilandi'na.     Specific  name  of  a  plant. 

BORA'CIC  ACID.     An  acid  obtained  from  borax,  consisting  of  boron  and  oxygen. 

BORA'SSUS.  From  the  Gr.  borassos,  a  date.  A  genus  of  the  family  of  Palms. 
Borassw  flabellifdrmis.  The  fan-leaved  palm. 

BO'RATE.  The  salt  resulting  from  a  combination  of  boracic  acid  and  a  salifiable 
base,  as  the  borate  of  soda. 

BO'RAX.     Tinkal.     A  natural  compound  of  soda  and  boracic  acid. 

BORE.     A  high-crested  wave  where  the  water  is  shallow,  as  on  a  sand-bar. 

BO'RON.  A  simple  or  undecomposable  substance,  the  basis  of  boracic  acid  and 
borax. 

BORI'CHTHYS.  From  the  Fr.  borgne,  one-eyed  or  blind,  and  the  Gr.  ichthiu,  a 
fish. 

BORRAGI'NEJE.    Name  given  by  Jussieu  to  a  group  of  plants. 

BORRER'IA.  From  Borrera,  name  of  a  man.  A  genus  of  phanerogamous  plants 
of  the  family  of  Rubiiceae. 

BOSWE'LLIA.  A  genus  named  in  honour  of  Dr.  John  Boswell.  Boswellia  serrata. 
The  olibanum  tree. 

Bos.  Lat.  An  ox.  A  genus  of  ruminating  mammals,  embracing  several  spe- 
cies. Bo»  urue.  The  Urus.  Bo»  coffer.  Cape  buffalo.  Bos  buba'los.  Common 
buffalo.  Jios  America'nui.  The  Bison.  Bos  moscha'tus.  The  Musk  Ox.  Bot 
gru'nieng.  The  Yak. 


GLOSSARY.  527 

BO'TANY.    From  the  Gr.  lotane,  plant.    The  branch  of  natural  history  which 

embraces  the  knowledge  and  study  of  plants. 
BOTA'XIC.     Belonging  or  relating  to  botany. 
BOUL'DERS,  or  BOWL'DBRS.    Rounded  masses  of  stone  lying  upon  the  surface,  or 

loosely  imbedded  in  the  soil. 
BOULDER  FORMATION,  or  Erratic  block  formation.     A  geological  term  applied  to 

a  part  of  the  diluvial  drift.     See  Ruschenberger's  Natural  History. 
BRAC'TE^E.     Lat.     Bracts.     Moral  leaves,  different  in  colour  from  other  leaves. 
BRA'NICHIA.     Lat.     A  gill. 
BRA'NCHI^:.     Lat.     From   the    Gr.  bragcJios,  the   throat.     The  gills  of  fishes. 

They  are  the  breathing  organs  of  fishes;  they  differ  from  lungs  both  in  their 

form  and  structure. 
BRAS'SICA.    Lat.     Cabbage. 
BREC'CIA.     Italian.    A  rock  composed  of  an  agglutination  of  angular  fragments. 

When  the  fragments  are  rolled  pebbles,  it  constitutes  a  conglomerate  rock, 

called  pudding-stone. 

BREVISE'TUM.     Lat.     Brevia,  short,  and  setum,  a  bristle.     A  specific  name. 
BREX'IA.     From  the  Gr.  brexis,  rain;   in  allusion  to  the  protection  from  rain 

afforded  by  its  ample  foliage.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Brexi£ceae. 
BU'BO.    Lat.    An  owl.    A  specific  as  well  as  generic  name.     Bubo  maximus.    A 

kind  of  owl. 

BU'FO.     Lat.     A  toad.     Bufo  Agua.     A  Brazilian  toad. 
BU'PHAGA.    Lat.    From  the  Gr.  bos,  an  ox,  and.  pTiago,  I  eat.  \  A  genus  of  birds, 

which  includes  the  African  beef-eater. 
BDU'SA.     Lat.     A  sack,  a  purse,  or  pouch. 
BU'TEA.     A  genus  of  the  family  of  Papiliona'ceae,  named  in  honour  of  John, 

Count  of  Bute,  a  cultivator  of  botanic  science.     Buteafro'ndosa  yields  a  gum 

(butea)  which  has  been  confounded  with  Kino. 

CAC'TI.     Lat.    Plural  of  cactus. 

CAC'TUS.     From  the  Gr.  Jcaktos,  spiny  plant.     Name  of  a  genus  of  the  family  of 

Cactdeeae.      Cactus   coccine'llifer.      The   cochineal   cactus.     Cactus   opu'ntia. 

Indian  fig. 
CACA'LIA.     Name  of  a  genus  of  phanerdgamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Compo"- 

sita3.     Several  species  are  useful  as  condiments. 

CACHA'LOT,  or  CACHE'LOT.    Fr.    Name  of  the  spermaceti  whale.    Used  to  desig- 
nate a  variety  of  the  order  of  Cetdceans,  which  has  teeth  in  both  jaws. 
CAD'MIUM.     A  white  metal,  much  like  tin.     Its  ores  are  associated  with  those  of 

zinc.     Discovered  in  1818. 
CADTJ'COTJS.     From  the  Lat.  cado,  I  fall.     In  Botany,  when  a  part  is  temporary, 

and  soon  disappears  or  falls  off,  it  is  said  to  be  caducous. 
C^ECI'LI^B.     From  the  Lat.  cacus,  blind.     A  tribe  of  Batrachians. 
CJESPITO'SA.     Lat.     From  ccespes,  turf  or  sod.     Belonging  or  relating  to  turf. 
CA'FEINE.     Fr.     In  chemistry  the  name  of  the  proximate  principle  of  coffee. 
CA'JAPUTE,  1      A  Malay  name  for  a  greenish,  volatile  oil  used  as  a  remedy  in 
CAJAPD'TA,  J  rheumatism,  <fcc. 
CA'LAMTTS.    A  genus  of  phanerdgamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Palms.    Ca'lamiis 

draco.     An  East  Indian  plant  which  yields   an   astringent  substance  called 

Dragon's  blood.     Ca'lamus  rotan.     The  rattan  plant. 
CALCA'REOUS.   From  the  Lat.  calx,  calcis,  lime.   Belonging  to  or  relating  to  lime. 

Calcareous  rocks  are  those  of  which  lime  forms  a  principal  part. 
CALCEOI/A'RIA.     From  the  Lat.  calce'olus,  a  little  shoe.     A  remarkable  genus  of 

phanerdgamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Scrophulari^cese. 
CAL'CIUM.   From  the  Lat.  calx,  calcis,  lime.   A  metal  discovered  by  Sir  H.  Davy, 

in  1807,  which,  united  with  oxygen,  forms  oxide  of  calcium  or  lime. 
CALLIT'RICHE.    From  the  Gr.  kallithrix,  having  luxuriant  hair.    A  genus  of 

aquatic  plants.     Also  the  name  of  a  genus  of  American  monkeys. 
CALO'RIC.    From  the  Lat.  caleo,  T  am  warm.    The  term  used  by  chemists  to  de- 
signate the  matter  of  heat. 


528  GLOSSARY. 

CALORI'FIC.    Belonging  or  relating  to  caloric. 

CALYCA'NTHUS.    From  the  Gr.  kalux,  a  calyx,  and  anthot,  flower.    A  genus  of 

the  family  of  Calycantha'ceae. 
CALYPTO'MENE.     From  the  Gr.  kaluptos,  concealed,  and  meno,  I  remain.     Name 

of  a  genus  of  birds. 
CAM'BRIAN  SYSTEM.    From  Cambria  in  "Wales.    A  name  given  by  geologists  to 

the  lowest  sedimentary  rocks,  characterized  by  fossil  remains  of  animals  h>west 

in  the  scale  of  organization,  such  as  corallines,  <tc.   It  is  also  called  the  Schis- 
tose system,  on  account  of  its  slaty  nature. 
CAME J/LIA.     A  genus  of  the  family  of  Auranti£cea3,  named  in  honour  of  Kamel, 

a  botanist.     It  contains  the  tea  plants.     Camellia  sasanqua.     Lady  Banks' 

Camellia.     Camel' lia  odorifera.     Sweet-smelling  Camellia. 
CAMPA'NULA.     From  the  Lat.  campana,  a  bell,  from  the  shape  of  its  corolla.    A 

genus  of  phaner6gamous  plants  of  the  family  of  Campanuliceae,  of  which  it 

is  the  type.     182  species  are  described. 
CAMPHORO'SMA.     From  the  Lat.  campho'ra,  camphor,  and  the  Gr.  osme,  odour. 

A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Chenopodaceae. 
CAM'PHORA.     Lat.     Camphor.     Belonging  or  relating  to  camphor. 
CANARIE'NSIS.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Canary  Islands. 
CANDELA'BRUM.    Lat.    A  candlestick. 
CA'NINE.    From  the  Lat  cam's,  a  dog.    Teeth  which  resemble  those  of  a  dog  are 

so  called ;  the  canine  teeth  of  the  upper  jaw  in  man  are  commonly  called  the 

eye-teeth. 
CAOU'TCHOUC.    Gum-elastic;  India-rubber,  a  substance  obtained  from  the^/atro'- 

pha  ela'stica,  the  Ficus  indica  and  the  Urce'ola  ela'stica. 
CAPE'NSIS.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
CARAGA'NA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Papiliona'ceae. 
CAR'BON.    From  the  Lat.  carbo,  charcoal.     A  chemical  element  or  nndecomposed 

body.     The  diamond  is  pure  carbon.     It  is  the  basis  of  anthracite,  and  of  all 

the  varieties  of  mineral  coal,  and  is  one  of  the  principal  constituents  of  all 

organic  bodies. 
CAR'BONATB.    Any  compound  of  carbonic  acid  and  a  salifiable  base,  as  carbonate 

of  lime,  carbonate  of  soda. 

CARBO'NIC  ACID.    A  compound  of  carbon  and  oxygen. 

CARBONI'FEROUS.   From  the  Lat.  carbo,  coal,  and/ero,  I  bear,  coal-bearing;  con- 
taining carbon.     In  geology  the  term  is  applied  to  those  strata  which  contain 

coal,  and  to  the  period  when  the  coal-measures  were  formed. 
CARDAMI'NE.    Gr.   Name  of  a  plant.   A  genus  of  the  family  of  Crucfferse.   Lady's 

smock.     Cardami'ne  hirs'uta.     Hairy  Cardamine. 

CAR'DUI.   Lat.    Genitive  case  of  carduus,  a  thistle.    Specific  name  of  a  butterfly. 
CARNI'VORA.     From  the  Lat.  caro,  carnis,  flesh,  and  voro,  I  eat.    Name  of  a 

family  of  Mammals. 
CARTILA'GINOUS  FISHES.    A  term  used  to  designate  that  division  of  the  class 

of  fishes  which  includes   only  those  having   cartilaginous  instead  of  bony 

skeletons. 
CARYOPHY'LLrs.     Lat.     A  garden  pink.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Caryophy'lle».     Caryophy' llus  aroma' ticus.     The  clove- tree. 
CARYO'TA.     A  genus  of  Palms  of  equatorial  Asia.     The  caryota  urent  derives  its 

specific  name  from  a  burning  sensation  its  fruit  imparts  when  eaten. 
CA'SPIA.    Lat.    Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Caspian  Sea. 
CAS'SIA.     From  the  Gr.  kassia,  cinnamon.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Papilionacea9.     The  genus  contains  more  than  300  species. 
CA'STANOSPE'RMUM.     From  the  Gr.  kastanon,  chestnut,  and  tperma,  fruit    A 

genus  of  the  family  of  Papilion&cese. 
CASUARI'N.*.   A  family  of  plants  separated  from  that  of  the  C6nifers.   The  casua- 

ri'nce  are  found  in  New  Holland,  and  in  India,  and  are  remarkable  for  the 

absence  of  leaves. 

CATA'LPA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Bignoni&cese. 
CAT'ECUU.    An  astringent  extract,  used  in  medicine. 


GLOSSARY.  529 

CAT'S  ETE.  A  beautiful  silicious  mineral,  penetrated  by  fibres  of  asbestos,  which, 
when  polished,  reflects  an  effulgent,  pearly  light,  much  resembling  the  muta- 
ble reflections  from  the  eye  of  a  cat. 

CAULE'RPA.  From  the  Gr.  kaulos,  a  stein,  and  erpo,  I  creep.  A  genus  of  algae 
of  the  family  of  Zoosper'rnese.  There  are  about  35  species  of  cau!6rpa,  which 
inhabit  equatorial  seas.  The  caule'rpa  proli'fera  belongs  to  the  Mediterra- 
nean. 

CA'VIA.     Genus  of  mammals  of  the  family  of  rodents,  including  the  guinea-pig. 

CE'BUS.     Lat.     Name  of  a  genus  of  monkeys ;  the  marmoset. 

CECRO'PIS.     A  genus  of  birds. 

CEDRE'LA.     Genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cedrelaceae. 

CEI'BA.     Synonym  of  Bombax,  cotton.     Specific  name  of  a  kind  of  cotton. 

CENTAURF/A.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  SynanthSreae-Cyana'reae,  and 
type  of  the  tribe  of  Centauriese. 

CERATI'TES.    From  the  Gr.  keratites,  horned.   A  generic  name  of  certain  insects. 

CERATO'DES.     From  the  Gr.  keratodes,  formed  of  horns.     A  genus  of  mollusks. 

CER'EAL.    From  the  Lat.  ceres,  corn.   Applied  to  grasses  which  produce  the  bread  _ 
corns  ;  as  wheat,  rye,  barley,  oats,  rice,  &c. 

CEREA'LIA.     Lat.     Name  of  a  tribe  of  grasses. 

CEREO'PSIS.  From  the  Gr.  keros,  wax,  and  opsis,  aspect.  A  genus  of  birds  of  the 
order  of  Palmipedes  and  family  of  Lamellir6stres.  It  is  marked  by  a  wax-like 
membrane  on  the  beak.  Cereopsis  striata.  A  kind  of  goose. 

CE'RIUM.  Named  after  the  planet  Ceres.  A  white  brittle  metal  discovered  in 
1803,  by  Hisinger  and  Berzelius. 

CER'THIA.    Lat.    Name  of  a  genus  of  passerine  birds,  commonly  called  creepers. 

CER'VUS.     Lat.     A  stag.     A  genus  of  mammals. 

CETA'CEA.  From  the  Gr.  ketos,  a  whale.  A  genus  of  pisciform  mammals  that 
have  fins  in  place  of  feet,  and  inhabit  the  sea.  Name  of  an  order  of  aquatic 
mammals. 

CHALK.     Earthy  carbonate  of  lime. 

CHAMBERED  SHELLS.  A  term  used  to  designate  those  shells  of  mollusks  which 
are  divided  internally  into  cells  or  chambers  by  partitions. 

CHAM^E'ROPS.  From  the  Gr.  chamai,  on  the  ground,  and  rops,  a  brush.  Name 
of  a  genus  of  palms.  Chamts'rops  hu'milis.  The  dwarf  fan  palm. 

CHEIRO'PTERA.  From  the  Gr.  cheir,  hand,  and  pteron,  a  wing ;  signifying  the 
hand  has  become  a  wing.  Name  of  a  family  of  mammals,  including  the  bats. 

CHEIROSTE'MON.  From  the  Gr.  cheir,  hand,  and  stemon,  filament.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  of  Sterculiacese,  and  tribe  of  Bomba'ceae.  i.  . 

CHELO'NIAN.  From  the  Gr.  chelone,  a  tortoise.  Applied  to  reptiles  resembling 
tortoises. 

CHEL'YD,E.  From  the  Gr.  cTielus,  a  tortoise.  A  tribe  of  reptiles  of  the  family 
Einy'des. 

CHLAM'YPHORE.  From  the  Gr.  cTilamus,  a  cloak,  and  phero,  I  bear.  A  genus  of 
mammals  of  the  tribe  of  armadillos. 

CHLENA'CEJE.  From  the  Gr.  chlaina,  a  cloak.  A  tribe  of  plants,  native  in  Mada- 
gascar. 

CHLOA'NTHES.  From  the  Gr.  chloros,  greenish  yellow,  and  anthos,  flower.  A 
genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Chloantha'ceaB. 

CHLORI'TIO.  From  the  Gr.  chloros,  green.  Belonging  or  relating  to  chlorite,  an 
earthy  mineral  found  in  the  cavities  of  slate  rocks. 

CHROME,  CHRO'MIUM.  From  the  Gr.  chroma,  colour.  "A  whitish  brittle  metal, 
discovered  by  Vauquelin  in  1797.  In  union  with  oxygen  it  forms  chromic 
acid. 

CICHORA'CE^E.  From  the  Gr.  kichora,  chichory.  A  tribe  of  plants  of  the  family 
of  Composites. 

CI'RRI.     Plural  of  cirrus. 

CI'RRO-CU'MTJLTJS.  A  sondercloud ;  a  kind  of  cloud.  The  cirro-cumulus  is  inter- 
mediate between  the  cirrus  and  cumulus,  and  is  composed  of  small  well  denned 
masses,  closely  arranged. 

45 


580  GLOSSARY. 

CI'RRO-STHA'TUS.  A  wanecloud.  The  cirro-stratus,  intermediate  between  the 
cirrus  and  stratus,  consists  of  horizontal  masses  separated  into  groups,  with 
which  the  sky  is  sometimes  so  mottled  as  to  suggest  the  idea  of  resemblance 
to  the  back  of  a  mackerel. 

CI'RRUS.  Lat.  A  tendril.  A  kind  of  cloud.  Applied  to  certain  appendages  of 
animals ;  as  the  beard  from  the  end  and  sides  of  the  month  of  certain  fishes. 
The  cirrus  cloud  consists  of  fibres  or  curling  streaks  which  diverge  in  all  direc- 
tions. It  occupies  the  highest  region,  and  is  frequently  the  first  cloud  which 
is  seen  after  a  continuance  of  clear  weather. 

CI'STUS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cisticeae. 

CLA'RKIA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  tribe  of  Epil6biae. 

CLAY-SLATE.  A  rock  which  resembles  clay  or  shale,  but  is  generally  distin- 
guished by  its  structure;  the  particles  having  been  re-arranged,  and  exhibiting 
what  is  called  slaty  cleavage.  It  is  one  of  the  metamorphic  rocks. 

CLAYTO'NIA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Portul&ceae-calandrinese. 

CLEAVAGE.  The  mechanical  division  of  the  laminae  of  rocks  and  minerals,  to  show 
the  constant  direction  in  which  they  may  be  separated. 

CLERODE'NDRON.  From  the  Gr.  kleroa,  accident,  and  dendron,  tree.  In  allusion 
to  its  accidental  effects  in  medicine.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Ver- 
ben&ceae  -Lant&n  eae. 

COAL  MEASURES.     The  geological  formation  in  which  coal  is  found. 

CO'BALT.  From  the  Germ,  kobold,  a  devil.  A  brittle  metal  of  a  reddish  gray 
colour.  Its  ores  are  always  associated  with  arsenic. 

CO'BRA  CAPEL'LO.  Portu.  cobra,  snake,  and  capello,  a  cawl  or  hood.  Hood  snake, 
a  venomous  serpent. 

CO'CA.  Quechua,  an  aboriginal  Peruvian  word.  Specific  name  of  the  genus  Ery- 
thrdxylum. 

COCCINE'LLA.  From  the  Gr.  kokkinos,  scarlet.  A  genus  of  celeopt'erous  insects  ; 
commonly  called  Lady  birds. 

COCCINE'LLIFER.  From  coccinella  (the  diminutive  of  the  Lat.  coccinus,  crimson), 
a  genus  of  celeopterous  insects,  and  fero,  I  bear.  A  specific  name. 

Coc'cus.  From  the  Gr.  kokkos,  a  seed  which  dyes  scarlet.  A  genus  of  inscets 
of  the  order  Hermip'tera.  Coccus  la'cca.  A  species  of  cochineal  insect.  Coccris 
i'licus.  Green  oak  cochineal. 

Co'cos.  Gr.  A  genus  of  palms ;  the  cocoanut.  Cocos  olera'cia.  The  oil  co- 
coanut. 

CO'DIUM.  From  the  Gr.  Jtodion,  a  fleece.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  tribe  Siphd- 
nese.  Codium  bu'rsa  and  Oodium  flabellifo' rme  are  species. 

COLO'BUS.  From  the  Gr.  kolobos,  mutilated.  A  genus  of  monkeys  which  belong 
to  the  old  world.  Colobus  como'sus.  A  hairy  monkey. 

COLTT'BRIFORM.  From  the  Lat.  co'luber,  a  serpent,  an  adder,  and  forma,  shape. 
Adder-shape. 

COUJM'BA.  Lat.  A  pigeon.  A  genus  of  birds.  Columba  migrato'ria.  Wild 
pigeon. 

COLUM'BIUM.  A  metal  discovered  in  a  mineral  found  in  Massachusetts  by  Mr 
Hachett,  in  1801. 

COLU'MNAR.    In  the  form  of  columns. 

COMBC'STION.  The  combination  of  two  bodies  accompanied  by  the  extrication 
of  heat  and  light.  When  a  body  rapidly  combines  with  oxygen,  for  example, 
with  a  disengagement  of  heat  and  light,  it  is  said  to  undergo  combustion. 

COMPARATIVE  ANATOMY.  The  comparative  study  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
bodies  of  different  animals. 

CoMPo'siT-fi.    A  family  of  Monopetalous  plants. 

CONDTJC'TOR.  Those  substances  which  possess  the  property  of  transferring  calorio 
or  heat,  and  electricity,  are  termed  conductors  of  heat  or  caloric,  and  con- 
ductors of  electricity. 

COITPE'RV.*:.  Tribe  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Zoosplrmeae.  It  includes  many 
sea-weeds. 

CON'GENER.  From  the  Lat.  con,  with,  and  genus,  race.  Species  belonging  to  the 
same  genus,  are  termed  congeners,  or  congeneric. 


GLOSSARY.  531 

OONGLO'MERATE.  From  the  Lat.  conglomero,  I  Leap  together.  Any  rock  com- 
posed of  pebbles  cemented  together  by  another  mineral  substance,  either  cal- 
careous, silicious,  or  argillaceous. 

CO'NIFER.  From  the  Lat.  conns,  a  cone,  and/ero,  I  bear.  A  tree  or  plant  which 
bears  cones,  such  as  pines,  fir-trees,  &c. 

CONI'FER^E.     A  family  of  plants  which  includes  the  conifers. 

CO'KAL.  From  the  Gr.  koreo,  I  ornament,  and  als,  the  sea.  The  bard  calcareous 
support  formed  by  certain  polypi. 

CO'RALLINE.     Belonging  or  relating  to  coral. 

CoRALLi'NEjE.     The  corallines,  a  tribe  of  calciferous  polypi. 

COREO'PSIS.     From  the  Gr.  koris,  a  bug,  and  opsis,  aspect.    A  genus  of  plants. 

COR'DIA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cordiaceag.  It  contains  about  150 
species. 

CORIA'CEOUS.    From  the  Lat.  corium,  the  hide  of  a  beast.    Leathery. 

CORO'NA.     Lat.    A  crown.    A  genus  of  plants. 

CORO'N^E.     Plural  of  corona. 

CORD'NDUM.  A  crystallized  or  massive  mineral  of  extreme  hardness,  almost 
opaque,  and  of  a  reddish  colour.  It  is  allied  to  the  sapphire,  and  is  composed 
of  nearly  pure  alumina. 

COT'TUS.     A  genus  of  fishes. 

COTYLE'DON.    From  the  Gr.  kotule'don,  a  seed-lobe. 

COTYLE'DONOFS.    Belonging  or  relating  to  a  cotyle'don  or  seed-lobe. 

CRA'TER.     Lat.    A  great  cup  or  bowl.     The  mouth  of  a  volcano. 

CRA'TERIFORM.    In  form  of  a  crater. 

CRATERI'FEKOUS.     Containing  craters. 

CRETA'CEOUS.  From  the  Lat.  creta,  chalk.  Of  the  nature  of  chalk,  relating  to 
chalk. 

CRINOI'DE^B.  From  the  Gr.  krinon,  a  lily,  and  eidos,  resemblance.  A  family  of 
radiate  animals. 

CROP  OUT.  When  a  rock,  in  place,  emerges  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  it  is  said 
to  crop  out. 

CRO'TON.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Euphorbia'ceas. 

CRUci'FERjE.  From  the  Lat.  crux,  crucis,  a  cross,  and  /ere,  I  bear.  A  family 
of  plants  which  have  flowers  in  form  of  a  Maltese  cross. 

CRU'CIFORM.    In  shape  of  a  cross. 

CRUSTA'CEA.     From  the  Lat.  crusta,  a  crust.     A  class  of  articulated  animals. 

CRUSTA'CEAN.     An  animal  of  the  class  of  Crustacea;  a  crab. 

CRYPTOGA'MIA.  From  the  Gr,  kruptos,  concealed,  and  gamos,  marriage.  A  class 
of  plants,  which  are  propagated  without  apparent  seeds. 

CRYPTO'GAMOUS.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  cryptogamia. 

CRYP'TONYX.  From  the  Gr.  kruptos,  concealed,  and  onux,  a  nail.  A  genus  of 
birds ;  also,  a  genus  of  insects. 

CRYST'AL.  From  the  Gr.  krustallos,  ice.  This  term  was  originally  applied  to 
those  beautiful  transparent  varieties  of  silica  or  quartz  known  under  the  name 
of  rock-crystal.  When  substances  pass  from  the  fluid  to  the  solid  state,  they 
frequently  assume  those  regular  forms  which  are  generally  termed  crystals. 
A  crystal  is  any  inorganic  solid  of  homogeneous  structure,  bounded  by  natural 
planes  and  right  lines,  symmetrically  arranged. 

CRYS'TALLINE.     Relating  to,  or  resembling  crystals. 

CRYSTALLIZA'TION.     The  process  by  which  crystals  are  formed. 

CUCI'FERA  THEBA'ICA.  A  palm  of  Egypt  which  grows  to  the  height  of  20  feet. 
Also  known  as  the  genus  Hyphce.ne,  from  the  Gr.  Huphaino,  I  entwine.  A 
fan-leaf  palm  of  the  tribe  of  Borassfneae. 

CU'CULDS.     Lat.    A  cuckoo.     A  genus  of  passerine  birds. 

CC'LBX.  Lat.  A  gnat.  A  genus  of  insects  of  the  family  of  Dip'tera,  and  typo 
of  the  tribe  of  Culfcides :  culex  pi'piena,  the  common  gnat. 

CU'MULI.     Plural  of  cumulus. 

CU'MULO-STRA'TUS.  Twain  cloud:  it  partakes  of  the  appearance  of  the  cumu- 
lus and  stratus. 

CU'MULUS.  A  form  of  cloud.  A  convex  aggregate  of  watery  particles,  increasing 
upwards  from  a  horizontal  base,  and  assuming  more  or  less  of  a  conical  figure 


532 


GLOSSARY. 


CCR'VIDENS.     Lat.     Curvus,  bent,  and  dens,  tooth.     Having  a  bent  tooth. 
CUSPA'RIA.     A  genus  of  plants,  named  after  the  tree  which  yields  the  Angus- 

tura  bark. 

CYANAP'TERA.     From  the  Gr.  kuanos,  blue,  and  pteron,  wing.     A  specific  name. 
CYANEROI'DES.     Prom  the  Gr.  kuanos,  blue,  and  eidos,  resemblance.     A  family 

of  medusae. 
CY'CAS.    A  genus  of  plants,  the  type  of  the  family  cycddese.     Cy'cas  revolu'ta. 

Narrow-leaved  cycas. 

CYCA'D^E.     A  family  of  plants  allied  to  the  c<5nifers. 
CYCADA'CEOUS.     Belonging^*  relating  to  the  cycddeae. 
CY'CLAS.     From  the  Gr.  kuklon,  a  circle.    A  genus  of  gasteropoda. 
CYG'NUS.     Lat.     A  swan.    A  genus  of  birds.     Cyg'nm  mu'sicus.     The  whistling 

swan. 
CYNOCE'PH'AI,US.     From  the  Gr.  kuon,  a  dog,  and  kephale,  head.    A  genus  of 

mammals.     Dog-headed  monkey  or  baboon. 
CYPERA'CE.*:.     Name  of  a  family  of  herbaceous  plants. 
CYPR^'A.     From   the   Gr.  kupris,  Venus.     A  cowry.    A   genus  of  mollusks. 

CyprtB'a  mone'ta.     The  money  cowry. 

CYPRI'NID^;.     From  the  Gr.  kuprinos,  a  carp.     Name  of  a  family  of  fishes. 
CYSTOSEI'RLE.     From  the  Gr.  kustis,  a  vesicle,  and  seira,  a  chain.     A  tribe  of 

sea-weeds. 

DAC'TYLIS.     From  the  Gr.  daktulos,  a  finger.     A  genus  of  the  family  of  Gramf- 

neae.     Dactylis  ccBspitoea.     Tussock  grass. 
DAH'LIA.    After  Dahl,  a  Swedish  botanist.     Genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Compdsitae. 
DALBE'RGIA.     After  Dalberg,  a  Swedish  botanist.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the 

family  of  Papilion&ceae,  and  of  the  tribe  of  Dalbergiae. 

DA'MAN.   Alteration  of  the  Arabic  word  Ghannem,  the  name  of  an  animal.     Spe- 
cific name  of  a  mammal. 

DANA'IS.     Genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rubia'ceae. 
DAPH'NE.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  Daphnaceas. 

DARWI'NII.     The  name  of  Darwin  latinized.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Darwin. 
DASYU'RIDJB.     From  the  Gr.  dasus,  thick,  hairy,  and  ovra,  tail.     A  family  of 

mammals. 
DE'BRIS.     Fr.     Wreck,  ruins,  remains.     In  geology  the  term  is  applied  to  large 

fragments,  to  distinguish  them  from  detritus,  or  those  which  are  pulverized. 
DECI'DUOUS.     From  the  Lat.  decido,  I  fall  off.     Applied  to  plants  whose  leaves 

fall  off  in  autumn,  to  distinguish  them  from  evergreens. 
DECLINA'TION  of  any  celestial  body,  is  the  angular  distance  of  the  body,  north 

or  south,  from  the  equator. 
DEINOTHE'RIUJT.     From  the  Gr.  deinos,  terrible,  and  ther,  wild  beast.    A  genus 

of  fossil  pachyderms. 

DELESSE'RI^;.     Proper  name.     Tribe  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Flori'dese. 
DELPHI'NUS.     Lat.     Dolphin.     A  genus  of  aquatic  mammals. 
DEL'TA.     The  Gr.  letter  A.     The  triangular  deposits,  shoals  or  islands,  at  the 

mouths  of  rivers  are  called  deltas. 
DEL'TOID.     From  the  Gr.  letter  A  and  e{dos,  resemblance.    Resembling  the  letter 

delta. 
DENUDA'TION.     From  the  Lat.  denudo,  a  strip.    A  removal  of  a  part  of  the  land, 

so  as  to  lay  bare  the  inferior  strata. 
DEODA'R.    A  kind  of  pine  tree. 
DEPOSI'TION.     From  the  Lat.  depono,  I  let  fall.     In  geology  the  falling  to  the 

bottom  of  matters  suspended  or  dissolved  in  water. 
DEVO'NIAN  SYSTEM.     So  called  because  it  is  largely  developed  in  Devonshire, 

England.     It  is  synonymous  with  the  old  red  sand-stone  formation.     It  is  com- 
posed at  first  of  pudding-stone,  and  then  passes  into  sandstone,  with  which  it 

alternates  at  different  places. 
DE'TINENS.     Lat.     Detaining ;  that  which  has  the  power  to  detain. 


GLOSSARY.  533 

% 

DETBI'TUS.  A  geological  terra  applied  to  deposits  composed  of  various  sub- 
stances which  have  been  comminuted  by  attrition.  The  larger  fragments  aro 
usually  termed  debris  ;  those  which  are  pulverized,  as  it  were,  constitute  de- 
tritus. Sand  is  the-  detritus  of  silicious  rocks. 

DIAMAGNE'TIC.  If  a  bar  of  iron  be  suspended  between  the  poles  of  an  electro- 
magnet, it  will  be  attracted  by  both  poles  on  the  line  of  force.  But  if  a  bar 
of  bismuth  be  suspended  in  the  same  manner,  it  will  be  repelled  by  both  poles, 
and  rest  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  force.  Substances  which  are  attracted 
by  both  poles  of  an  electro-magnet  are  said  to  be  magnetic,  and  those  which 
are  repelled  by  both  poles  are  termed  diamagnetic. 

DICHO'TOMA,     ~|      From  the  Gr.  dichotomos,  equally  divided.     In  zoology  this 

DicHo'TOJiuir,    >•  term  is  applied  to  a  species  of  the  genus  Iris,  the  body  of  which, 

DICHO'TOMUS,  )  is  bifurcate.  In  botany  it  is  applied  to  the  stem,  branches, 
peduncles,  leaves,  hairs,  styles,  &c.,  when  they  are  bifurcated  in  form. 

DICOTYLE'DON.  From  the  Gr.  die,  two,  and  kotuledon,  seed-lobe.  A  double 
seed-lobe. 

DICOTYLE'DONOUS.    Relating  to  dicotyle'don ;  having  a  double  seed-lobe. 

DIDEL'PHOUS.  From  the  Gr.  die,  double,  and  delphus,  womb.  Applied  to  opos- 
sums and  other  marsupial  mammals. 

DIDEL'PHIS.     A  genus  of  marsupial  mammals. 

DIDEL'PHID^E.     A  tribe  of  marsupial  mammals. 

DIDY'MIUM.     A  metal  discovered  recently  by  Mosander. 

DIGITA'TA.     Lat.     Di'gitate ;  spread  out  like  the  fingers. 

DINO'RNIS.  From  the  Gr.  deinoe,  great,  terrible,  and  ornis,  a  bird.  A  genus  of 
fossil,  or  extinct  birds. 

DIO'TIS.  From  the  Gr.  diStos,  having  two  ears :  referring  to  the  flower.  A  ge- 
nus of  plants  of  the  family  of  helianthacese. 

DISLOCATION.  Displacement.  In  geology  where  strata  or  veins  have  been  dis- 
placed from  the  position  where  first  deposited  or  formed,  they  are  said  to  be 
dislocated. 

DI'SA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Orchi'dese.  Di'sa,  grandiflo' ra. 
Large-flowered  Disa. 

DIO'SMA.  From  the  Gr.  dios,  divine,  and  osme,  smell.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  of  Dios'meae. 

DiLLENiA/CEjE.     Proper  name.     A  family  of  plants. 

DION^E'A.  One  of  the  names  of  Venus.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 
Droserdcea.  Dionas'a  musci'pula.  Venus'  Fly-trap. 

DIP'TERYX.  From  the  Gr.  dis,  double,  and  pterux,  a  wing,  in  allusion  to  the 
two  appendages  of  the  calyx.  Tonquin  Bean.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the 
family  of  Legumindsae.  Dip'teryx  odora'ta.  Sweet-scented  Tonquin  Bean. 

DIC'TYOTA.  From  the  Gr.  dictuon,  a  net.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 
Phy'cese,  and  tribe  of  dictydteaa. 

DICTYONE'MA.  From  the  Gr.  dictuon,  a  net,  and  newer,  a  filament.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  of  Phy'ceae. 

DIP.  In  geology,  direction  of  the  inclination  of  strata.  "To  take  a  dip,"  is  to 
measure  the  degree  that  a  stratum  inclines  or  dips  from  a  horizontal  line. 

DISINTEGRATE.  From  the  Lat.  de,  privative,  integer,  a  whole.  To  separate  or 
break  up  an  aggregate  into  parts. 

DO'LOMITE.  Magnesian  marble,  or  granular  magnesian  carbonate  of  lime. 
Named  after  Dolomieu. 

DOMBE'YA.  In  honour  of  Joseph  Dombey.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 
Byttneridcea :  it  is  found  in  Madagascar  and  the  Isle  of  Bourbon. 

DORSI'GERA.  Lat.  From  dorsum,  the  back,  a  ridge,  and  gero,  I  carry  or  wear. 
A  specific  name. 

DORYA'NTHES.  From  the  Gr.  doru,  doratos,  a  lance,  and  anthesis,  a  flowering. 
A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Amaryllidiicese. 

DRA'BA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cruci'ferae. 

DRAC^E'NA.     Lat.     A  genus  of  Saurians. 
Plural  of  Dracas'na. 


634  GLOSSARY. 

BRYOBA'LANOPS.  From  the  Or.  drns,  os,  an  oak,  bulanos,  an  acorn,  and  opt, 
aspect.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Dip'teroclrpese.  Dryoba'lanops 
ca'mphora.  The  camphor  tree  of  Sumatra. 

DYNA'MIC.  From  the  Gr.  dunamis,  power,  force.  Belonging  or  relating  to  dy- 
namics. 

DY.NA'MICS.  The  doctrine  of  forces  as  exhibited  in  moving  hodies  which  are  at 
liberty  to  obey  the  impulses  communicated  to  them.  The  motions  of  celestial 
bodies  in  their  orbits,  or  of  a  stone  falling  freely  through  the  air,  are  embraced 
in  the  study  of  dynamics. 

EARTHS.  Formerly  chemists,  believing  them  to  be  simple  bodies,  included  the 
following  substances  under  the  name  of  earths :  Baryta,  Strontia,  Lime,  Mag- 
nesia, Alumina  or  clay,  Silica,  Glucina,  Zirconia,  and  Yttria.  Research  has 
shown  that  all  have  metallic  or  metalloid  bases. 

ECUID'NA.  Greek  name  of  a  monster,  supposed  to  have  the  body  of  a  beautiful 
woman,  and  the  tail  of  a  serpent.  A  genus  of  mammals  of  the  family  of 
Monotre'mata. 

E'CHIMYS.  From  the  Gr.  echinos,  spiny,  and  mus,  a  rat.  A  genus  of  mammals ; 
a  sort  of  rat  found  in  South  America. 

ECLIP'TIC.  In  Astronomy  the  great  circle  of  the  heavens  which  the  sun  appears 
to  describe  in  his  annual  revolution. 

EDENTA'TA.  From  the  Lat.  e,  without,  and  dens,  tooth :  without  teeth.  An 
order  of  mammals  which  are  destitute  of  teeth. 

EDU'LIS.     Lat.     Eatable ;  that  which  may  be  eaten. 

EFFLORE'SCENCE.  The  pulverulent  covering  formed  on  the  surface  of  salino 
substances  from  which  the  atmosphere  has  removed  the  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion. When  saline  substances  give  up  their  water  of  crystallization  to  the  air, 
they  are  said  to  effloresce. 

ELA'IS.   )      From  the  Gr.  elaia,  the  olive.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

ELJS'IS.  j  Palms.     The  Elais  Guinea' nensis  yields  the  Palm  oil. 

E'LAPS.     Gr.     Name  of  a  serpent.     A  genus  of  ophidians. 

ELECTRI'CITY.  From  the  Gr.  elektron,  amber,  the  substance  in  which  it  was  first 
observed.  The  property  acquired  by  glass  and  resin  from  friction  to  attract 
light  substances.  Electricity  exists  in  all  bodies,  and  becomes  manifest,  nt 
least  partially,  whenever  the  natural  state  of  equilibrium  of  their  molecules  is 
disturbed  by  any  cause. 

ELE'CTRO-MA'ONETISM.  The  phenomena  produced  when  a  current  of  electricity 
is  traversing  any  substance,  or  when  electricity  is  in  motion,  magnetism  is  at 
the  same  time  developed. 

ELEC'TRO-MAG'NET.  An  apparatus  for  exhibiting  the  phenomena  of  electro-mag- 
netism. 

ELEC'TRICUS.    Lat.    Electric.    Belonging  to,  or  relating  to  electricity. 

ELLIP'TICA.    Lat.     Elliptic. 

E'LEPHAS.  Lat.  Gr.  name  of  the  elephant.  A  genus  of  mammals  of  the  order 
of  pacbyderinata. 

ELEPHAN'TINA.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  an  elephant ;  elephantine. 

EM'BRYO.  From  the  Gr.  embruon,  from  bmC,  I  bud  forth.  A  germ  at  the  early 
stages  of  development. 

E'MERALD.  A  mineral  of  a  beautiful  green  colour,  much  valued  for  ornamental 
jewelry.  It  consists  of  silica,  alumina,  glucina,  oxide  of  chromium,  which  is 
the  colouring  matter,  and  a  trace  of  lime. 

E'JIYS.  Lat.  From  the  Gr.  emus,  a  water  tortoise.  A  genus  of  reptiles  of  the 
family  of  emy'dians. 

E.MY'DIANS.     A  family  of  reptiles  of  the  order  of  Chclonia. 

ENCRINI'TES.  From  the  Gr.  krtnou,  a  lily.  A  genus  of  fossil  Echi'noderms. 
The  skeleton  of  this  animal  is  said  to  consist  of  not  less  than  26,000  separata 
pieces. 

E'OCENE.  From  the  Gr.  e6n,  dawn,  and  kainos,  recent.  In  geology  a  name  for 
the  older  tertiary  formation,  in  which  the  first  dawn,  as  it  were,  of  existing 
species,  appears. 


GLOSSARY.  585 

EPACRI'DE^E.    From  the  Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  akros,  an  elevated  place,  a  hill.    A 

family  of  plants. 
EP'JPHYTE.     From  the  Gr.  epi,  upon,  and  phutos,  a  plant.     Applied  to  plants 

which  grow  upon  other  plants. 
EQUINOCTIA'LIS.     Lat.     Equinoctial. 
EQUISE'TUM.     From  the  Lat.  equus,  a  horse,  and  seta,  hair.     A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Equisitaceae. 
E'QUUS.     Lat.     A  horse.     A  genus  of  mammals. 
ER'BIUM.     A  metal,  recently  discovered. 
ERI'CA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  which  there  are  429  species. 
ERIOCAU'LON.     From  the  Gr.  erion,  wool,  and  kaulon,  stem  or  stalk.    A  genus 

of  plants  of  the  family  of  Eriocaul6neae. 
ERYTHRI'NA.     From  the  Gr.  eruthros,  red.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Papilionaceae. 
ERYTHROX'YLON.     From  the  Gr.  eruthroa,  red,  and  xulon,  wood.    A  genus  of 

plants. 
ESCARP'MENT.     From  the  Ital.  scarpct,  sharp,  formed  from  the  Lat.  carpere,  to 

cut.     The  steep  face  often  presented  by  the  abrupt  termination  of  strata  where 

subjacent  beds  crop  out  from  beneath  them. 
ESCULEN'TA.     Lat.     Esculent. 
ETHNO'GRAPHER.     From  the  Gr.  ethnos,  a  nation,  and  graphd,  I  write.     One  who 

cultivates  ethnography : .  an  ethnologist. 
ETHNO'GRAPHY.    A  department  of  knowledge  which  treats  of  the  different  natural 

races  and  families  of  men.     A  treatise  on  the  subject. 
ECCALY'PTI.     Lat.     Plural  of  eucalyptus. 
EUCALY'PTUS.     From  the  Gr.  eu,  well,  and  Jcaltiptos,  covered.    A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Myrtacese. 
EUFHO'RBIA.     Gr.    Name  of  a  plant.    A  genus  of  plants  of  which  there  are 

300  species. 

EXCE'LSA.     Lat.     Noble,  tall,  stately. 
EXCO'RTICA.     Lat.     Without  bark. 
EXO'GENOUS.     From  the  Gr.  ex,  from,  and  geinomai,  I  grow.     Applied  to  plants 

which  grow  by  successive  external  additions  to  their  wood. 
EXTEN'SILE.     Having  the  power  to  extend  itself. 
EXU'VI^E.     Lat.     The  sloughs  or  cast  skins,  or  cast  shells  of  animals. 

FA'GUS.     Lat.     Beech.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Amentdceae. 
FA'LCO.     Lat.     Falcon.     A  genus  of  birds.     Falco  isla'ndicus.     The  Gerfalcon. 
FA'MILY.     In  natural  history  the  term  is  applied  to  an  assemblage  of  several 

genera  which  resemble  each  other  in  many  respects. 
FARI'NA.    Lat.    Meal. 
FAR'INHA.     Portu.     Meal,  flour. 

FARINO'SA.     Lat.     Mealy ;  belonging  or  relating  to  meal. 
FATJ'NA.     All  animals  of  all  kinds  peculiar  to  a  country  constitute  the  fauna,  of 

that  country. 
FE'LIS.     Lat.     A  cat.     A  genus  of  mammals  of  the  family  of  carni'vora.     Felit 

irbis.     The  panther. 

FENESTRA'LIS.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  a  window  or  opening. 
FER'BIUM.     A  recently  discovered  metal. 
FERNS.     The  filices ;  an  order  of  cryptogiimic  plants. 
Fi'cus.     Lat.     A  fig.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Moraa'ceae. 
FICOI'DE.     A  genus   of  plants  of  the  family  of  Heeembryanthe'meee,  of  which 

there  are  about  200  species. 

FICOI'DES,   |      The  family  of  Mesembryanthernese.     Ficoides  is  .applied  also  as  a 
FICOI'DE.*:.  J  specific  name. 
FIORD.     A  frith,  firth,  or  furth ;  arocky  chasm  penetrated  by  the  sea;  arock-bound 

strait. 
FLACOUR'TIA.     Proper   name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Flacourti- 

acese. 

FLABELLIFO'RME.    From  the  Lat.  faleUum,  a  fan,  and  forma,  form.    Fan- 
shaped. 


536  GLOSSARY. 

FLO'RA.    Lat.    Name  of  the  Goddess  of  Flowers.     All  the  plants  of  all  kinds 

belonging  to  a  country  constitute  the  flora  of  that  country. 
FLO'RIDA.     Belonging  or  relating  to  flowers  j  or  relating  to  the  State  of  Florida. 
Fo'ci.     Lat.     Plural  of  focus. 
Fo'ccs.     Lat.     A  hearth.     In  optics  the  term  describes  the  point  or  space  where 

the  rays  of  light  are  concentrated  by  a  lens.     The  apex  of  a  cone  of  rays  of 

light,  or  of  heat,  formed  by  a  lens,  or  concave  mirror. 
FOLIA'CEOUS.     From   the   Lat.  folium,  a  leaf.     Leafy.     Having   the   form   of 

leaves. 

FOO'TSTALKS.     In  botany  the  stalks  of  flowers,  or  of  leaves. 
FO'SSIL.     From  the  Lat/orfto,  I  dig.     Any  organic  body,  or  the  traces  of  any 

organic  body,  whether  animal  or  vegetable,  which  has  been  buried  in  the  earth 

by  natural  causes. 

FOSSILI'FEROUS.     Containing  fossils:  fossil-bearing. 
FORHI'CIDJK.     From  the  Lat.  fo'rmica,  an  ant,  and  the  Gr.  eidos,  resemblance. 

A  family  of  insects  of  the  family  of  Hymen6ptera. 
FROND.    Also,  frons.    A  name  applied  to  the  leaves  of  palms,  and  of  cryptdga- 

mous  plants. 

FRONDO'SA.    Lat.    Full  of  green  leaves. 
FRA'GRANS.     Lat.     Fragrant;  odorous. 
FRA'GILIS.     Lat.     Fragile ;  easily  broken. 
FRINGI'LL^E.    Lat.  fringilla,  a  chaffinch.    A  family  of  birds,  the  most  numerous 

of  the  group  of  conirostres,  or  thick-billed  birds. 
FU'CCA.     Name  of  a  genus  of  aquatic  plants. 
Fc'ci.     Lat.     Plural  of  fucus. 

Fu'cus.     Lat.     Sea-weed.     A  genus  of  aquatic  plants. 
FUCH'SIA.    After  Leonard  Fuchs,  a  physician  of  the  16th  century.     A  genus  of 

plants. 
TUNC'TIOX.     From  the  Lat  fungor,  I  act.     The  action  of  an  organ,  or  system 

of  organs. 

FUN'GI.     Lat.     Plural  of  fungus. 
FUN'GUS.     Lat.     A  mushroom. 
FUNE'REUS.    Lat.    Funereal :  belonging  to  a  dead  body. 

GA'DUS.    Lat.    A  codfish. 

GALLINA'CEOUS.  From  the  Lat.  galli'na,  a  hen.  Kelating  to  birds  of  the  order 
of  Gallinacea. 

GALE'NA.  From  the  Gr.  galene,  lead  ore.  A  mineral  composed  of  sulphur  and 
lead  :  a  natural  sulphuret  of  lead. 

GAL'VANISM.  From  Galvani,  a  distinguished  Italian  philosopher.  That  branch 
of  electrical  science  in  which  electricity  is  made  manifest  by  the  mediate  con- 
tact of  different  metals.  Also,  the  phenomena  exhibited  by  living  animal 
matter  when  placed  between  the  poles  or  extremities  of  an  apparatus  for 
showing  electricity  by  the  mediate  contact  of  different  metals. 

GALVA'NIC.     Belonging  or  relating  to  galvanism. 

GANGEA'TICUS.     Lat.     Gangeatic ;  belonging  or  relating  to  the  river  Ganges. 

GARDE'NIA.  After  a  proper  name.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rubi£- 
ceae  ;  it  contains  some  forty  species.  The  Garde'nia  grandiflo'ra  is  the  Cape 
Jasmin. 

GAR'NET.  A  mineral  consisting  of  silicates  of  alumina,  lime,  iron,  and  man- 
ganese. It  occurs  imbedded  in  mica-slate,  granite,  and  gneiss,  and  occasion- 
ally in  limestone,  chlorite-slate,  serpentine,  and  lava.  There  are  several 
varieties  of  garnet. 

GAS.  From  the  Germ,  geist,  spirit.  The  name  given  to  all  permanently  elastic 
fluids,  or  airs,  different  from  the  atmospheric  air. 

GAS'EOUS.     Of  the  nature  of  gas. 

GENRE.  Fr.  Genus,  kind,  manner,  style.  In  painting  it  is  applied  to  signify 
the  representation  of  certain  kinds  of  objects,  as  landscapes,  views,  animals, 
plants,  flowers,  scenes  in  common  life.  Pictures  of  genre,  then,  are  pictures 
of  a  genus  or  kind  as  to  subject;  as  landscapes,  marine  views,  flower  pieces, 
still-life,  Ac. 


GLOSSARY.  537 

GE'NERA.    Lat.    Plural  of  genus. 

GE'NUS.     Lat.     A  kindred,  breed,  race  or  family. 

GEO'LOGY.  From  the  Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  and  logos,  discourse.  That  branch  ot 
natural  history  which  treats  of  the  structure  of  the  terrestrial  globe.  It  is 
divided  into  descriptive  geology ;  dynamic  geology,  which  treats  of  the  forces 
by  which  the  surface  of  the  earth  has  been  modified ;  practical  and  economic 
geology,  embracing  the  application  of  geological  science  to  mining,  road- 
making,  architecture,  and  agriculture. 

GEOTHEE'MAL.  From  the  Gr.  ge,  the  earth,  and  thermos,  heat,  temperature. 
Relating  to  temperature  of  the  earth. 

GERA'RDIA.     Proper  name.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Scrophularia'ceEe. 

GEHMINA'TION.  The  process  of  the  development  of  the  seed,  and  the  embryo 
which  it  contains. 

GEY'SERS.  From  an  Icelandic  word,  signifying  raging  or  roaring.  Celebrated 
spouting  fountains  of  boiling  water  in  Iceland. 

GIBBO'SA.     Lat.     Gibbous  ;  having  protuberances  or  bunches. 

GIBRALTA'RICA.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Gibraltar. 

™-     ^antic,huge. 

GILEADE'NSIS.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Gilead. 

GLA'GIAL.     Belonging  or  relating  to  ice. 

GLA'CIERS.     Fr.     Masses  or  beds  of  ice  formed  in  high  mountains,  derived  from 

the  snows  or  lakes  frozen  by  the  continued  cold  of  those  regions. 
GLADIO'LUS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Iri'deae. 
GLAND.     An  organ  formed  for  the  purpose  of  secreting  a  peculiar  fluid. 
GLAU'COUS.     From  the  Gr.  glankos,  blue.     Applied  to  the  bluish  and  pulverulent 

aspect  which  certain  plants  present,  such  as  the  leaves  of  cabbages,  &c.     Also 

used  to  signify  the  bloom  of  the  color  of  cabbage  leaves,  sometimes  observed 

on  polished  bodies. 
GLEDI'TSCHIA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Legumin6sae,  named  in  honor 

of  J.  G.  Gleditsch,  a  German  botanist.     It  includes  the  Honey  and  Swamp 

locust  trees  among  its  species. 
GLOBA'RIA.     From  the  Lat.  globum,  a  ball.     A  genus  of  insects :  also  a  specific 

name. 

GLUCI'NUM.     A  metal  discovered  in  glucina  in  1798  by  Vauquelin. 
GLU'TEN.     Lat.     The' viscid  elastic  substance  which  remains  when  wheat  flour  is 

wrapped  in  a  coarse  cloth,  and  washed  under  a  stream  of  water,  so  as  to  carry 

off  the  starch  and  soluble  matters.     It  exists  in  many  plants  and  in  animals. 

It  is  the  basis  of  glue. 
GLYCE'RIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  grami'neae,  and  the  tribe  Festu- 

c£ceoe. 
GLY'CINE.     From  the  Gr.  glukus,  sweet.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Papiliona'ceae. 
GNAPHA'LIUM.     From  the  Gr.  gnaplialion,  the  cotton  tree.    A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Comp6sitse. 
GNEISS.     Germ.     A  rock  resembling  granite.     It  is  composed  chiefly  of  feldspar 

and  mica,  and  is  more  or  less  slaty  in  its  structure.     Gneiss  is  used  for  build- 
ing and  flagging. 

GOLD.     The  most  valuable  and  longest  known  of  the  metals. 
GOODE'NIA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Goodenia'cese. 
GORDO'NIA.     Proper  name.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Gordonia'cese. 
GRANDIFLO'RA.     Lat.     Large-flowered. 
GRAMI'NE^E.     Lat.     Grasses.     A  family  of  monocotyle'donous  plants,  containing 

about  3000  species. 

GRANI'VOROUS.  )      Applied  to  animals  which  feed  upon  grains,  especially  to  pair 
GRANI'VORA.      J  serine  birds. 
GKJS'CA.     Lat.     Greek. 
GRA'NULAR.     Composed  of  grains. 

GRA'NITE.     A  rock  which  is  a  crystalline  aggregate  of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  mien, 
GRANI'TIC.     Of  the  nature  of  granite. 
GREEN'STONE.    A  rough  variety  of  trap-rock,  consisting  chiefly  of  hornblende. 


GLOSSARY. 

GRIT.    A  coarse-grained  sandstone. 

GUILANDI'NA.  A  proper  name.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Legumi- 
n6sa>.  Guilandina  Bonduc,  the  oval-leaved  Nicker-tree. 

GUINEANEN'SIS.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Guinea. 

GUM.  A  vegetable  product,  which  is  tasteless  and  inodorous,  and  is  distin- 
guished by  being  soluble  in  water,  and  insoluble  in  alcohol :  gutn-arabic,  for 
example. 

GYMNO'TUS.     From  the  Gr.  gumnos,  naked,  and  n6tos,  back.     A  genus  of  fishes. 

GYP'SUM.  Native  sulphate  of  lime.  It  is  converted  into  plaster  of  Paris  by 
heat. 

G  YKO'PHORA.  From  the  Gr.  gurot,  a  circle,  and  pherti,  I  bear.  A  genus  of 
crypt6gamous  ,plants. 

HA'BITAT.    Lat.    He  inhabits.     Used  to  designate  the  place  in  which  animals 

and  plants  are  naturally  found. 

HALIO'TIS.    From  the  Gr.  als,  the  sea,  and  ous,  the  ear.    A  genus  of  mollusks. 
HA'LCYON.     From  the  Gr.  alkuo'n,  a  king-fisher.     A  genus  of  birds. 
HELIA'NTHUS.     From  the  Gr.  elios,  the  sun,  and  anthos,  flower;  sunflower. 
HELI'ACAL.     From  the  Gr.  elios,  the  sun.     Relating  to  the  sun.     When  a  star 

rises  so  as  to  be  visible  in  morning  twilight  before  the  appearance  of  the  sun, 

it  is  said  to  rise  heliacal 'ly. 
HEPTAPHY'LLUM.     From  the  Gr.  epta,  seven,  and  phulion,  a  leaf.     Seven-leaved. 

A  specific  name. 
HERBA'CEOUS.    In   botany,  Herb-like;  that  perishes  every  year.    An  annual 

stem.     Not  woody. 
HERBI'VORA.     Lat.    Herbivorous. 

HERBIV'OROUS.     From  the  Lat.  herba,  a  plant,  and  vorare,  to  eat.     Plant  eat- 
ing.    Applied  to  animals  whieh  feed  chiefly  or  exclusively  on  plants  or  herbs. 
HERITIE'RA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Sterculiaceae. 
HI'BERNATE.     From  the  Lat.  hibernare,  to  winter.    Animals  which  retire  and 

sleep  throughout  the  winter,  are  said  to  hibernate. 
HIBI'SCUS.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Malvaceae. 
HIEKO'CHLOA.     From  the  Gr.  ieros,  sacred,  and  chloa,  herb.     A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Grami'nese. 
HIPPOPO'TAMCS.    From  the  Gr.  ippos,  a  horse,  and potamos,  river.    River  Horse. 

A  genus  of  mammals. 

HIRSU'TA.     Lat.     Hirsute;  covered  with  soft  hairs. 
HOL'CUS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Grami'neae. 
HO'PEA,  or  HO'PPEA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants. 
HO'RRIDA.     Lat.     Horrid;  spiny. 
HO'RARY.     From  the  Lat.  hora,  an  hour.     The  motion  of  a  celestial  body,  or 

the  space  it  moves  through  in  an  hour,  is  termed  its  horary  motion. 
HORSE'SHOE  MAG'NET.    A  magnet  in  form  of  a  horse-shoe. 
HUMI'RIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Humori&cea?.     They  inhabit 

tropical  America. 
HYDRAN'GEA.    From  the  Gr.  vd6r,  water,  and   aggos,  a  vessel.    A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  Saxifragdceae,  and  tribe  of  Hydrangdae. 
HYDRAU'LIC.     From  the  Gr.  ud6r,  water,  and  aulos,  a  pipe.     Relating  to  liquids 

in  motion.     Hydraulics  is  that  branch  of  natural  philosophy  or  physics  which  * 

treats  of  the  force  of  water  and  other  liquids  in  motion. 
HYDROSTA'TIC.     From  the  Gr.  uddr,  water,  and  sta6, 1  stand.     Relating  to  water 

in  a  state  of  rest.     Hydrostatics  is  the  science  which  treats  of  the  equilibrium 

and  pressure  of  water  and  other  liquids. 
HY'DROGEN.     From  the  Gr.  ud6r,  water,  and  gennaein,  to  generate.     A  colorless, 

tasteless,  inodorous  gas,  one  part  of  which,  by  weight,  combined  with  eight 

parts  of  oxygen  forms  water;  —  combined  with  sulphur  it  constitutes  sulphu- 
retted Hydrogen ;  —  and  with  carbon,  carburetted  Hydrogen,  the  gas  used  for 

illumination. 

HYWROGE'TON.     A  synonym  of  Ouvirau'dra.     A  genus  of  aquatic  plants. 
HY'LA.    From  the  Gr.  ule,  wood,  a  tree.    A  tree-frog. 


GLOSSARY.  .  539 

HYMEN.S'A.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Papiliondcese.  A  resinous  tree 
of  tropical  America. 

HYMKNO'PTEKA.  From  the  Gr.  umen,  a  membrane,  and  pteron,  wing.  Syste- 
matic name  of  a  class  of  insects,  characterized  by  membranous  wings. 

HY'RAX.     From  the  Gr.  wax,  a  shrew  mouse.     A  genus  of  mammals. 

IA'NTHINA.     See  Janthina. 

I'BEX.     Lat.     A  wild  goat.     A  genus  of  mammals. 

I'BIS.     A  genus  of  birds. 

IG'NEOUS  KOCKS.    Are  those  rocks  whose  structure  is  attributable  to  the  influence 

of  heat,  such  as  granite  and  basalt.     They  are  distinct  from  stratified  rocks, 

or  those  formed  by  deposits  from  water. 
IGUA'XA.     A  reptile  of  the  lizard  tribe. 
IOUA'NIAN.     Applied  to  Saurians  which  resemble  the  iguana. 
IGCA'NODOKT.     From  iguana,  and  the  Gr.  odous,  tooth.     A  genus  of  extinct  or 

fossil  reptiles  of  gigantic  size  discovered  in  the  south  of  England. 
I'LEX.    Lat.    The  Holly. 

IL'ICIS.     Lat.     Of  the  Holly;  belonging  or  relating  to  the  holly. 
ILLI'CIUM.     From  illicio,  to  attract;  from  its  agreeable  perfume.     The  anniseed 

tree.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Magnoliaceae. 
IM'BRICATE.     Laid  one  over  another  like  tiles. 
INCONSPIC'UOUS.     Lat.     Not  conspicuous  or  remarkable. 
INCI'SOR.     From  the  Lat.  incido,  I  cut.     Applied  to  those  teeth  which  occupy  the 

anterior  or  centre  of  the  upper  and  lower  jaws,  because  they  are  used  for  cut- 
ting the  food. 
IN'CA.     Designation  of  the  aboriginal  Peruvian  princes ;  used  as  a  specific  name. 

Also,  a  genus  of  insects. 

IN'DICA — IN'DICUS.     Lat.     Indian  :  Belonging  or  relating  to  India. 
INDICA'TOR.     Lat.     Indicator;  one  who  points  out.     A  genus  of  birds. 
INFUSO'RIA.     Animals  of  infusions ;  microscopic  animalcules. 
INFUSO'RIAL.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Infusoria. 
INORGA'NIC.     Without  organs  or  organization. 
IN'SECT.     From  the  Lat.  in,  into,  seco,  I  cut.     Applied  to  animals  whose  bodies 

are  cut,  as  it  were,  into  three  parts — head,  thorax,  and  abdomen. 
IRI'DE^E.    A  family  of  monocotyledonous  plants. 
IRI'DIUM.     From  the  Lat.  iris,  the  rainbow.     A  grey,  brittle,  very  infusible  metal, 

which  is  found  associated  with  the  ores  of  platinum. 
ISA'TIS.     From  the  Gr.  isazd,  I  render  equal.     Woad.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the 

family  of  Cruci'ferse.     Also  the  name  of  a  species  of  dog. 
ISLA'NDIOUS.     Lat.    Belonging  or  relating  to  Iceland. 
ISOCHI'MENAL.     From  the  Gr.  isos,  equal,  and  cheima,  winter.     Isochimenal  lines 

pass  through  all  places  where  the  mean  winter  temperature  is  the  same. 
IS'OGEOTHE'RMAL.     From  the  Gr.  isos,  equal,  ge,  the  earth,  and  thermos,  heat. 

Applied  to  lines  which  are  'supposed  to  pass  through  all  parts  of  the  earth's 

structure  on  the  surface  where  the  mean  heat  is  the  same. 
ISOTHE'RMAL.     From  the  Gr.  isos,  equal,  and  thermos,  heat.     Isothermal  lines 

are  supposed  to  pass  through  all  places  where  the  mean  temperature  of  the  air 

is  the  same. 
ISOTHE'RIAL.     From  the  Gr.  isos,  equal,  and  thereios,  having  the  heat  of  summer. 

Isotherial  lines  are  supposed  to  be  drawn  through  all  places  having  the  same 

mean  summer  temperature. 
I'XIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Iri'dese. 

JA'NTHINA.    From  the  Gr.  ianthinos,  violet.    A  genus  of  mollusks. 

JAPO'NICA — JAPO'NICUS.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Japan. 

JAS'PER.     A  silicious  mineral  of  various  colours;  sometimes  spotted,  banded  or 

variegated.     It  takes  a  fine  polish. 
JER'BOA.    A  genus  of  mammals  of  the  family  of  Kodents,  or  gnawers.     The 

jumping  mouse. 

JURA'SSIC.  Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Jura  mountains.  Applied  to  a  system 
of  rocks  of  the  middle  secondary  geological  period.  Also  termed  oolitic. 


GLOSSARY. 

KA'LMIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Ericaceae. 
KER'RIA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Bosacese. 
KEUK'VA.     Synonym  of  Pandanus. 

KING'IA.     Proper  name.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Jonc^ceae,  found 
in  New  Holland.     Kin'gia  austra'lis ;  the  grass  tree. 


E.     From  the  Lat.  labium,  lip ;  in  allusion  to  the  form  of  the  corolla. 

A  family  of  dicotyledonous  plants. 
LAGO'PUP.     From  the  Gr.  Iag6»,  a  hare,  and  pous,  foot :  hare-footed.     A  genus 

of  birds  of  the  order  of  Gallindceae. 

LAH'ANTIN.     The  manatus.     A  genus  of  mammals  of  the  order  of  Cetacea. 
LAMINA'RIA.     A  genus  of  aquatic  plants  of  the  family  of  Phy'ceaa. 
LAMPRATO'RNIS.    A  genus  of  birds.     Lamprato'rnis  super'ba.     A  kind  of  raven. 
LANA'TA.    Lat.    Woolly. 

LANCEOLA'TUS.     Lat.     Lanceolate;  lance-shaped. 
LAND'SLIP,  or  LAND'SLIDE.     In  geology,  the  removal  of  a  portion  of  land  down 

an  inclined  surface,  from  its  attachment  being  loosened  by  the  action  of  water 

beneath,  or  by  an  earthquake. 

LANTA'NIUM.     A  metal  discovered  in  1840  by  Mosander. 
/    LA'PIS  LA'ZULI.    A  mineral  belonging  to  the  aluminous  silicates,  of  an  azure  blue 

colour. 
LAURE'OLA.     Specific  name  of  a  plant. 

,     '     j-      From  laurus,  laurel,  one  of  the  genera.    A  family  of  plants. 

LATENT  HEAT.  Heat  not  indicated  by  the  thermometer;  that  heat  upon  which 
the  liquid  and  aeriform  conditions  of  bodies  depend,  and  which  becomes  sen- 
sible duringthe  conversion  of  vapour  into  liquids,  and  of  liquids  into  solids. 

LA'RVA.     Lat.     A  mask.     The  first  state  of  an  insect  after  leaving  the  egg. 

LA'RVJE.     Lat.     Plural  of  larva. 

LA'VA.  In  geology,  substances  which  flow  in  a  melted  state  from  a  volcano. 
Lavas  vary  in  consistence  and  texture. 

LEGUMINO'SJE.     From  the  Lat.  legu'men,  a  bean.     A  family  of  plants. 

LEGU'MINOUS.    Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Leguminosas. 

LEONI'NA.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  a  lion. 

LEPORI'NA.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  a  hare. 

LEPIDO'PTERA.  From  the  Gr.  lepis,  a  scale,  and  pteron,  a  wing,  scaly  wings. 
An  order  of  insects  characterized  by  scaly  wings. 

LESSO'NIA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants ;  also  a  genus  of  birds. 

LEUCADE'NDRON.  From  the  Gr.  lenkos,  white,  and  dendron,  tree.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  of  Protedceae. 

LI'AS.  Provincial  corruption  of  the  word  layers.  In  geology,  a  division  of  the 
secondary  formation.  It  is  also  called  the  Liassic,  Jurassic,  and  Oolitic  system 
of  rocks. 

LI'CHENS.    An  order  of  cryptdgamous  plants.    They  include  various  mosses. 

LILIA'CEOUS.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  lily. 

LILJA'CKA:.     A  family  of  plants. 

LIMO'NIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Aurantidceae. 

LIMB.  In  botany,  the  spreading  part  or  border  of  a  leaf  or  petal.  In  astronomy, 
the  outermost  edge  of  the  sun  or  moon. 

LI'RIODE'NDRON.  From  the  Gr.  leirion,  a  lily,  and  dendron,  a  tree.  The  tulip 
tree.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Magnoliaceae. 

LI'THIUM.    A  metal. 

LLA'NOS.     Span.     Planes. 

LO'ASA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Loas&ceae. 

LOBE.  A  term  applied  in  botany  to  the  more  or  less  profound  divisions  of  a 
leaf,  corolla,  or  other  p.art  of  a  plant. 

LOBELIA'CEJB.  In  honour  of  Lobel,  a  botanist.  A  family  of  dicotyledonous 
plants. 

LON'GIFRONS.    Lat.    Having  a  long  front  or  forehead. 

LOPHOBRA'NCHES.  From  the  Gr  lophoe,  a  tuft,  or  crest,  and  bronchia,  gills. 
An  order  of  fishes. 


GLOSSARY. 

LorHo'pHORUs.    From  the  Gr.  lophoe,  a  tuft,  and  plioroa,  bearer.    A  genus  of 

birds  of  the  order  of  Gallinaceae. 
LORA'NTHUS.     From  the  Gr.  Ivron,  a  leather  strap,  and  anthos,  flower.     Loranth 

A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Lorantbaceae. 
LO'TUS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Legumin6sae. 
LO'XIA.     A  genus  of  birds. 
LU'TEUM.    Lat.    Yellow;  dirty;  made  of  clay.    A  specific  name. 

MACROCE'PHALUS.     From  the  Gr.  makros,  large,  and  kephale,  head.     A  genus 

of  insects.     The  specific  name  of  a  mammal. 
MACROCY'STIS.     From  the  Gr.  makros,  large,  and  kustis,  bladder.     A  genus  of 

aquatic  plants  of  the  family  of  Phy'cese.     Gigantic  sea-weeds  found  in  the 

southern  hemisphere. 
MACROU'RUS.     From  the  Gr.  makros,  great,  and  oura,  tail.     Having  a  long  or 

large  tail. 
MAG'NET.    Loadstone  is  the  natural  magnet,  which  has  the  property  of  attracting 

iron.    Artificial  magnets  are  prepared  so  as  to  possess  the  peculiar  attractive 

properties  of  the  loadstone. 
MAG'NETISM.     The   science  which   investigates   the   phenomena  presented  by 

natural  and  artificial  magnets,  and  the  laws  by  which  they  are  connected. 
MAGNE'SIUM.     A  silvery  white  metal  obtained  from  magnesia. 
MAGNE'SIAN.     Containing  magnesia. 
MAGNO'LIA.     Name  of  Magnol,  a  French  botanist.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the 

family  of  Magnoliaceae. 

MA'LACHITE.     A  mineral ;  native  green  carbonate  of  copper. 
MAL'LOTUS.     A  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  of  Salmones.     A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Euphorbiaceas.     A  synonym  of  the  genus  Rottlera. 
MALU'RUS.    A  genus  of  passerine  birds. 
MAM'MAL.     Any  animal  that  suckles  its  young. 

MAMMA'LIA.     From  the  Lat.  mamma,  a  breast.     The  name  of  the  class  of  mam- 
mals or  animals  which  suckle  their  young. 
MAMMI'FER.«.     Same  as  mammalia. 
MANA'TI.     Lat     Plural  of  manatus. 
MANA'TUS.     A  genus  of  mammals.     The  Lamantin. 
MANGANE'SE.    A  metal. 

MARI'TIMA.     Lat.     Maritime ;  relating  to  the  sea. 

MARL.     Argillaceous  carbonate  of  lime.     There  are  several  varieties  of  marl. 
MARSU'PIAL.     From  the  Lat.  marsupium,  a  pouch.     Any  animal  having  a  pecu- 
liar pouch  in  front  or  on  the  abdomen. 
MAS'TODON.     From  the  Gr.  mastos,  a  nipple,  and  odous,  a  tooth.    A  genus  of 

extinct  mammals  allied  to  the  elephant. 
MA'TRIX.     In  geology,  the  stony  substance  or  bed  in  which  metallic  ores  and 

crystalline  minerals  are  embedded.     The  gangue. 
MATJRI'TIA.     Belonging  to  the  island  of  Mauritius. 
MAURO'RUM.    Lat.     Of  the  Moors. 
MA'XIMA.    "j 

MA'XIMUM.  >     Lat.    The  greatest. 
MA'XIMUS.  ) 

MEDU'SA.    A  genus  of  marine  animals  of  the  class  Aca'lepha. 
MEGATHE'RIUM.     From  the  Gr.  megaa,  great,  and  therion,  beast.     Namo  of  a 

fossil  quadruped. 
MELALEU'CA.     From  the  Gr.  melas,  black,  and  leukos,  white.     A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Myrtacea?. 
MELA'STOMA.     From  the  Gr.  melas,  black,  and  stoma,  opening.     A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  Melastomaceae. 
MEL'IA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Meliaceae. 

MELOFO'RMIS.     From  the  Lat.  melo,  a  melon,  and/orma,  shape.     Melon-shaped. 
MENOPO'MA.     From  the  Gr.  menoa,  strong,  and  poma,  cover.    A  genus  of  reptiles 

of  the  family  of  Salamanders.     Specific  name  of  a  batraehian. 
MENU'RA.     A  genus  of  passerine  birds.     The  Menu'ra  stipe'rba,  the  lyre-bird. 
MERCURY.     Quicksilver.    A  metal  which  is  liquid  at  ordinary  temperatures. 


542  GLOSSARY. 

MESEMBRTAN'THEMUM.  From  the  Gr.  metembria,  the  mid-day,  and  antJiemum, 
flowering;  so  called  because  the  flowers  usually  expand  at  mid-day.  The  fig 
marygold.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Fico'ides. 

MK'SA.     Span.    A  table. 

MES'PILUS.  From  the  Gr.  meson,  half,  and  pilot,  bullet,  the  fruit  resembling  a 
half  ball.  The  medlar.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rosaceae. 

MET'ALLOID.  Literally,  resembling  metal.  The  metals  obtained  from  the  alkalis 
and  earths  are  called  metalloids. 

METALLI'FEROUS.     Containing  metal,  or  metals. 

METAMOR'PHIC.  From  the  Gr.  meta,  indicating  change,  and  morphe,  form.  Me- 
tamorphie  rocks  are  those  which  are  evidently  of  mechanical  origin,  but  owing 
to  the  presumed  action  of  heat,  hare  undergone  change.  Altered  rocks. 

METROSI'DEROS.  From  the  Gr.  metra,  heart  of  a  tree,  and  sideron,  iron  ;  in  allu- 
sion to  the  hardness  of  its  wood.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Myr- 
taceae. 

ME'TDR.    A  species  of  wild  corn  which  grows  in  Iceland. 

MIA'SMA.       )      From  the  Gr.  miaind,  I  contaminate.     Applied  to  any  emana- 

MIA'SMATA.  J  tion  from  animal  or  vegetable  substances,  or  from  the  earth,  which 
may  prejacicially  influence  the  health  of  those  persons  who  may  be  exposed 
to  it. 

MI'CA.  From  the  Lat.  mico,  I  shine.  A  mineral,  generally  found  in  thin  elastic 
laminae,  soft,  smooth,  and  of  various  colors  and  degrees  of  transparency.  It 
is  one  of  the  constituents  of  granite. 

MI'CA-SCHIST.  Germ.  (Gr.  schistos,  slaty,  easily  split.)  Mica-slate.  A  lamellar 
rock  composed  of  quartz,  ordinarily  grayish,  and  a  great  quantity  of  brilliant 
lamellae  of  mica  arranged  in  scales,  or  extended  leaves. 

MI'DAS.    Name  of  a  genus  of  monkeys;  also,  of  a  genus  of  reptiles. 

MIGRATO'RIA.    Lat.    Migrating. 

MILLINGTO'NIA.  Proper  name.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Bignoni- 
aceae. 

MILLE'PORA.  From  the  Lat.  mille,  a  thousand,  and  pori,  holes.  A  genus  of 
stony  polyps,  or  corallines 

MIMO'SA.  From  the  Lat.  mimus,  a  comedian ;  in  allusion  to  its  numerous  varie- 
ties. A  genus,  and  a  tribe  of  plants. 

MI'OCENE.  From  the  Gr.  mei6n,  less,  and  kainos,  recent.  In  geology,  a  name 
of  a  group  of  rocks  of  the  tertiary  period. 

MI'NIMDM.     Lat.    The  least. 

MIRA'GE.  Fr.  A  kind  of  natural  optical  illusion,  arising  from  the  unequal  and 
irregular  refraction  of  light  by  the  lower  strata  of  the  atmosphere.  The  illu- 
sive appearance  of  water  in  deserts  is  explained  in  this  manner. 

MISODEN'DRON.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Loranthaceae. 

MITE'LLA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Saxafragacese. 

MOL'LTJSK.  From  the  Lat.  mollis,  soft.  Applied  to  certain  soft  animals  which 
inhabit  shells,  as  oysters. 

MOLLU'SCA.    Lat.    Mollusks.    A  branch  of  the  animal  kingdom. 

MOLLU'SCOUS.     Belonging  or  relating  to  mollusks. 

MOLYBDE'NUM.    A  white,  brittle  metal. 

MONOCOTYLE'DON.  From  the  Gr.  monos,  single,  and  kotuledon,  seed-lobe.  A 
single  seed-lobe. 

MONOCOTYLE'DONOUS.    Relating  to  monocotyledons. 

MONO'CEROS.     From  the  Gr.  monos,  single,  and  keras,  horn.     Having  one  horn. 

MO'NODON.  From  the  Gr.  monos,  single,  and  odous,  tooth.  Name  of  a  genus 
of  aquatic  mammals.  The  Narwhal. 

MONE'TA.     Lat     Belonging  or  relating  to  money. 

MONI'LIFORM.  From  the  Lat.  monile,  a  necklace.  In  form  of  a  string  of  beads ; 
necklace-like. 

MO'NITOR.    A  genus  of  Saurian  reptiles. 

MONOPH'YSITE.  From  the  Gr.  monos,  only,  and  phusis,  nature.  One  of  the  sect 
of  the  ancient  church  who  maintained  that  the  human  and  divine  natures  in 
Jesus  Christ  became  so  blended  and  confounded  as  to  constitute  but  one  na- 
ture. 


GLOSSARY.  543 

MONOSPE'RMA.     From  the  Gr.  monos,  single,  and  sperma,  seed.     One-seeded.    A 

specific  name. 

MON'TIA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Portuldceae. 
MOIU'NDA.     Indian  Mulberry.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rubidcese. 
MORAI'NES.     Fr.     The  name  given   by  geologists  to  longitudinal  deposits  of 

stony  detritus  found  at  the  bases,  and  along  the  edges  of  all  the  great  glaciers. 
MO'RUS.     Mulberry.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Urti'ceae. 
MOSASAU'RUS.     From  Meuse,  name  of  a  river,  and  the  Gr.  sauros,  a  lizard.     A 

genus  of  fossil  reptiles. 

MOS'CHUS.     Lat.  from  the  Gr.  moecJios,  musk.     Name  of  a  genus  of  mammals. 
MOSCHI'FERUS.     Lat.     Musk-bearing;  containing  musk. 
MO'SSES.     Crypt6gamous  parasites  of  the  family  of  LycopodeSceae. 
MU'CILAGE.     A  mixture  of  gum  and  water. 
MU'RAL.     Belonging  or  relating  to  a  wall. 

MO'SA.     The  banana.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Musdceae. 
MUS'CHELKALK.     German.     Shell  limestone. 

MUSCI'PULA.     Lat.     A  fly-trap  or  mouse-trap.     A  name  of  a  plant 
Mu'sicus.     Lat.     Relating  to  music ;  musical. 
MYCE'TUS.     Name  of  a  genus  of  monkeys. 
MYOPO'TAMUS.     From  the   Gr.  mm,  a  rat,  and  potamos,  a  river.     Name  of  a 

genus  of  gnawing  mammals. 
MYRI'STICA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Myrista'ceae  j  Myris'tica  mos- 

cha'ta,  the  nutmeg  tree. 
MYR'TUS.    Myrtle.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Myrta'cese. 

NA'NA.    From  the  Lat.  nanus,  a  dwarf.    A  specific  name. 

NA'PHTHA.    A  limpid  bitumen. 

NARCI'SSUS.    Name  of  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Amarylli'deae. 

NA'TRIUM.     A  metal. 

NA'TRON.     A  subcarbonate  of  soda. 

NEC'TARY.     That  part  of  a  flower  which  secretes  nectar  or  honey. 

NELUM'BIUM.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Nyinphaea'cea}.     Sacred  Bean. 

NES'TOR.     An  extinct  bird, 

NEURO'PTERA.  From  the  Gr.  neuron,  a  nerve,  and  pteron,  wing.  An  order  of 
insects. 

NEW  RED  SAND' STONE.  In  geology,  a  system  of  rocks  of  the  secondary  forma- 
tion. 

NICK'EL.    A  white  metal.     It  is  the  basis  of  "  German  Silver." 

NI'GRA.    Lat.    Black. 

NIM'BUS.     A  rain  cloud. 

NI'TIDA.     Lat.     Neat,  clean,  bright. 

NI'TROGEN.  A  simple,  permanently  elastic  fluid  or  gas,  also  called  azote,  which 
constitutes  four-fifths  of  the  atmosphere,  and  is  the  basis  of  nitric  acid. 

NIVA'LIS.     Lat.     Snowy. 

NON-CONDUC'TOR.  Applied  to  substances  which  do  not  possess  the  property  of 
transmitting  electricity,  or  heat. 

NOTACAIJ'THUS.  From  the  Gr.  n6tos,  back,  and  akantlia,  a  spine.  Name  of  a 
genus  of  fishes. 

NOTOR'NIS.     Name  of  an  extinct  bird. 

NOTOTHE'RIUM.     A  fossil  genus  of  marsupial  mammals. 

NUMMULA'RIA.  From  the  Lat.  nummus,  a  coin.  A  family  of  Mollusks.  Num- 
muli'tes. 

NYMPHJS'A.    Name  of  a  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Nymphaja'ceae. 

NYS'SA.    From  the  Gr.  nuss6,  I  prick.    Name  of  a  genus  of  plants. 

OBSI'DIAN.    A  glassy  lava.    Volcanic  glass. 
OTEAN'ICA.     Lat.     Relating  to  the  ocean. 
ODORA'TA.    Lat.     Odorous. 
ODORATIS'SIMA.    Lat.    Very,  or  most  odorous. 
ODORI'PEKA.    Lat.    Odoriferous. 


544  GLOSSARY. 

OEXOTHE'RA.    From  the  Gr.  oinoe,  wine,  and  therS,  I  hunt.    A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Oenothera'ceae.     Synonym  of  onagrariae. 
O'LEA.     Lat.     Olive.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Olea'cese. 
OLD  RED  SAND'STONE.     A  system  of  rocks  of  the  secondary  formation. 
O'OLITE.     From  the  Gr.  oon,  an  egg,  and  lithos,  stone.     A  granular  variety  of 

carbonate  of  lime,  frequently  called  roe-stone. 
O'PAL.     A  brittle  mineral,  characterized  by  its  iridescent  reflection  of  light.     It 

consists  of  silica  with  about  ten  per  cent,  of  water. 
OPALES'CENT.     Resembling  opal. 
OPHI'DIAN.    From  the  Gr.  ophis,  a  serpent  ;  applied  to  reptiles  of  the  order  of 

Ophidia. 

OPHICE'PHALUS.     From  the  Gr.  ophis,  serpent,  and  kephale,  head.     Serpent- 
head.    A  genus  of  ac&nthoptery'gian,  or  bony-finned  fishes. 
OR'CHIS.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Orchide'se,  named  from  most  of 

the  species  being  marked  by  two  tubercles. 
ORCHID'EOUS.  Relating  to  the  genus  orchis. 
OR'GAN.  From  the  Gr.  organon,  an  instrument.  Part  of  an  organized  being, 

destined  to  exercise  some  particular  function ;  for  example,  the  ears  are  the 

organs  of  hearing,  the  muscles  are  the  organs  of  motion. 
ORGA'NIC.     Relating  to  an  organ.     Organic  remains,  are  the  fossil  remains  of 

organized  beings. 

ORGANIZA'TION.     The  mode  or  manner  of  structure  of  an  organized  being. 
OR'GANIZED.    Composed  of  organs;  having  a  mode  of  structure. 

ORIENTALS'.  }     Lat'    Eastern-    Belonging  to  the  East. 

ORNITHORYN'CHUS.     From  the  Gr.  ornis,  ornithos,  a  bird,  and  rvgchos,  a  beak. 

A  genus  of  mammals,  having  the  beak  of  a  duck. 
OR'TYGIS.     From  the  Gr.  ortux,  a  quail.     A  genus  of  birds. 
OS'JIIUM.     From  the  Gr.  osme,  odour.     A  metal  discovered  in  1803,  by  Tennant. 
OSCILLA'TION.     The  act  of  moving  backwards  and  forwards  like  a  pendulum. 
OTA'RIA.     From  the  Gr.  6tarion,  a  small  ear.     A  genus  of  amphibious  mammals, 

of  the  tribe  of  seals. 

OUT'CROP.     In  geology,  the  emergence  of  a  rock  in  place,  at  the  surface. 
O'vART.     In  botany,  that  part  of  a  flower  in  which  the  young  seeds  are  contained. 
OX'ALIS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Oxali'dese. 
OXLE'YA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cedrela'eeae. 
OX'YGEN.    The  vivifying  gas  which  constitutes  about  one-fifth  of  the  atmosphere, 

the  presence  of  which  is  essential  to  life. 
O'zoNE.    From  the  Gr.  oz6, 1  smell  of  something.    The  odorous  matter  perceived 

when  electricity  passes  from,  pointed  bodies  into  the  air. 

PACHYDER'HATA.     Lat.  from  the  Gr.  pachus,  thick,  and  derma,  skin.     An  order 

of  mammals — Pachyderms. 
PADI'NA.     Same  as  Zonaria,  a  beautiful  marine  plant.     Padi'na  pavo'nia,  or  Zo~ 

na'ria  pavo'nia.    Turkey  feather. 
PALAP'TEHYX.     From  the  Gr.  palaios,  ancient,  and  apteryx,  (formed  from  the 

Gr.  a,  privative,  and  pteron,  wing,  wingless.     Name  of  a  genus  of  fossil  birds, 

discovered  recently  in  New  Zealand. 
PAL.EOTHE'RIUM.     From  the  Gr.  palaios,  ancient,  and  therion,  beast.     A  fossil 

genus  of  pachyder'matous  mammals. 
PAL^EONTO'LOGY.     From  the  Gr.  palaios,  ancient,  and  on,  a  being  or  creature, 

and  logos,  discourse.     That  branch  of  zoological  science,  which  treats  of  fossil 

organic  remains. 
PAL^EOZO'IC.     From  the  Gr.  palaios,  ancient,  and  zoe,  life.     Relating  to  ancient 

life;  belonging  or  relating  to  fossils. 
PALMA  REA'L.     Spanish.     Royal  Palm. 

PALLA'DIUH.     A  white,  hard,  very  malleable  and  ductile  metal,  which  is  suscep- 
tible of  a  fine  polish.     It  is  more  difficult  to  melt  than  gold. 
PALMEL'LA.   A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Confervicese.    Palme'lla  niva'lii, 

a  plant  of  the  snowy  regions,  which  gives  color  to  the  snow  amidst  which  it 

grows.    Protoco'ccua  is  the  red  snow  plant. 


GLOSSARY.  545 

PANDA'NA.     Relating  to,  or  resembling  the  Screw-pines. 

PANDA'NUS.  From  the  Malay  name  of  the  tree,  pandang.  Screw-pine.  A  go- 
nus  of  plants,  of  the  family  of  Pandaneaa.  Pandanus  candelabrum.  Candle- 
stick screw-pine. 

PA'NICUM.  Panic-grass.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Grami'nese.  Pa'ni- 
cum  milia'ceum,  millet,  a  grain  used  for  feeding  poultry  in  England. 

PA'PA.     Spanish.     Pope,     Specific  name  of  a  vulture. 

PAPY'RUS.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cypera'ceae.  The  Papy'rus  an- 
tiquo'rum  yields  the  substance  used  as  paper  by  the  ancient  ^Egyptians. 

PAPYRI'FERA.     From  papyrus,  a  sort  of  paper,  and/o-o,  I  bear.    Paper-bearing. 

PARHE'LIA.     Plural  of  parhelion. 

PARHE'LION.  From  the  Gr.  para,  alongside  of,  and  elios,  the  sun.  A  mock 
sun.  A  meteor  which  consists  in  the  simultaneous  appearance  of  several  suns, 
"fantastic  images  of  the  true  one." 

PARADISA'ICA.     Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Paradise.     A  specific  name. 

PARNA'SSUS.     A  genus  of  lepidopterous  insects  of  the  tribe  of  Parna'ssidae. 

PASSERINES.  j     From  the  Lat_  Pagser>  a  sparr0w,  name  of  a  varied  and 

£ASS  BRINE  BIRDS.    >  extensive  order  of  birds  not  easiiy  characterized. 

PASS'ERES.  ) 

PASSIFLO'RA.  Abbreviation  of  flos,  flower,  and  passionis,  of  the  passion.  Pas- 
sion-flower, so  called  from  a  supposed  resemblance  between  its  floral  organs, 
and  the  instruments  of  the  Passion  of  our  Saviour.  An  extensive  and  beau- 
tiful genus  of  plants. 

PATAGO'NICA.    Lat.    Relating  to  Patagonia.     Specific  name  of  a  penguin. 

PAVO'NIA.     Formed  from  the  Lat.  pavo,  a  peacock.     A  specific  name. 

PEAT.  The  natural  accumulation  of  vegetable  matter  on  the  surface  of  lands 
not  in  a  state  of  cultivation  ;  always  moist  to  a  greater  or  less  degree,  varying, 
according  to  the  kind  of  plants  to  the  decay  of  which  the  formation  of  peat  is 
due. 

PELARGO'NIUM.  From  the  Gr.  pelargos,  a  stork.  Stork's  bill.  A  genus  of 
plants  of  the  family  of  Geranidceae. 

PELA'GIC.     From  the  Lat.  pelagus,  the  sea.     Relating  to  the  sea. 

PELO'PIUM.     A  metal  discovered  by  Prof.  H.  Rose. 

PEN'DULUM.  From  the  Lat.  pendo,  I  hang.  A  weight  suspended  at  the  end  of 
a  rod,  so  that  it  may  vibrate  from  side  to  side  in  a  plane,  is  called  a  pendulum. 

PENNISE'TUM.  From  the  Lat.  penna,  a  feather  or  pen,  and  seta,  a  bristle.  A 
genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Grami'neae.  % 

PE'PLIS.    Gr.    Water-purslane.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Salica>iae. 

PER'MIAN.  After  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Permia.  A  name  applied  by  Mr. 
Murchison  to  a  system  of  rocks,  consisting  of  an  extensive  group  of  fossilife- 
rous  strata,  intermediate,  in  their  geological  position,  between  the  Carbonife- 
rous and  Triassic  systems,  the  latter  being  the  upper  portion  of  the  New  Red 
Sandstone  formation. 

PERTURBA'TION.  In  astronomy,  the  deviation  of  a  celestial  body  from  the  elliptic 
orbit  which  it  would  describe,  if  acted  upon  by  no  other  attractive  force  than 
that  of  the  sun,  or  central  body  about  which  it  revolves. 

PE'TAL.  From  the  Gr.  petalon,  a  leaf.  A  part  of  the  corolla  of  a  flower  analo- 
gous to  a  leaf. 

PETRO'LEUM.  From  the  Gr.  petros,  a  rock,  and  the  Lat.  oleum,  oil.  Rock-oil, 
often  called  Earbadoea  tar.  A  brown,  liquid  bitumen,  found  in  the  West  In- 
dies, Europe,  &c. 

PHACOCHJE'RE.     Fr.       1      From  the  Gr.  phake,  a  wart,  and  choiros,  a  hog.     A 

PHACOCH^E'RUS.  Lat.  )  genus  of  mammals  of  the  order  of  pachydermata;  al- 
lied to  the  hogs. 

PHALAN'GER.  From  the  Gr.  phalagx,  a  phalanx.  A  genus  of  marsupial  or 
pouch-bearing  mammals. 

PHANEROGA'MIA.  From  the  Gr.  phaneros,  evident,  and  gamos,  marriage.  Pha- 
ner6gamous  plants.  Applied  to  plants  having  distinct  flowers. 

?!£££:   }     Name  of  a  genus  of  birds. 

PHLE'UM.     Cat's-tail  grass.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Grami'neas. 

46* 


546  GLOSSARY. 

PHLOX.    Gr.    Flame.    A  genus  of  beautiful  plants  of  the  family  of  Polemoni- 

dceoe. 
PHO'CA.     Lat.    A  seal.     A  genus  of  aquatic  mammals,  embracing  the  common 

seal  or  Pho'ca  vituli'na  ;  the  Harp  seal  or  P.  ocea'nica  ;  the  Hare-tailed  seal  or 

P.layura;  the  .sea-lion ;  sea-wolf;  sea-elephant;  sea-cow;  &c.,  Ac. 
PHO'CA:.     Lat.     Plural  of  phoca. 
PHO'NOLITE.     From  the  Gr.  phoned,  I  resound,  and  lithos,  a  stone.     Clink-stone. 

A  kind  of  compact  basalt  which  is  sonorous  when  struck. 
PHOR'MIUM.     From  the  Gr.  pkornios,  a  basket.     Flax-lily.     A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Asphodeleae.     Pho'rmium  te'nax,  Iris-leaved  flax-lily  of  New 

Zealand. 
PHOS'PHORUS.     From  the  Gr.  phos,  light,  a,ndpher6, 1  bear.    A  simple  substance 

which  is  highly  inflammable. 

PHOSPHO'KIC  A'CID.   A  compound  of  phosphorus  and  oxygen,  having  the  proper- 
ties of  acids. 
PHOS'PHATES.     Compounds  of  phosphoric  acid  with  salifiable  bases,  as  soda,  are 

termed  phosphates ;  Phosphate  of  soda,  for  example. 

PHOSPHORE'SCENCE.     Emission  of  light  from  substances  at  common  tempera- 
tures, or  below  a  red  heat. 
PHOSPHORE'SCENT.    Having  the  property  of  emitting  light  without  sensible 

heat. 
PHOTO'METER.     From  the  Gr.phds,  light,  and  metron,  a  measure.     An  instrument 

for  measuring  the  intensity  of  light. 

PHYSA'LIA.  )      From  the  Gr.  phuse,  a  vesicle.    A  genus  of  animals  of  the  family 
PHY'SALIS.  J  of  Acalepha.     The  Portuguese  man-of-war  belongs  to  this  genus. 
PHY'SALIS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Solaudcese.     Physa'lis  e'dulis, 

the  Cape  gooseberry. 
PHYSE'TER.    A  blower.    Name  of  a  genus  of  mammals  of  the  family  of  Ce- 

ta'cea. 

PIME'NTO.     Allspice ;  Jamaica  pepper. 
PIN'NATE.     From  the  Lat.  pinnatus,  feathered.     Having  leaflets  arranged  along 

each  side  of  a  common  petiole,  like  the  feather  of  a  quill. 
PINNATI'FIDA.     Lat.     Pinna'tifid.     A  leaf  is  so  called  when  it  is  divided  into 

lobes  from  the  margin  nearly  to  the  midriff. 
PI'NUS.     Lat.     A  pine-tree.     A  genus   of  plants   of  the   family  of  Coniferae. 

Pi'nus  a'bies.     The  Norway  Spruce.     Pi'nus  canarie'nsis.     The  Canary  pine. 

Pi'.nus  ce'mbra.    The  Riga  balsam  tree ;  the  Cembran  or  Siberian  pine.    Pi'nus 

exce'lsa.     The  lofty  or  Nepal  pine.     Pi'nus  marit'ima.     The  maritime  pine. 

Pi'nus  pi'nea.     The  Stone  pine. 
PI'PIENS.     Lat.     Peeping  like  a  chicken. 
PI'PA.     A  genus  of  batrachian  reptiles.     A  kind  of  toad. 

PLA'TINA.      )      The  diminutive  of  the  Spanish  plata,  silver.     A  metal  of  a  steel 
PLA'TINUM.    J  gray  colour,  approaching  to  the  white  colour  of  silver,  to  which 

resemblance  it  owes  its  name.     It  was  found  in  Choco,  one  of  the  provinces 

of  Colombia,  and  brought  to  Europe  in  1741,  by  Don  Antonio  de  Ulloa. 
PLEI'OCENE.  |      From  the  Gr.  pleion,  more,  and  kaiiios,  recent.     A  term  ap- 
PLI'OCENE.     j  plied  by  geologists  to  the  newer  tertiary  formation,  because  there 

is  found  fossilized  in  it  a  greater  number  of  existing  than  of  extinct  species. 
PLUMB-LINE.  1      From  the  Lat.  plumbum,  lead.     An  instrument,  consisting  of  a 
PLU'MMET.       J  string  with  a  weight,  usually  of  lead,  attached  to  a  straight  staff, 

for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  direction  of  gravitation,  or  the  perpen- 
dicular to  the  horizon. 
PLUTO'NIC  ROCKS.     Unstratified   crystalline   rocks,   probably   formed   at   great 

depths  beneath  the  surface  by  igneous  fusion.    Volcanic  rocks  are  formed  near 

the  surface. 
PODOCA'RPUS.     From  the  Gr.  pous,  podos,  the  foot,  and  Icarpos,  fruit.     A  genus 

of  plants  of  the  family  of  Coniferse. 


GLOSSARY.  547 

PO'LABIZED  LIGHT.  Light  so  modified  as  to  possess  poles,  or  side?,  having  oppo- 
site properties.  Light  by  reflection  or  refraction,  when  passed  through  crys- 
tals possessing  the  power  of  double  refraction,  becomes  modified,  so  that  it 
does  not  present  the  same  phenomena  of  transmission  and  reflection,  as  light 
which  had  not  been  polarized. 

POLARIZA'TION.     The  process  by  which  light  is  polarized. 

POLYG'ONUM.     From  the  Or.  polw,  many,  and  yomi,  a  knee  or  joint.     A  genus 
of  plants  of  the  family  of  Polygonacese.     Polyyonum  mriparum,  Alpine  Bis- 
g     tort. 

"POLYHO'RPHA.     Lat.     From  the  Gr.  polite,  many,  and  morphe,  form.     Many- 
shaped.     A  specific  name. 

PO'LYPI.     Lat.     Plural  of  polypus. 

POLYPLE'CTRON.     Name  of  a  genus  of  birds. 

POL'YPUS.  From  the  Gr.  polite,  many,  and^otis,  foot.  A  genus  of  radiate  ani- 
mals. 

PON'TICA.     Lat.     From  pontus,  the  sea.     Belonging  or  relating  to  the  sea. 

PONTOPPIDA'NA.  Synonym  of  Couroupita.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 
Myrtaceaa,  Lecythi'deae.  A  large  tree  of  Guiana. 

PONTO'PHIDAN.  From  the  Lat.  pontus,  the  sea,  and  the  Gr.  ophie,  a  serpent. 
The  sea-serpent. 

POUTULACA'RIA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Portula'cese.  The  Purs- 
lane-tree. Portulaca'ria  a'fra.  The  African  purslane-tree. 

PORPHYRIT'IC.     Of  the  nature  of  porphyry. 

POR'PHYRY.  From  the  Gr.  porphura,  purple.  Originally  applied  to  a  red  rock 
found  in  Egypt.  A  compact  feldspathic  rock  containing  disseminated  crystals 
of  feldspar,  the  latter  when  polished  forming  small  angular  spots,  of  a  light 
color,  thickly  sprinkled  over  the  surface.  The  rock  is  of  various  colors,  dark 
green,  red,  blue,  black,  &c. 

^ORT'LAND  BED.  A  name  given  by  geologists  to  the  superior -division  of  the 
upper  Oolite  or  lias  system.  The  "  Portland  stone"  is  a  kind  of  lime-stone 
found  in  the  south  of  England,  and  more  particularly  in  the  Isle  of  Portland. 
In  this  series  of  strata  is  a  silicious  sand  known  as  the  "  Portland  Sand." 

POTAS'SIUM.     A  metal  discovered  in  potash  by  Sir  II.  Davy,  in  1807. 

POTENTI'LLA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rosaceae.  Cinquefoil.  Po- 
tenti'lla  tridenta'ta.  Trifid-leaved  cinquefoil. 

PREHEN'SILE.  From  the  Lat.  preliendcrc,  to  lay  hold  of.  Having  the  faculty  to 
lay  hold  of.  Applied  to  the  tails  of  those  monkeys,  for  example,  which  have 
the  power  to  suspend  themselves  by  the  tail. 

PREDA'CEOUS.     Living  on  prey. 

PRI'MARY  FORMA'TION.  A  term  applied  by  geologists  to  designate  the  different 
rocks  which  were  formed  prior  to  the  creation  of  plants  and  animals. 

PRIMIGE'NIUS.     Lat.     Original ;  first  of  its  kind. 

PRI'MUM  MO'BILE.     That  which  first  imparts  motion. 

PRIM'ULA.  Lat.  A  primrose.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  PrimuMcese. 
Prim'ulafariiio'sa,  the  Bird's-eye  primrose. 

PRISM.     A  solid  bounded  by  three  planes,  two  of  which  are  equal. 

PIUSMA'TIC.     Belonging  or  relating  to  a  prism. 

PROBOSCI'DIAN.  From  the  Gr.  proloskis,  a  proboscis  or  trunk.  Applied  to 
mammals  of  -the  family  which  includes  the  elephant. 

PROCELLA'RIA.  From  the  Lat.1  procella,  a  tempest  at  sea.  A  genus  of  birds  of 
the  family  of  Palmi'pedes. 

PROLI'FERA.    Lat.   Formed  from  proles,  a  race  or  stock,  and  fero,  I  bear.    Prolific. 

PRO'TEA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Protcdceae.  Pro'tea  cyanero'idcx, 
Artichoke-flowered  protea. 

PRO'TEUS.     Lat.     A  genus  of  reptiles. 

PTEROCA'RPUS.  From  the  Gr.  pteron,  a  wing,  and  karpos,  fruit.  So  called  be- 
cause the  pods  have  membranous  wings.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 
Legumin6seae.  Pteroca'rpus  santali'nus.  The  red  saunders  tree. 

PTE'RIS.  Gr.  Name  of  Fern.  A  genus  of  crypt.6gamous  plants.  Brake.  Pte'- 
ri»  esc\ile'nta.  Edible  fern. 


548  GLOSSARY. 

PTER'OPUS.     From  the  Gr.  pteron,  wing,  and  poua,  foot.    A  genus  of  mammals 

of  the  tribe  of  bats,  termed  Roussettes. 
PU'MA.     A  name  of  the  couguar  or  American  Lion. 
PYROG'ENOUS.     From  the  Or.  pur,  fire,  and  geinomai,  I  beget.     Applied  to  rocks 

which  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  fire,  as  granite. 
PY'RUS.     Lat.    A  pear-tree.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rosdceae. 
PYRI'FERA.     Lat.    From  pyrus,  a  pear,  and  fero,  I  bear.    Pear-bearing. 
PY'THON.    A  genus  of  reptiles. 

QCADRU'MANA.    Formed  from  the  Lat.  qttatuor,  four,  and  manna,  hand.    An 

order  of  mammals  characterized  by  having  four  hands. 
QITAUTZ.     Germ.     Rock  crystal. 

QUA'RTZITE.     A  mineral  resembling  quartz.     Granular  quartz. 
QUARTZ'OSE.     Of  the  nature  of  quartz. 
QUI'CKSILVER.     Mercury.     A  metal  which  is  fluid  at  ordinary  temperatures. 

RADIA'TA.    Lat.     Radiates  ;  the  name  of  a  class  of  zdophytes. 

RA'DIATE.     From  the  Lat.  radius,  a  ray.     Furnished  with  rays ;  having  rays. 

RADIA'TION.     The  emission  of  the  rays  of  light,  or  of  heat,  from  a  luminous  or 

a  heated  body. 
RAFFLE'SIA.    After  Sir  T.  Raffles.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rafflesi- 

ficeae,  which  are  parasites,  growing  on  the  roots  of  dicotyle'donous  plants. 

The  flowers  of  some  of  them  are  enormously  large  j  those  of  the  Rafflesia  Ar- 

noldi  are  said  to  be  three  feet  in  diameter. 
RAINE'TTE.    Fr.    A  tree-frog. 
RA'NA.    Lat.    A  frog.    A  genus  of  reptiles. 
RANUN'CULI.     Lat.     Plural  of  ranunculus. 
RANUN'CULUS.     From  the  Lat.  rana,  a  frog,  because  the  species  inhabit  humid 

places.     Crow-foot.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Ranuncul&cea?. 
REFRA'CTION.     From  the  Lat.  rcfractue,  broken.     The  deviation  of  a  ray  of 

light  from  its  rectilinear  course,  caused  by  passing  through  a  transparent  sub- 
stance.    The  degree  of  refraction  depends  upon  the  density  of  the  medium 

through  which  the  ray  of  light  passes. 
REFU'LGENS.    Lat.     Shining  brightly ;  refulgent. 
RE'PTILE.     From  the  Lat.  repere,  to  crawl.     A  term  applied  to  any  animal  that 

moves  naturally  upon  its  belly,  or  on  very  short  legs,  as  serpents,  Ac. 
REPTI'LIA.     Lat.     The  class  of  reptiles :  it  comprises  those  vertebrate  animals 

which  have  cold  blood,  an  aerial  respiration,  and  an  incomplete  circulation. 
RESINI'FERA.     Lat.    Containing  resin. 
REVOLU'TA.     Lat.     Turned  back ;  tumbled. 
RHE'A.     Synonym  of  Struthio,  an  ostrich. 
RHO'DIUM.     From  the  Gr.  rodon,  a  rose,  on  account  of  the  rose-red  color  of 

some  of  its  salts.     A  metal  discovered  in  the  year  1803,  by  Wollaston. 
RHODODE'NDRON.     From  the  Gr.  rodon,  a  rose,  and  dendron,  a  tree.    A  genus 

of  plants  of  the  family  of  Ericiiceae. 
RHODOME'LIA.     From  the   Gr.  rodon,  a  rose,  and  melas,  black.     A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  Phy'cese. 
RHUS.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Terebinth  iiceae.     Rhus  vernix.     The 

varnish  Sumach. 
RHY'NCHOPS.     From  the  Gr.  rugchops,  a  beak.     A  genus  of  birds  :  the  skimmers 

or  scissor-bills. 

ROCK-SALT.     Common  salt  found  in  masses  or  beds  in  the  new  red  sandstone. 
RODEN'TIA.     From  the  Lat.  rodere,  to  gnaw.     An  order  of  mammals. 
RO'DENTS.     Animals  of  the  order  of  Rodentia. 
ROR'QUAL.     A  kind  of  whalebone  whale. 
RO'SA.    Lat.    Rose.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Ros£ceae.    Rosa  si- 

nensis.     The  Chinese  rose. 
RU'BER.    Lat.    Red. 
RuBiA'cEjE.     A  family  of  plants. 
RU'BY.    A  crystallized  gem  of  various  shades  of  red. 
RUFIM'ANUS.    Lat.     Red-handed. 


^  GLOSSARY.  04H 

RU'MINANT.    An  animal  that  chews  the  cud. 

RUMINA'NTIA.    An  order  of  mammals  which  are  characterized  by  chewing  tho 

cud. 
RU'MINATE.    To  chew  the  cud. 

SA'LINES.     Natural  deposits  of  salt;  salt  springs. 

SA'LIX.     Lat.    Willow.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Salici'neaj.     Sa'lix 

lana'ta.     Woolly  willow. 

SALT.     A  combination  of  an  acid  with  one  or  more  bases. 
SA' MTLUS.     From  the  Celtic,  san,  salutary,  and  mos,  pig.     Salutary  to   pigs. 

Brook-weed.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Primul&ceao.    Sa'molus  vale- 

ra'ndi.     Common  brook-weed. 

SAN'DARACH.    A  name  given  by  the  Arabs  to  an  odorous  resin. 
SANDAH'NUS.     Lat.     Sandal-like. 

SA'NDSTONE.     Any  rock  consisting  of  aggregated  grains  of  sand. 
SAPA'JOTJ.     Fr.     A  genus  of  monkeys. 
SAPI'NDUS.     Abbreviation  of  sapo,  soap,  and  indicus,  Indian  soap.     Soap-berry. 

A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Sapindaceae.    Sapi'ndus  sapona'ria.    Com- 
mon soap-berry. 
SAPONA'RIA.    Lat.     Soapy. 
SAPOTA'CE^E.    A  family  of  plants. 
SA'PPHIRE.     A  very  hard  gem  consisting  essentially  of  crystallized  alumina.    It 

is  of  various  colors ;  the  blue  variety  being  usually  called  sapphire ;  the  red, 

the  oriental  ruby  j  the  yellow,  the  oriental  topaz. 

SA'QOTS.   }     A  genus  of  monkeys. 

SARGA'SUM.    From  the  Span,  sarga'zo,  sea-lentils.    A  genus  of  plants  of  tho 

family  of  Phy'ceae. 
SARRACE'NIA.     After  Dr.  Sarrazin.     The  side-saddle  flower,  or  pitcher  plant.    A 

genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Sarraceneae. 
SAU'RIAN.     From  the  Gr.  sauros,  a  lizard.     Applied  to  animals  of  the  lizard 

tribe. 
SAU'ROID.    From  the  Gr.  sauros,  a  lizard,  and  eidos,  resemblance.    Resembling 

a  lizard. 

SCA'NDENS.    Lat.     Climbing. 
SCHIST.     From  the  Gr.  schistos,  split.     Slate. 
SCHISTO'SE.     Slaty. 
SCHOT'IA.    After  Schott,  a  Dutch  gardener.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Legumin6sae.     Scho'tia  spccio'sa.     Small-leaved  Schotia. 
SOITAME'NE^E.     A  family  of  plants. 
SCLE'RIA.     From  the  Gr.  skleros,  hard.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of 

Cyperdceac. 

SCO'LOPAX.     Lat.    A  genus  of  birds  :  a  heron. 
SCOPA'RIA.    From  scopa,  a  broom.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Scrophu- 

lari'neae. 
SCO'RI^E.    Volcanic  cinders.     Cinders  and  slags  of  basaltic  lavas  of  a  reddish 

brown  and  black  color. 
SCORIA'CEOUS.     Of  the  nature  of  scoriae. 
SCO'RIFORIT.    In  form  of  scoriae. 
SCY'THROPS.     From  the  Gr.  akuthrops,  sad.     A  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  of 

climbers.    A  cuckoo. 

SEAMS.     In  geology,  thin  layers  of  strata  interposed  between  others. 
SEBI'FERA.     Lat.     Containing  tallow. 
SE'CONDAUY  FORJIA'TION.     In  geology,  the  formation  which  is  next  in  order  to 

the  transition  formation. 
SE'CULAR.     From   the   Lat.  secnlum,  a  century.     Secular  elevationa  are  those 

which  take  place  gradually  and  imperceptibly,  through  a  long  period  of  time. 

Secular  tides  are  those  which  are  dependent  upon  the  secular  variation  of  tho 

moon's  mean  distance  from  the  earth. 


550  GLOSSARY. 

SE'DTMENT.  From  the  Lat.  sedeo,  I  sit.  That  which  suhsides  or  settles  to  the 
bottom  of  any  liquid. 

SEDIME'NTARY.    Belonging  or  relating  to  pediment. 

SEE'D-LOBE.  "  The  envelope  in  which  the  seed  of  a  plant  is  formed. 

SE'LENITE.    A  variety  of  gypsum,  or  sulphate  of  lime. 

SEMI'TIC.     Applied  to  the  languages  of  the  descendants  of  Shem,  or  the  Orientals. 

SE'PAL.     That  part  of  the  calyx  of  a  flower  which  resembles  a  leaf. 

SE'PIA.     A  kind  of  paint  prepared  from  the  cuttle-fish.     A  genus  of  mollusks. 

SER'PENTINE.  A  magnesian  rock  of  various  colors,  and  often  speckled  like  a 
serpent's  back.  It  is  generally  dark  green. 

SEPTENTRIONA'LIS.    Lat.    Northern. 

SER'RATE.    From  the  Lat  serra,  a  saw.    Toothed  like  a  saw. 

SERRA'TA.     Lat.     Serrate. 

SHAFT.  A  cylindrical  hollow  space,  or  pit,  in  mines,  made  for  the  purpose  of 
extracting  ores,  Ac. 

SHALE.    An  indurated  slaty  clay,  or  clay-slate. 

SHI'NGLE.    Loose,  water-worn  gravel  and  pebbles. 

SHORE'A.  Synonym  of  Vatica.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Dip'tero- 
caipese. 

SIER'RA.    Span.    A  mountain  chain. 

SI'LEX.  From  the  Gr.  chalix,  a  pebble.  The  principal  constituent  of  quartz, 
rock-crystal,  and  other  sili'cious  minerals. 

SI'LICA.  Silicious  earth:  the  oxide  of  silicon  (the  elementary  basis  of  Silica,) 
constituting  almost  the  whole  of  silex  or  flint.  It  combines  with  many  of  the 
metallic  oxides,  and  is  for  this  reason  sometimes  called  sili'cio  acid. 

SI'LICATE.  A  compound  of  silicic  acid  and  a  base.  Plate-glass  and  window- 
glass  are  silicates  of  soda  and  potassa;  and  jlint-glass  is  a  similar  compound 
with  a  large  addition  of  silicate  of  lead. 

SILI'CIOUS.     Containing  silicia. 

SILI'CIFIED.     Petrified  or  mineralized  by  silicious  earth. 

SILT.  The  name  given  to  the  sand,  clay,  and  earth,  which  accumulate  in  run- 
ning waters. 

SILI'CIUM.    The  metalloid  which  forms  the  basis  of  silica. 

SILU'RIAW  STS'TEM.  A  series  of  rocks  formerly  known  as  the  f/reyioacke  eerier. 
So  called  after  the  Silures  or  Siluri,  the  ancient  Britons  who  inhabited  the 
region  where  these  strata  are  most  distinctly  developed.  They  are  entirely  of 
marine  origin. 

SILU'RUS.    Lat.    A  genus  of  fishes  of  the  family  of  Siluridee. 

SIL'VA.    A  forest,  or  woods. 

SIMU'LIUH.  From  the  Lat.  simulo,  I  feign.  A  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  of 
Diptera. 

SINE'NSIS.     Lat.     Chinese ;  belonging  or  relating  to  China. 

SIN'TER.  Germ.  A  scale.  Calcareous  sinter  is  a  variety  of  carbonate  of  lime 
composed  of  successive  concentric  layers.  Silicious  sinter  is  a  variety  of  com- 
mon opal. 

SIPHO'NIA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Euphorbileese. 

SLATE.     A  well  known  rock  which  is  divisible  into  thin  plates  or  layers. 

SMYN'THUS,  or  SMIN'THCS.  From  the  Gr.  sminthos,  rat.  A  genus  of  rodent 
mammals. 

SMYRNE'NSIS.    Lat.    Belonging,  or  relating  to  Smyrna. 

SO'LAR  SPE'CTRUM.  Lat  Spectrum,  an  image.  In  optics,  the  name  given  to  an 
elongated  image  of  the  sun  formed  on  a  wall  or  screen  by  a  beam  of  unde- 
composed  light,  received  through  a  small  hole,  and  refracted  by  a  prism. 

SOLFATA'RA.  Italian.  A  volcanic  vent  emitting  sulphur  and  sulphurous  com- 
pounds. 

SOLIDA'GO.     Golden-rod.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Comp6site. 

SOMATE'RIA.     Synonym  with  platypus.     A  genus  of  birds. 

SOPHO'RA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Logurninosae. 

SPAR.   (Germ.  Spath.)  Applied  to  certain  crystallized  mineral  substances,  which 

easily  break  into  cubic,  prismatic,  or  other  forms. 
SPAR'RY.    Of  the  nature  of  spar. 


GLOSSARY.  551 

SPE'CIES.  A  kind ;  a  subdivision  of  genus.  According  to  Dr.  Morton,  a  pri- 
mordial type.  "  An  animal,"  says  Mr.  John  Cassin,  "  which  constantly  per- 
petuates its  kind,  or  in  other  words,  produces  itself  either  exactly  or  within  a 
demonstrable  range  of  variation,  is  a  species."  Extinct  species  is  a  term  ap- 
plied to  those  kinds  of  organized  beings,  whether  plants  or  animals,  which  are 
not  found  living  upon  the  face  of  the  earth. 

SPECI'FIC.     Relating  to  species. 

SPECI'FIC  WEIGHT,  or  SPECI'FIC  GRA'VITY.  The  relative  weight  of  one  body  with 
that  of  another  of  equal  volume. 

SPECIO'SA.     "I 

SPECIO'SUM.    J-     Lat.    Handsome.    A  word  used  as  a  specific  name. 

SPECIO'SUS.   J 

SPE'CULAR  IRON.  A  kind  of  iron  ore  of  granular  structure,  and  metallic  lustre, 
sometimes  shining. 

SPECTA'BILIS.     Lat.    Visible,  remarkable,  notable. 

SPICA'TA.     Lat.     Having  spikes ;  eared  like  corn. 

SPINE'LLE,  or  SPINE'L.  Fr.     A  sub-species  of  ruby. 

SPIRJE'A.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rosdceae. 

SPORES.     The  seeds  of  lichens,  and  cryptdgamous  plants. 

SPOR'ULES.     The  diminutive  of  spores. 

SPCMA'CEOUS.     From  the  Lat.  epunia,  foam.     Foamy. 

STAGMA'RIA.  From  the  Gr.  stagma,  a  drop.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family 
of  Anacardidceae.  Stagma'ria  vernici'flua,  a  tree  of  Sumatra,  from  the  bark 
of  which  exudes  an  extremely  acrid  juice.  This  juice  quickly  dries  in  the 
air,  becomes  black,  and  is  sold  at  a  high  price ;  it  is  employed  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  varnish.  The  Sumatrans  consider  it  dangerous  to  sit  or  sleep  in  the 
shade  of  this  tree. 

STA'MEN.     Lat.     The  male  apparatus  of  a  flower. 

STAPE'LIA.     Proper  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Asclepiddeaj. 

STARCH.  A  vegetable  substance  which  exists  in  many  tuberous  roots,  the  stalks 
of  palms,  and  in  the  seeds  of  the  cereal  grasses. 

STEPPE.  Fr.,  from  the  Lat.  stipes,  a  landmark.  A  term  applied  to  the  savan- 
nas of  Tartary,  of  the  Crimea,  &c.,  and  salt  deserts  of  Northern  Asia.  A 
level  waste,  destitute  of  trees :  a  prairie. 

STI'GMA.     The  superior,  terminating  part  of  the  pistil  of  a  flower. 

STILLIN'GIA  After  Dr.  Stillingfleet.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Euphor- 
biaceaj.  Stilli'  ngia  sebi'fera.  The  tallow  tree  of  China. 

STRA'TA.     Lat.     Plural  of  stratum,  a  layer,  a  bed. 

STRATIFICA'TION.     An  arrangement  in  beds  or  layers. 

STRA'TIFIED.     Arranged  in  strata. 

STRA'TUM.     Lat.     In  Geology,  a  bed  of  sedimentary  rock. 

STRA'TUS.  A  kind  of  cloud :  it  consists  of  horizontal  layers,  and  includes  fogs 
and  mists;  its  under  surface  usually  rests  upon  the  land  or  sea,  and  it  is  there- 
fore the  lowest  of  the  clouds. 

STRELIT'ZIA.  After  Queen  Charlotte,  of  the  family  of  Mecklenburgh  Strelitz. 
A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Musdcese. 

STRI'^E.     Lat.     Diminutive  channels  or  creases. 

STRIA' TA.     Lat.     Striated;  marked  with  striae. 

STRON'TIUM.     A  metalloid  found  in  the  earth  called  strontia. 

STRU'THIO.     Lat.    An  ostrich.     A  genus  of  birds. 

STRU'THIOUS.     Of  the  nature  of  an  ostrich. 

STRYCH'NOS.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Apocy'neae.  Strych'nos  loxi- 
ca'ria.  The  poison  strychnos.  The  Nux  Voinica  is  the  seed  of  a  plant  of 
this  genus. 

STYLE'DIUM.  From  the  Gr.  stulos,  a  column.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family 
of  Stylideas,  found  in  New  Holland. 

SUBLIMA'TION.  The  process  by  which  volatile  substances  are  raised  by  heat,  and 
again  condensed  into  the  solid  form.  The  substances  so  obtained  are  called 
su'blimates. 

SUB'SOIL.    An  under  soil. 

SUBSTBA'TA.    Lat.    Plural  of  sutotratum,  an  under  layer  or  bed. 


552  GLOSSARY. 

SUL'PHURET.  A  compound  of  sulphur  with  another  solid,  as  with  iron,  forming 
sulphurct  of  iron. 

SUL'PHURETTED.  Containing  sulphur;  as,  hydrogen  containing  sulphur,  is 
called  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

SCPE'RBA.    Lat     Superb,  elegant. 

SURIA'NA.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Surianece ;  it  was  formerly  of 
the  Rosdceae. 

SYCOMO'RUS.     Lat    The  Sycamore ;  applied  also  as  a  specific  name. 

SY'ENITE  and  SI'ENITE.  A  granite  rock  from  Syene  or  Siena  in  Egypt  It  con- 
sists of  quartz,  feldspar,  and  hornblende.  It  is  tougher  than  granite. 

SYL'VIA.    Name  of  a  genus  of  birds. 

STNGENE'SIA.  From  the  Gr.  sun,  together,  and  geinomai,  to  grow.  Linnean 
name  of  a  class  of  plants. 

TAC'CA.     Malay.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Aroideae.     Tac'ca  pinna- 

ti'fida.    The  Salep  tree. 
TANG'HINIA.     From  the  Madagascar  name,  TangJiing.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the 

family  of  Apocy'neae.     Tang'hinia  veneni'fiua  yields  an  active  poison  which 

is  used  to  cause  death,  under  judicial  sentence,  by  the  natives  of  Madagascar. 
TANTA'LIUM.     A  metal,  remarkable  for  its  insolubility  in  acids. 
TA'NTALUS.     A  genus  of  birds  of  the  family  of  Herons. 
TARTA'RICA.  Lat.     Belonging  or  relating  to  Tartary. 
TELESCO'PIC.    Relating  to  the  telescope;  telescopic  objects  are  those  which  may 

be  seen  by  the  aid  of  a  telescope. 

TELLU'RIUM.     A  rare  metal,  found  in  the  gold  mines  of  Transylvania. 
TEM'PERATURE.     A  definite  degree  of  sensible  heat 
TEMPORA'RIA.     Lat     Temporary ;  relating  to  time. 
TE'NAX.    Lat    Tenacious. 
TER'MES.     A  genus  of  insects  of  the  order  of  Neuroptera,  and  family  of  Termi- 

tidae.     White  ants. 
TER'RA  JAPO'NICA.     An  astringent  medicinal  gum,  obtained  from  the  Acicia 

ca'techu. 
TER'TIARY  FORMA'TION.   A  series  of  sedimentary  rocks  which  are  superior  to  the 

primary  and  secondary,  and  distinguished  by  the  fossil  remains  found  in  them. 
TESTA'CEJE.     From  testa,  a  shell.     Testdceans ;  animals  provided  with  an  exter- 
nal shelly  cover,  composed  chiefly  of  carbonate  of  lime. 
TESTA'CEOUS.     Consisting  of  carbonate  of  lime  and  animal  matter. 
TESTC'DO.     Lat     Tortoise.     A  genus  of  reptiles  of  the  order  of  Chelo'nians. 
TETRA'CERA.     From   the  Gr.  tettares,  four,   and  keras,  a  horn.     A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  Dillena'ceae. 
TETRA'GONA.    From  the  Gr.  tettares,  four,  andgronu,  a  knee.  Having  four  angles ; 

applied  as  a  specific  name.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Portuliiceso. 
THE'A.  A  genus  of  plants  of  the  tribe  of  Came'lleae.     The' a  bo'hea,  Bohea  tea ; 

The' a  vi'ridis,  Green  tea. 
THE'INE.     The  proximate  principle  of  tea. 

THER'MAL.     From  the  Gr.  thermos,  heat.    Warm  ;  belonging  or  relating  to  heat 
THO'RIUM.    A  metal  obtained  from  Thori'na,  an  earthy  substance. 
THU'IA,  also  THU'JA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Coni'fera?.     Thu'ia 

articula'ta.     Jointed  arbor  vitoe.     T.  orienta'lis  ;  Chinese  arbor  vitse.     T.sa'n- 

darach,  Shittim  wood. 
TI'DAL.    Relating  to  tides.     Tidal  wave  is  the  elevation  of  the  water  of  the 

ocean,  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  moon. 
TILLAND'SIA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  BromeMceee. 
TITA'NIUM.     A  metal  discovered  in  1781,  by  W.  Gregor,  in  a  ferruginous  sand. 
TO'DUB.    Lat    A  t6dy.    Name  of  a  genus  of  birds  of  the  order  of  Passeri'nse. 
TO'PAZ.    A  crystallized  pellucid  mineral,  harder  than  quartz ;  commonly  of  a 

yellow  wine  color,  but  it  also  occurs  white,  blue,  and  brown. 
TO'RSION  BA'LANCE.    See  BALANCE. 
TOU'RMALINE.     A  mineral  substance  consisting  of  a  Bo'ro-fi'licate  of  a'lumine, 

harder  than  quartz,  but  not  as  hard  as  topaz. 


GLOSSARY.  553 

TOURNFO'RTIA.    After  Tournefort.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Borra- 

gi'neae. 
TRA'CHYTE.     From  the  Gr.  trachus,  rough.     A  variety  of  lava.     A  feldspathio 

rock,  which  often  contains  glassy  feldspar  and  hornblende.     When  the  feld- 
spar crystals  are  thickly  and  uniformly  disseminated,  it  is  called  trachy'tic 

por'phyry. 
TRAP.    From  the  Swedish  trappa,  a  flight  of  stairs,  because  trap  rocks  frequently 

occur  in  large  tabular  masses  rising  one  above  another  like  the  successive 

steps  of  a  stair-case.     Applied  to  certain  igneous  rocks  composed  of  feldspar, 

augite,  and  hornblende. 
TRA'PPEAN.    Belonging  to  trap  rocks. 

TREMA'NDRA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Trema'ndrea. 
TRI'AS.     From  the  Lat.  tree,  three.     Synonym  of  the  tri£ssic  system  of  rocks, 

consisting  of  the  Hunter  sandstein,  the  Huschelkalk  and  Keuper,  a  group  of 

sandy  marls  of  variegated  colors. 
TRICHO'MANES.     From  the  Gr.  trichos,  hair,  and   mania,  madness,  excess.    A 

genus  of  plants   of   the   class   of  Cryptoga'mia.     Tricho'manes  brevise'tum. 

Short-styled  trich6manes. 
TRICY'RTIS.     From  the  Gr.  treis,  three,  and  kurtis,  a  sack  or  pouch.     A  genus 

of  plants  of  the  family  of  Melanth&ceae. 
TRIDENTA'TA.     Lat.     Three-toothed ;  having  three  teeth. 
TRIGONOCE'PHALUS.     From  the  Gr.  treis,  three,  gonos,  an  angle,  and  Jcephale, 

head.    A  genus  of  very  venomous  serpents.     Triyonoce'phalus  lanceola'tus. 

Lance-head  viper. 
TRI'LOBITE.    From  the  Lat.  tres,  three,  and  lobus,  lobe.    A  genus  of  fossil  crus- 

t&ceans. 

TRI'ONYX.     From  the  Gr.  treis,  three,  and  onux,  a  nail.     A  genus  of  Chelonians. 
^CRIO'STEUM.     From  the  Gr.  treis,  three,  and  osteon,  a  bone,  a  nut.    A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  CaprifoMcese. 
TC'FA.     Italian.     A  volcanic  rock,  composed  of  an  agglutination  of  fragmented 

scoriae. 
TUNG'STEN.     Swedish.     Heavy  stone.    A  metal  which  is  hard,  white,  brittle,  and 

difficult  to  fuse. 

TU'RDUS.     Lat.     A  thrush.     Name  of  a  genus  of  birds. 
TU'RQUOISE.    A  blue  mineral  found  in  Persia;  its  color  depends  on  the  presence 

of  oxide  of  copper. 

UM'BEL.  A  form  of  inflorescence,  in  which  several  peduncles  expand  so  as  to 
produce  a  flower  somewhat  resembling  a  parasol  when  open. 

UMBELLI'FERJE.  From  umbe'lla,  a  sun-shade,  and  fero,  I  bear.  Name  of  a 
family  of  plants. 

UMBELLI'FEROUS.    Bearing  umbels.    Belonging  or  relating  to  the  Umbelli'ferae. 

UNCINA'TA.     Lat.     From  uncus,  a  hook.     Hooked ;  having  hooks. 

UPHEAV'AL.     The  elevation  of  land  by  earthquakes. 

URANIUM.    A  metal  discovered  by  Klaproth,  in  1789. 

URSI'NCS.     Lat.    Belonging  or  relating  to  bears. 

USNEOI'DES.  From  u'sne,  a  kind  of  lichen,  and  the  Gr.  eidos,  resemblance.  Re- 
sembling the  u'sne. 

U'RENS.    Lat.    Burning. 

VA'CUUM.    From  the  Lat.  vacuus,  empty.    A  portion  of  space  void  of  matter. 

VAGINA'LIS.     Lat.     From  vagina,  a  sheath.     A  genus  of  birds. 

VANA'DIHM.     A  silvery  white  metal,  discovered  originally  by  Del  Rio,  in  1801, 

but  not  admitted  until  1830. 

VANE'SSA.    A  genus  of  butterflies.    Vane'ssa  ca'rdui,  the  painted  lady  butterfly. 
VERONI'CA.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Scrophularfnse. 
VE'RTEBRA.     From  the  Lat.  vertere,  to  turn.     A  joint  or  bone  of  the  spine. 

Ve'rtebral  co'lumn,  is  the  spine  or  back-bone. 
VER'TEBRATE.     Having  vertebrae,  or  a  spine. 
VER'TICOSE.     Whorl-like. 
VENENI'FLUA.    Lat.    Flowing  with  poison. 

47 


554  .     GLOSSARY. 

VERWICI'FLUA.    L&t.    Flowing  with  varnish. 

VER'NIX.     Lat.     Varnish. 

VILLO'SUS.    Lat.    Velvety. 

VI'RIDIS.     Lat.     Green. 

VI'TEX.     Chaste-tree.     A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Verben&ceae. 

VIT'RIFIED.     From  the  Lat  vitrum,  glass.     Converted  into  glass. 

VITULI'NA    From  the  Lat.  vitulus,  a  sea-cajf.     Belonging  or  relating  to  seals. 

VIV'ERRINE.    From  the  Lat.  viverra,  a  ferret  or  civet.    Belonging  or  relating  to 

a  civet. 

VIVI'PARITM.     Lat.     Vivi'parous. 
VOLCA'NIC.     Belonging  or  relating  to  volcanoes. 
VOLTA'IC.    Applied  to  electricity  produced  after  the  manner  of  Volta,  an  Italian 

philosopher. 
Y,UI/TUR  PA'PA.    The  king  of  vultures. 

WA'TERSHED.    The  general  declivity  of  the  face  of  a  country  which  determines 

the  direction  of  the  flowing  of  water. 
WEALD.     Name  of  a  part  of  Kent  and  Surrey  in  England.     The  Wealden  clay 

and  Wealden  deposit  are  found  in  this  part  of  England. 

XANTHOX'YUJM.    From  the  Gr.  xanthos,  yellow,  xulon,  wood.    Tooth-ache  tree. 

A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rut£ceae. 
XERA'NTHEMCM.     From  the  Gr.  xeros,  dry,  and  anthos,  flower.     A  genus  of 

plants  of  the  family  of  Compo'sitae. 

YER'BA  MATE.    Spanish  name  of  the  Ilex  Paraguensis. 

YTT'RIUM.    A  metal  discovered  by  Wb'hler,  in  1828 ;  it  is  of  a  dark  gray  color 

and  brittle. 
TUC'CA.    Adam's  needle.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Lilidceae.    it 

yields  an  esculent  root. 

ZA'MIA.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Cyca'deae. 

ZANNICHE'LLIA.    After  Zannichella,  a  Venetian  apothecary.    Pond  weed.    A 

genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Nai'ades. 
ZIRCO'NITJH.    A  metal  found  in  zirconia,  an  earth,  discovered  by  Klaproth  in 

1789. 
ZI'ZTPHUS.    A  genus  of  plants  of  the  family  of  Rhamni.    Z.  ju'juba,  yields  the 

jujube  fruit. 
ZOSTE'RA.     From  the  Gr.  zoster,  a  riband.     Sea- wrack  grass.    A  genus  of  plants 

of  the  family  of  Fluviales. 
ZOOL'OGY.     From  the  Gr.  zo'on,  an  animal,  and  logos,  a  discourse.     That  branch 

of  Natural  History  which  treats  of  animals. 
ZO'OPHYTE.     From  the  Gr.  zo'on,  an  animal,  and  phuton,  a  plant.     An  animal 

without  vertebras,  or  extremities,  that  attaches  itself  to  solid  bodies,  and  seems 

to  live  and  vegetate  like  a  plant. 


INDEX. 


ABBADIE,  M.  A.  d',  89,  note,  90,  232, 
233,  234,  notes. 

Abyssinia,  89,  90 ;  dimensions  of,  89 ; 
table-land,  89  ;  mountains,  ib. ;  geo- 
logical structure,  90. 

[Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Phi- 
ladelphia, 446,  note.} 

Acidulous  springs,  155. 

Adanson  on  the  age  of  trees,  381,  note. 

Admiralty,  its  encouragement  of  sci- 
ence, 499. 

Afghanistan,  flora  of,  340. 

Africa,  extent  and  area,  86 ;  height  of 
table-land,  ib.;  interior  of  continent, 
87;  width  at  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
ib. ;  western  mountains,  ib. ;  the 
karroos,  88;  western  coast,  ib. ; 
fertile  tract  across  the  continent, 
91 ;  deserts,  91-94 ;  analogy  of 
Southern  Africa  to  the  Deccan,  93  ; 
earthquakes,  156. 

,  rivers  of,  230-236 ;  the  Gariep, 

or  Orange  River,  230;  the  Zambesi, 
t'6. ;  the  Haines,  ib. ;  the  Hawash, 
ib. ;  the  Zaire,  ib. ;  the  Nile,  231- 
234 ;  the  White  Nile,  231 ;  its  afflu- 
ents, ib. ;  the  Blue  Nile,  232;  its 
tributaries,  ib. ;  the  Takkazie,  ib. ; 
Abyssinian  rivers,  ib. ;  course  of  the 
Nile,  233;  its  basin,  ib. ;  velocity, 
234 ;  inundations,  t'6. ;  ancient  re- 
nown of,  ib. ;  the  Niger,  234-236  ; 
barbarous  state  of  its  nations,  235 ; 
its  sources  and  course,  ib. ;  its  afflu- 
ents, ib. ;  its  branches,  ib. ;  inunda- 
tions, ib. ;  the  Gambia,  236 ;  the 
Senegal,  ib. ;  flora  of,  353 ;  birds 
of,  436,  437  ;  quadrupeds  of,  457. 

Agassiz,  M.,  on  a  former  glacier  in 
the  valley  of  Chamouni,  54 ;  on  the 
orders  of  fishes,  407,  note. 

Agouti,  467. 

Agua,  volcano  de,  116. 

Ai,  species  of  sloth,  463. 

Airy,  Mr.  17,  497. 


Alector,  genus  of  birds,  441. 

Alleghanies,  chain  of,  129,  130 ;  area, 
129 ;  scenery,  ib. ;  branches,  130 ; 
vegetation  on,  364. 

Alligators,  424. 

Alpaca,  or  Paco,  465 ;  on  naturaliza- 
tion of,  in  Europe,  ib. 

Alpine  vegetation,  339. 

Alps,  the,  50,  51 ;  Higher  Alps,  their 
extent,  50;  elevation  of  central 
ridge  of,  51 ;  width  of  the  chain, 
ib. ;  flora  of,  334. 

Altai  Mountains,  66-68;  length  and 
breadth  of  the  chain,  66;  form,  t'6. ; 
geology  of,  67,  68. 

Alluvial  deposits  of  rivers,  34. 
[Amazon  river,  252.] 

Amblyrhynchus,  genus  of  reptiles, 
425. 

Amboyna,  its  vegetation,  346. 

America,  length  and  form  of  the  con- 
tinent, 94 ;  its  natural  divisions, 
ib. ;  climate,  ib. ;  mountains,  ib. ; 
mean  height  of,  136. 

,  rivers  of,  246-257;  the   St. 


Lawrence,  246 ;  Arctic  streams, 
ib. ;  the  Mississippi,  247,  248 ;  its 
sources,  247;  tributaries,  ib.,  248; 
the  Missouri,  247;  the  Arkansas, 
ib. ;  the  Red  River,  ib. ;  the  Ohio, 
248 ;  length  of  the  Mississippi,  16. ; 
floods,  248 ;  rivers  of  the  Alleghany 
chain,  249 ;  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, ib.;  Mexican  rivers,  ib.;  rivers 
of  the  Andes,  250 ;  the  Orinoco, 
its  rise  and  course,  251 ;  tributaries, 
ib. ;  area  of  its  basin,  ib. ;  floods, 
ib.;  the  Amazon,  its  rise  and  course, 
252  ;  its  basin,  ib. ;  tributaries,  ib. , 
253 ;  floods,  253  ;  branches,  254  ; 
colour  of  American  rivers,  ib. ;  the 
Rio  de  la  Plata,  its  rise,  ib. ;  tribu- 
taries, ib. ;  length,  ib. ;  floods  and 
inundations,  t'6. ;  the  Colorado,  255 ; 
the  Rio  Negro,  t'6. ;  the  Essequibo, 
(555) 


556 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


ib. ;  navigation  of  South  American 
rivers,  ib. ;  the  Para,  256  ;  the  San 
Francisco,  ib. 

America,  continental  islands  of,  141. 

peopled  from  Asia,  483. 

,    Central,    its    dimensions, 

115;  mountains,  ib. ;  climate  and 
vegetation,  117;  volcanos,  ib. ;  geo- 
logy, 119,  120;  flora,  367. 

-,  North,   its  dimensions  and 


structure,  120 ;  mountains,  120-124, 
129,  130;  plains,  124-129,  130, 131 ; 
progressive  extinction  of  aborigines, 
131 ;  geological  notice,  ib.,  134 ; 
volcanic,  action,  132 ;  fossil  mam- 
malia, ib. ;  analogy  of  the  geology 
of  North  America  with  that  of  Eu- 
rope, 132 ;  mean  height  of  the  con- 
tinent, 136;  coal-fields,  193-195; 
flora  of,  364. 

-,  South,  length  and  width, 


94 ;  its  mountains,  95-106 ;  low 
lands,  106-115;  their  extent  and 
area,  106  ;  geology,  110-115 ;  volca- 
nic remains,  110,  note;  upheavings 
and  subsidences,  112-114;  mean 
height  of  the  continent,  135;  earth- 
quakes, 156 ;  tropical  flora  of,  369. 

American  birds,  438 ;  quadrupeds, 
460;  races  of  man,  473. 

Ammonia  in  the  atmosphere,  267 ;  its 
use  in  vegetation,  321. 

Amphiuma,  419. 

Amucu,  lake,  105. 

Anatolia,  table-land  and  mountains 
of,  57. 

Andes,  chain  of,  94-101 ;  Patagonian 
Andes,  95 ;  Chilian  Andes,  96 ; 
Peruvian  Andes,  ib. ;  fertility  and 
populousness  of,  ib. ;  ancient  civili- 
zation, 97 ;  Bolivian  Andes,  ib.,  98 ; 
three  ranges  of  the  chain,  99 ;  Andes 
of  Cundinamarca  and  Merida,  101 ; 
passes  of  the  Andes,  elevations  of, 
102;  climate  and  temperature,  102, 
103 ;  development  of  volcanic  force 
in  the  Andes,  110,  111 ;  geology  of, 
111-114;  coal  found  in,  112;  vol- 
canic products,  ib. ;  sea-shells  in, 
113;  alternate  elevation  and  de- 
pression of,  113,  114;  volcanos  in 
eruption  in  1835,  114;  Andes  of 
Central  America,  115,  116. 

Aneroid  barometer,  276. 

Angara,  a  Siberian  river,  262. 

Angora  goat,  452. 

[Animals,  distribution  of,  386.] 

Animated  beings,  new  races  of,  ac- 
company great  geological  changes 
in  the  strata,  35  ;  their  ancient  geo- 
graphical distribution,  ib. 


Anjou,  Lieutenant,  his  voyage,  77 

note. 

Anoa,  the,  457. 
Anolis,  genus  of  reptiles,  425. 
Antartic  lands,  167-170;    [discovery 

of,  by  Wilkes,  169.] 
Ant-eaters,  464. 
Antelopes  of  Asia,  455 ;  of  Africa, 

458. 

Antelope  Saiga,  453. 
,  prongbuck,  or  American, 

461. 

Anti-Libanus,  height  of,  84. 
Ants,  402. 

,  white,  their  ravages,  402. 

Antuco,  vegetation  at,  373. 
•,  volcano  of,  111,  note. 


Apennines,  52;  their  extent,  ib. 

Aptenodytes,  southern  penguin,  443 

Apteryx,  anomalous  bird,  444. 

[Apuimac  river,  253.] 

Arabia,  peninsula  of,  82-84 ;  elevation 
of  table-land,  82;  mountains,  84. 

Felix,  83. 

Petrea,  83. 

flora  of,  350. 

Arabians,  471. 

Arago,  M.,  on  the  climate  of  France, 
275,  note;  on  polarized  light,  304. 

Aral,  lake  of,  260,  261. 

Ararat,  Mount,  58-452. 

Araucari,  a  bird,  441. 

Araucaria,  genus  of  plants,  372. 

Arctic  lands,  161-167. 

Ardea  helias,  442. 

Areca  tree  and  nut,  345. 

Argali  sheep,  452. 

Armadilloes,  463. 

Armenia,  plains  of,  58. 

Arrowroot,  370. 

Artesian  wells,  221,  222. 

Articulata,  classes  of,  396,  note. 

Asia,  mean  height  of,  135 ;  volcanos 
of,  154,  155 ;  earthquakes  in,  156. 

,  rivers  of,  236-246;  system  of 

the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  area  of 
its  basin,  236 ;  rise  and  course  of 
the  Euphrates,  ib.;  of  the  Tigris, 
ib. ;  their  junction,  237;  ancient 
and  present  state  of  their  banks, 
ib. ;  the  Indus,  its  sources,  238 ;  its 
tributaries,  ib. ;  its  navigation,  239  ; 
its  delta,  ib. ;  length  and  area,  ib. ; 
the  Ganges  and  Brahmapootra, 
sources  of,  16. ;  their  tributaries, 
240;  length,  ib. ;  inundations,  ib. ; 
branches,  241;  drainage,  ib. ;  the 
Irrawady,  ib.,  242;  the  Menam, 
242  ;  the  Cambodja,  ib. ;  the  Saiing, 
ib. ;  the  Hoang-Ho,  242;  the  Yang- 
tse-Kiang,  ib.;  the  Hong-Kiang,  ib., 


INDEX. 


557 


the  White  River,  16. ;  the  Amur, 
ib.,  244;  the  Lena,  244;  the  Yen- 
essei,  ib. ;  the  Oby  and  Irtish,  245  ; 
great  difference  in  the  inhabitants 
of  the  basins  of  Asiatic  rivers,  245, 
246. 

Asia,  flora  of,  340;  birds  of,  434; 
quadrupeds  of,  453. 

Asp,  Egyptian,  a  snake,  420. 

Ass,  wild,  or  onagra,  453. 

Assal,  lake  of,  263. 

Assam,  Upper,  its  mountains,  65. 

,  tea-plant  in,  343. 

Assyrian  wilderness,  84. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  volcanic  islands  of, 
142;  its  size,  198;  [soundings, 
137.] 

Plain,  130. 

Slope,  130. 

Atlas  mountains,  47. 

Atmosphere  influential  in  modifying 
the  distribution  of  light  and  heat, 
16. 

Atolls,  145-147  ;  description  of,  145 ; 
diameter,  146  ;  atolls  of  the  Pacific, 
147  f  of  the  China  Sea,  ib.  ;  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  ib. ;  great  extent  of 
atolls,  150. 

Auchenia,  genus  of  llamas,  464,  465. 

Auckland  Islands,  flora  of,  376. 

Aurochs,  or  wild  ox,  451. 

Aurora,  the,  310 ;  form  and  height  of, 
ib. ;  effect  on  the  magnetic  needle, 
311. 

Australia,  continent  of,  its  length  and 
breadth,  138 ;  climate,  ib. ;  coasts, 
ib.;  mountain-chain,  16.,  139;  length 
and  average  height  of  mountains, 
138 ;  scarcity  of  water  in  the  inte- 
rior, 139. 

,  rivers  of,  their  insignifi- 
cance, 256,  257;  the  Murray,  257; 
the  Macquarrie,  ib. ;  Swan  River,  ib. 

Australia,  [gold  in,  178;  quantity  of, 
183  ;  fauna  of,  140 ;]  flora  of,  358 ; 
birds  of,  443,  444 ;  quadrupeds  of, 
467;  human  races,  472. 

Axolotl,  a  Mexican  reptile,  419. 

Azerbijan,  452. 

BABBAGE,  Mr.,  on  age  of  peat-mosses, 

381. 

Babiroussa  hog.  456. 
Back,  Sir  George,  498. 
Bahama  Islands,  119. 
Bahr-el-Abiad,  or  White  Nile.    See 

Nile. 
el-Azrek,  or   Blue    Nile.      See 

Nile. 

Baikal  mountains,  66. 
Baily,  Mr.,  20,  and  note. 
47* 


Balkan,  52. 

Baltic  Sea,  its  area,  218;  basin,  ib.; 
depth,  ib. ;  climate,  16.;  influence 
on  European  civilization,  484,  485. 

[Banana,  366,  note.] 

[Bangkok,  situation  of,  242,  note.] 

Batara,  the,  437. 

Barbican,  a  genus  of  birds,  437. 

Baring,  Sir  Francis,  497. 

Barley,  origin  and  cultivation  of,  378. 

Barometer, use  in  determining  heights, 
276  ;  aneroid,  ib. ;  horary  variations 
of,  277;  how  affected  by  storms, 
285. 

Barren  Ground,  the,  of  North  Ame- 
rica, 130. 

Barrier-reefs:  notice  of  one  off  the 
north-east  coast  of  Australia,  148. 

Batracians,  an  order  of  reptiles,  418 ; 
their  distribution,  t'6. 

Bear,  452,  453. 

,  the  grizzly,  461. 

Beaufort,  Admiral,  Sir  Francis.  498. 

Beaumont,  M.  Elie  de,  extension  of 
Von  Buch's  views,  40,  note ;  on 
mountain  systems,  42,  note  ;  paral- 
lelism of  contemporary  chains,  45; 
on  the  mountain  system  of  Europe, 
ib.,  note. 

Beechey,  Captain,  his  measurement 
of  the  height  of  the  Nevado  of 
Aconcagua,  96. 

Bees,  distribution  of,  401. 

Beke,  Dr.,  travels  in  Africa,  90. 

Beloot  Tagh,  or  Cloudy  Mountains, 
60. 

Benguela,  88. 
,[Beni,  river,  253.] 

Ben  Nevis,  its  elevation,  72. 

Besborough,  Earl  of,  497. 

Bessel,  M.,  his  measurement  of  the 
earth  s  radii,  17;  his  results  com- 
pared with  those  of  Mr.  Airy,  ib. ; 
with  Colonel  Sabine's,  18,  note. 

Birds,  classification  of,  427 ;  geogra- 
phical distribution  of,  429;  migra- 
tion of,  428;  gregarious,  432;  Bri- 
tish, ib. ;  European,  429  ;  Asiatic, 
434;  African,  436;  North  Ameri- 
can, 438;  South  American,  440; 
Australian.  443;  of  New  Zealand, 
444 ;  fossil,  from  New  Zealand, 
445  ;  [collection  of,  in  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia, 
446,  note.] 

Bison,  the,  a  species  of  ox,  461. 

Black  Sea,  its  area,  218;  basin,  ib.  i 
depth,  ib. 

Blue  Mountains,  118. 

Boa,  a  genus  of  serpents,  422. 

Boar,  wild,  451. 


558 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Bonbon,  plain,  its  height,  99. 

Borax,  lakes  of,  in  Tibet,  69,  262. 

Borneo,  general  features,  products, 
and  climate  of,  144  ;  population  of, 
472. 

Boue,  M.,  his  deductions  from  a  com- 
parison of  different  parts  of  the 
land,  44 ;  nature's  fundamental 
types  few,  ib. ;  interruptions  in  con- 
tinents and  mountain-chains,  46 ; 
Scandinavian  mountain  system,  71. 

,  Dr.,  on  the  influence  of  chains 

of  mountains  on  the  difference  of 
nations,  484. 

Brazil,  table-land,  its  height  and  form, 
105 ;  boundaries,  ib. ;  mountain- 
chains  ,  ib.;  soil,  106  ;  flora  of,  369 ; 
insects  of,  401. 

Brienz,  lakes  of,  259. 

Britain,  flora  of,  338. 

British  mountains,  geology  of,  73. 

British  population,  478. 

Brooke,  Sir  J.,  at  Borneo,  495. 

Buch,  Von,  the  structure  of  the  globe, 
40,  note;  notice  of  mountains  in 
Germany,  45 ;  classification  of 
islands,  141,  142;  boundary  of  the 
Australian  continent,  143. 

Bunsen,  Chevalier,  on  the  antiquity 
of  the  Egyptian  dynasties,  480. 

Buphaga,  a  genus  of  birds,  437. 

CAAMA  antelope,  458. 

Cabiai,  myopotamus,  467. 

Cachalot,  or  spermaceti  whale,  414. 

Caecilia?,  genus  of  reptiles,  420. 

Calbongos,  88. 

Camel,  Bactrian,  454 ;  Arabian,  or 
dromedary,  455. 

Camellia,  country  of,  342. 

Campbell's  Island,  377. 

Campos  Parecis,  desert  of,  106. 

Canadas,  the,  products,  128 ;  ice- 
storms,  ib. ;  waste-land,  129. 

[Canals,  in  the  United  States,  248.] 

Cape  Negro,  88. 

Cape  pigeons,  or  pintadoes,  428. 

Cariama,  a  gallinaceous  bird,  441. 

Caribbean  Sea,  220. 

Caroline  Archipelago,  147. 

Carpathian  mountains,  50. 

Carnivorous  quadrupeds,  448. 

Cashmere,  flora  of,  330. 

— goat,  454. 

Casius,  Mount,  height  of,  84. 

Caspian  Sea,  its  depression,  74. 

,  260. 

Cassican,  genus  of  birds,  436. 

Cassowary,  436. 

Caucasus,  the,  57 ;  flora  of,  329,  330, 
note. 


Caucasian  race  of  mankind,  471  ;  its 
distribution,  472. 

Cavendish,  Mr.,  20. 

Ccbus,  an  American  monkey,  463. 

Celtic  races  of  man,  476. 

Cerealia,  geographical  distribution  of, 
379.. 

Cereopsis,  an  Australian  bird,  444. 

Cerro  Duida,  height  of,  104. 

Cetacea,  division  of,  412.- 

Ceylon,  island  of,  81 ;  flora  of,  350. 

Chameleons,  425. 

Chamois,  451,  453. 

Charpentier,  M.,  his  measurement 
of  the  base  of  the  Pyrenees,  135, 
note. 

Cheetah,  the  hunting  leopard,  455. 

Cheiromys,  or  Aye-Aye,  an  anoma- 
lous animal,  460. 

Cheiroptera,  or  bats,  448. 

Chelonians,  or  turtles,  426. 

Chelydae,  426. 

Cherokee  Indians,  493. 

Chile,  its  climate,  96  ;  group  of  vol- 
canic vents,  110;  rise  of  the  coast, 
114;  vegetation  of,  373. 

Chilian,  volcano  of,  111,  note. 

Chimpanzee,  456,  459. 

China,  great  productiveness  of,  79 ; 
area  of  its  alluvial  plain,  ib. ;  extent 
of  Great  Canal  of,  ib. ;  climate,  ib.  ; 
fire-hills  and  fire-springs  of,  155 ; 
flora  of,  342. 

Chinchilla,  467. 

Chinese  empire,  extent  of  mountains 
in,  61. 

population,  472. 

Chionis,  an  antarctic  bird,  443. 

Chiquisaca,  98. 

Chlamyphores,  464. 

Choco,  chain  of,  101. 

[Christians,  number  of,  470.] 

[Cicada  septendecem,  399.] 

Cinchona,  or  Peruvian-bark  tree,  332, 
370. 

Circassians,  471. 

Civilization,  effects  of,  474  ;  greatest 
in  the  vicinity  of  the  sea,  492. 

Climate  during  the  Eiocene  period, 
30 ;  excessive  cold  of  the  Pliocene 
period,  32. 

altered  by  cultivation,  486. 

Clouds,  formation  and  height  of,  292 ; 
different  names  given  to,  ib. 

Coal,  diffusion  of,  190-195;  quantity 
consumed  and  exported  annually  by 
Great  Britain,  192,  note;  quantity 
produced  in  France  in  1841,  193; 
quantity  raised  in  one  year,  ib., 
note;  [quantity  in  several  countries, 
193,  note;]  annual  value  of  coal,  495. 


INDEX. 


559 


Coalfields,  great  extent  of,  37. 

Coasts,  extent  and  form  of,  41 ;  com- 
parative extent  of,  in  the  four  quar- 
ters of  the  globe,  41. 

Cobra  capello,  or  hooded  snake,  420. 

Coca  (Erythroxylon),  372. 

Cochineal  insect,  401. 

Coffee-plant,  and  history  of,  351 ; 
[production  of,  352 ;  composition, 
».] 

Cold,  regions  where  greatest,  272. 

Colima,  volcanic  cone,  122. 

Colobus,  genus  of  Lemuridae,  459. 

Colombian  Archipelago.  See  West 
Indian  Islands. 

[Combustion,  267,  note.'] 

[Comets,  list  of,  15,  note.] 

Condor,  the,  440. 

Confervae,  family  of  plants,  §85. 

Continent,  the  great,  form  of,  47 ;  its 
high  lands.  48-70 ;  European  moun- 
tains, 48-56  ;  Asiatic,  56-70 ;  ex- 
tent and  breadth  of  high  land  be- 
tween the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Pacific,  56 ;  Great  Northern  Plain, 
71-78 ;  area  of  high  land,  74 ;  south- 
ern low  lands,  78-85 ;  great  extent 
of  desert,  93 ;  continental  islands 
of,  142. 

Continents,  forces  that  raised  them, 
their  mode  of  action,  38 ;  area  of 
the  great  continent,  39 ;  relative 
extent  of  continents  and  islands, 
ib. ;  elevation  of  continents,  42 ;  in- 
terruptions in,  46  ;  mean  height  of, 
134-136. 

Continental  islands  described,  141. 

Copper,  diffusion  of,  187-190;  [in  the 
United  States,  187.] 

Coral  formations,  four  kinds  of,  145. 

reefs,  148. 

Coringa,  in  India,  287. 

Cotopaxi,  height  of,  100. 

[Cotton  plant,  349.] 

Coucals,  genus  of  birds,  436. 

Couroucou,  species  of  bird,  436,  441. 

Crater  of  elevation,  definition  of,  50, 
note. 

Crax  (alector),  441. 

Crime,  decrease  of,  by  education,  506. 

Crocodiles  in  .general,  423 ;  of  the 
Nile,  ib. ;  of  the  Ganges,  16. 

Cryptogamia,  327. 

Cuba,  area  and  coast-line,  119;  height 
of  its  mountains,  ib. 

Culture,  its  influence  on  the  human 
form,  482,  483. 

Currents,  causes  of,  207-209 ;  [theory 
of,  206 ;]  direction  and  velocity, 

208,  209 ;   great  oceanic  currents, 

209,  210;  Gulf-stream,  210;  breadth 


of  currents,  ib. ;  counter-currents, 
211 ;  periodical  currents,  ib. ;  effect 
of  currents  on  voyages,  212. 

Cusco,  city,  98;  reliques  of  the  In- 
cas,  99. 

Gush,  or  land  of  Ethiopia,  479. 

Cutch,  Run  of,  82. 

Cuvier,  Baron,  31,  33,*498. 

DAMAN,  or  Hyrax,  459. 
Dangerous  Archipelago,  147. 
Daouria  mouutains,  67. 
-,  flora  of,  337. 


Darwin,  Mr.,  his  speculations  on  per- 
fect animals  found  buried  in  Sibe- 
ria, 33 ;  his  '  Travels  in  South  Ame- 
rica' quoted,  113,  114;  on  Aconca- 
gua Peak,  289 ;  on  red  water  on 
the  coast  of  Chile,  405  ;  on  reptiles 
of  Galapagos,  425. 

Dasyurus,  a  genus  of  carnivora,  468. 

Da  Vinci,   Leonardo,   his   hydrauli 
operations,  229,  note. 

Davy,  Sir  Humphry,  his  discovery  of 
metalloids,  171  andnote;  his  safety- 
lamp,  176,  note. 

Day  aud  night,  duration  of,  16. 

Dead  Sea,  depression  of,  85,  and  note; 
[analysis  of  water  of,  261,  note.] 

Decandolle,  M.  on  botanical  regions, 

392,  note;  on  growth  of  trees,  380; 

age  of  trees,  381,  note. 
Deccan,  table-land  of,  81 ;  its  height 

and  composition,  ib. ;  structure,  ib. ; 

soil,  ib. 

Deer,  Asiatic,  455. 
De  la  Beche,  Sir  Henry,  on  metalli. 

ferous  deposits,  173,  498. 
Dembia  lake,  263. 
Deodara  pine,  341. 
Desaguedero,  table-land  or  valley  of, 

its  dimensions,  97 ;  its  area,  98. 
[Diamagnetism,  317.] 
Dicotyledonous  plants,  327. 
[Dimensions  of  the  earth,  16,  note.] 
Dinornis,  a  fossil  bird,  445. 
Dip  of  the  horizon,  17,  18. 
Distance  estimated  from  known  height 

of  an  object,  18. 
[Distribution  of  animals,  386.] 
Dodo,  an  extinct  bird,  444. 
Dogs,  American,  461. 
Dolphins,  414. 
Domestic  animals,  number  of  species, 

488. 
Donny,    M.,    his    experiments    with 

boiling  water,  165,  166. 
Douglas,  Mr.,  his  account  of  an  erup- 
tion of  the  volcano  of  Kirawah  in 

1834,  153. 


560 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Dove,  Professor,  on  mean  tempera- 
tures, 273. 

Dragon  lizard,  424. 

Dry  River,  87. 

Dugong,  the,  413. 

Dureau  de  la  Malle,  M.,  on  the  cli- 
mate of  Italy,  275,  note. 

Dzeran  goat,  454. 

Dziggetai,  the,  453. 

EARTH,  the,  its  insignificance  in  space, 
13,  14 ;  its  internal  fires,  ib. ;  insta- 
bilit  y  of  its  shell,  14 ;  changes  which 
have  brought  about  its  present  state, 
15 ;  its  future  destruction,  ib. ;  its 
position  in  the  solar  system,  14, 
note;  its  distance  from  the  sun,  14 ; 
its  annual  and  diurnal  revolutions, 
16 ;  inclination  of  its  axis,  ib. ;  its 
relative  magnitude,  ib. ;  its  figure 
and  density  deduced  from  the  per- 
turbations in  the  motions  of  the 
moon,  t'6. ;  its  curvature,  17;  modes 
of  determining  its  form  and  size, 
17,  18;  its  radii,  ib. ;  its  circumfer- 
ence and  diameter,  ib. ;  experiment 
to  ascertain  the  value  of  its  mass, 
19  ;  its  mean  density,  t'6. ;  increase 
in  density  towards  the  centre,  20 ; 
constitution  of  its  surface,  ib. ;  an 
idea  of  its  structure  obtained  from 
mining,  t'6. ;  its  antiquity,  34 ;  un- 
equal arrangement  of  land  and  wa- 
ter, 38 ;  ancient  internal  action, 
136. 

Earthquakes,  156-160;  causes  of,  156; 
propagation  of  the  shock,  t'6. ;  effect 
on  the  sea,  157 ;  elevation  of  the 
ground,  t"6. ;  sound  of  the  explosion, 
rate  of  progression  of,  158 ;  velo- 
city of  the  great  oceanic  wave,  t'6. ; 
comparative  destructiveness  of 
earthquakes,  159 ;  frequency  of 
small  shocks,  t'6. ;  extent  of  undu- 
lations, t'6. ;  rapidity  of  destruction, 
159,  160;  partial  shocks,  160;  ef- 
fects of  earthquakes  on  the  confi- 
guration of  the  country,  t6. 

Eagles,  429. 

East  India  Company,  its  encourage- 
ment of  science,  499,  note.  , 

Echidna,  469. 

Edentata,  449 ;  South  American,  463. 

Egede,  M.,  on  sea-serpents,  422. 

Egeria,  planet,  15. 

Ehrenberg,  M.,  microscopic  shells 
discovered  by,  36. 

Eider  duck,  the,  441. 

Eiocene  period,  the  globe  and  its  in- 
habitants during,  30. 

Elbruz,  elevation  of,  57. 


Electricity  in  general,  305 ;  of  the  at- 
mosphere, t'6. 

Elephants,  fossil,  multitudes  of,   in 
Siberia,  36,  244,  note. 

,  Asiatic,  455 ;  African,  459. 


Elk,  the,  451. 

Elliot,  Mr.  Alexander,  his  expedition 
to  the  sources  of  the  Ganges,  239. 

El- Teh,  desert  of,  83. 

Eltonsk,  lake  of,  260. 

Emigration,  its  effects  in  Great  Bri- 
tain, 495. 

Emu,  Australian  cassowary,  444. 

Emys,  fresh-water  tortoise,  426. 

Encircling  reefs,  147. 

England,  earthquakes  in,  156 ;  its 
coalfields,  191,  192. 

Equator,  protuberant  matter  at,  in- 
fluences and  is  influenced  by  the 
moon's  motion,  18,  note. 

Erebus,  Mount,  168. 

Erie,  lake,  264. 

Erman,  M.,  on  evaporation,  290. 

Espenhafo,  chain  of,  105. 

Esquimaux,  472. 

Ethiopian  races,  473. 

Etna,  manner  of  its  explosions,  155. 

Europe,  mean  height  and  area  of,  135. 

European  mountains,  frequency  of 
deep  lakes  in,  51 ;  geological  no- 
tice, 55,  56. 

Evaporation  in  different  regions,  289, 
290. 

FACTORY  labour,  506. 

Falkland  Islands,  vegetation  of,  375. 

Faraday,  Dr.,  on  auroras,  311 ;  on 
magnetic  properties  of  matter,  317. 

Fennec,  460. 

Feroe  islands,  72. 

Fichtelberge,  area  of,  50. 

Fins,  the,  477. 

Fire,  subterranean  lakes  of  liquid,  14 ; 
volcanic,  its  agency  in  the  forma- 
tion of  rocks,  20,  21. 

Firefly,  the,  401. 

Fishes,  geographical  distribution,  408; 
skeletons  of,  407,  note ;  migration 
of,  410;  fresh-water,  411. 

Fitzroy,  Captain,  265,  482,  494. 

Floras  of  different  countries,  331. 

Fogs,  how  produced,  291. 

Fonseca  Gulf,  265. 

Forbes,  Professor  E.,  on  British  fauna 
and  flora,  32,  note;  on  primary 
floras,  331 ;  on  Egean  fuci,  383  ;  on 
the  influence  of  depth  on  marine 
animals,  405;  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean, 406. 

,  Professor  James,  on  glaciers, 

55. 


INDEX. 


561 


Formosa,  population  of,  472. 

Fossil  remains,  immense  quantity  of, 

36,  37. 

Foulahs,  an  African  nation,  473. 
Fourier's  theory  of  central  heat,  269. 
Fox,  the,  451. 
,  Mr.,  on  metalliferous  deposits, 

173. 
France,    its    high  lands,  49 ;    mean 

height   of   its    flat   provinces,   74 ; 

mean  elevation  of,  134,  135. 
Franklin,  Sir  John,  498. 
Fringillidae,  genus  of  birds,  433. 
Frogs,  418. 

Fuci,  or  sea-weeds,  384. 
Fuego,  volcano  del,  116. 
Future  state,  a  universal  belief  in, 

483. 

GALAGO,  genus  of  Lemuridas,  460. 
Galapagos  islands,  flora  of,  363  ;  birds 

of,  442 ;  mollusca  of,  407. 
Ganges,  valley  of  the,  80. 
Gardner,  Mr.,  his  computation  of  the 

extent  of  dry  land,  39,  note. 
Gay  Lussac,  M.,  39,  note. 
Gaye,  M.  Claude,  his  '  Historia  Na- 
tural de  Chile,'  373,  note. 
Gecko,  a  species  of  lizard,  425. 
Gems,  diffusion  of,  195-197. 
Geneva,  lake  of,  259. 
Geography,  physical  definition  of,  13  ; 
effects  of  the  intellectual  superiority 
of  man  among  its  most  important 
subjects,. ib. ;  connexion  between  it 
and  geological  structure  of  coun- 
tries, 44. 

Geology,  outline  of,  20-37. 
Georgian  race,  471. 
Gerard,  Captain,  his  estimate  of  the 
mean  height  of  the  Himalaya,  62 ; 
notices  of  its  vegetation,  64;  snow- 
line,  65;    height  of  the  snow-line 
on  mountains  of  Middle  Asia,  136, 
note. 

Gerboa,  or  Jerboa,  453. 
Geysers,  165,  166 ;  Great  Geyser, 

165 ;  Strokr,  ib. 
Giant  petrel,  442. 
Gibbon,  a  genus  of  monkeys,  456. 
Gibraltar,  Strait,  depth  of,  47. 
Gipsies,  number  of,  478,  note. 
Giraffe,  458. 

Glaciers,  53,  54;  their  rate  of  motion 
in  the  Alps,  53;  their  composition, 
54  ;  their  enormous  pressure,  ib. 
[Glossary,  517.] 
Glutton,  451. 
Goatsuckers,  433. 

Gobi,  Great,  area  and  elevation  of, 
70;  climate,  ib. ;  mean  height,  135. 


Gobi,  desert  of,  262. 

Gold,  diffusion  of,  177-184 ;  [quantity 
of,  in  Australia,  183;  in  California, 
184.] 

Gonung-Api,  volcanic  island  of,  151. 

Gothard,  St.,  pass  of,  51. 

Gough's  Island,  423,  note. 

Grampian  hills,  72. 

Grampus,  414. 

Gran  Chaco,  desert  of,  107. 

Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,  height  of,  52. 

Gravitation,  variations  in  its  inten- 
sity, 19. 

Great  Central  Plain  of  North  Ame- 
rica. See  Mississippi,  valley  of. 

Great  Northern  Plain,  74-78;  Us  soil, 
74,  75  ;  geology,  78. 

Grecian  mountains,  52,  53. 

Greeks,  471. 

Green,  Mr.,  39,  note. 

Greenland,  161,  162;  flora  of,  363. 

Greenwich  Observatory,  497. 

[Grinnell  Land,  170.] 

Guacharo,  the,  440. 

Guan,  a  gallinaceous  bird,  441. 

Guanaco,  465. 

Guasacualco  river,  264. 

Guatemala,  table-land  of,  116;  ferti- 
lity, ib. ;  elevation,  ib. ;  volcanos,  ib. 

Guiana,  flora  of,  370. 

,  North,  89. 

Guinea,  New,  its  size,  144;  height 
of  its  mountains,  ib. 

Gulf  of  Mexico,  220. 

Gurla,  mountain  of,  262. 

HAIL,  how  formed,  298. 

Haiti  (San  Domingo) ,  dimensions, 
118;  its  mountains,  ib. 

Halos,  302,  303. 

Harmattan,  the,  282. 

Haudramant,  depth  of  loose  sand  in, 
83;  tradition  concerning,  16. 

Hebrides,  72. 

Heckla,  Mount,  164. 

Hedgehog,  451. 

Heights  of  places,  table  of,  509. 

Helena,  St.,  314. 

Hermite  Island,  375. 

Herschel,  Sir  John,  on  the  earth's 
orbit,  268;  on  cause  of  revolving 
storms,  279. 

Himalaya  chain,  61 ,  62 ;  general  struc- 
ture, 62;  mean  height,  16. ;  height 
of  its  peak,  ib. ;  passes  of,  63 ;  cli- 
mate, 64;  range  of  vegetation,  ib. ; 
geology  of,  65. 

Hindoo  Coosh,  62,  316 ;  passes  of,  63. 

Hindustan,  plains  of,  their  extent.  80, 
peninsula,  ib. 

Hippelaphus  of  Aristotle,  457. 


562 


PHYSICAL    GEOGBAPHY. 


Hippopotamus,  459. 
Holland,  depression  of,  74. 
Hooker,  Sir  William  J.,  498. 

,  Dr.  J.  D.,  on  marine  plants, 

382,  note  ;  on  Antarctic  algae,  385. 
Hopkins,  Mr.,  his  theory  of  fissures, 
46 ;   on  the  internal  state  of  the 
globe,  269,  note. 

Horeb,  Mount  (Jebel  Houra),  83. 
Horizon,  its  dip,  17,  18. 
Horse,  455;    varieties  of,   tb.,   462; 

fossil,  452. 

Houtias,  a  gnawing  animal,  467. 
Hughes,  Colonel,  survey  of  Isthmus 

of  Panama,   115,  note. 
Human  races,  471 ;    permanency  of 
type,  479 ;  discrepancy  of  their  co- 
lour, 480. 

Human  constitution,  its  flexibility, 481. 

Humboldt,  Baron,  his  '  Cosmos,'  vii.; 

on  the  inclination  of  the  Peak  of 

Teneriffe,  43 ;  estimate  of  the  mean 

height  of  the  Himalaya,  62;  on  the 

silvas  of  the  Amazons,  108,  109 ; 

on  the  influence  of  table-lands  and 

mountains  on  the  mean  height  of 

continents,  134;  estimate  of  height 

of  mean  crest  of  the  Pyrenees,  135, 

note;    measurements    of    highest 

peaks  and  mean  heights  of  several 

mountain-chains,  136,  note;  notice 

of  an  earthquake  at  Riobamba  in 

1797,    159 ;    his  statement  of  the 

quantity  of    the    precious    metals 

brought  to  Europe  from  America, 

185 ;  on  river-floods,  226. 

Humming-birds,  441. 

Hunter,  John,  498. 

Huron,  lake,  264. 

Hurricanes,  283 ;  hurricane  in  Ireland 

in  1839,  284. 
Hyoena,  Asiatic  species,  455 ;  African 

species,  460. 

Hydraulic  systems  of  Europe,  227- 
230 ;  divisions,  228  ;  system  of  the 
Volga,  ib. ;  the  Danube,  ib. ;  origin 
of  the  application  of  hydraulics  to 
rivers,  229 ;  system  of  Britain,  229, 
230. 
Hydrogen,  influence  on  vegetation, 

322. 
Hydrographic  Office,  Admiralty,  498, 

note. 

Hygea,  planet,  15,  note. 
Hygrometer,  289,  note. 
Hyla,  or  tree-frog,  418. 
Hyrax,  or  daman,  459. 
,     Hyrcanian  mountains,  50. 

IBEX,  or  wild  goat,  451. 

Ibis,  the  sacred   438 ;  the  red,  442. 


Ice,  quantity  in  the  Alps,  53 ;  rivers 
of,  ib. 

Ice,  polar,  214-217;  area  of,  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  214  ;  north  polar  ice, 
t'6. ;  packed  ice,  214,  215,  216;  ice- 
bergs, 215-217  ;  colours  of  ice,  216. 

Ice  Mountains,  68. 

Iceland,  163-167  :  ice-clad  mountains, 
163;  glaciers,  16. ;  desert,  163;  vol- 
canos,  164 ;  eruptions,  ib. ;  geysers, 
165,  166 ;  fiords,  166 ;  products,  t'6. ; 
climate,  ib.;  storms,  167. 

Ichneumon,  a  carnivorous  quadruped, 
452. 

India,  flora  of,  340,  341. 

Indian  Archipelago,  islands  of,  144 ; 
their  importance,  144,  145;  surveys 
of  their  coasts,  t'6. ;  flora  of,  345. 

Indian  desert,  82. 

[Indians,  number  of,  in  the  United 
States,  493,  note.'] 

Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  79 ;  its  po- 
pulation, 472. 

Insects,  geographical  distribution  of, 
396 ;  number  of,  j'6. ;  division  into 
families,  ib.,  note;  destruction  of, 
397,  note  ;  migration  of,  402. 

Iran,  plateau  of.    See  Persia. 

Ireland,  its  scenery,  72,  73 ;  coal  dis- 
tricts, 192. 

Iron,  diffusion  of,  190,  191 ;  quantity 
manufactured  in  Britain  in  1848, 
192,  note;  uses,  193,  note;  value  of, 
in  France,  in  1838,  ib. ;  [quantity 
produced  by  several  countries,  193, 
note.} 

Isatis  fox,  461. 

Islands,  their  relative  extent  to  that 
of  the  continents,  39;  classification 
of,  141-143. 

Isothermal  lines,  273. 

Itambe,  mountain,  height  of,  105. 

JACKAL,  460. 

Jaguar,  or  American  tiger,  462,  464. 

Jamaica,  its  area,  118;  mountains 
t'6. ;  extent  of  coast,  j'6. ;  tempera 
ture,  ib. 

Jan  Mayen,  island,  167. 

Japan,  flora- of,  341,  342. 

Japanese,  472. 

Java,  volcanos  of,  151,  152;  height 
of  volcanic  mountains,  151 ;  de- 
struction of  a  mountain  in  1772, 
152 ;  character  of  the  coast.  16. ; 
"Valley  of  Death,"  155. 

Jebel  Houra,  83. 

Okkdar,  height  of,  82. 

Jewish  population  of  Europe,  477. 

Johnston,  Mr.  Keith,  his  Physical 
Atlas,  44,  note. 


I  N  D  K  X. 


563 


Jordan,  valley  of,  its  fertility,  85 ;  its 
depression,  ib. 

Jordan,  river,  259. 

Jorullo,  volcanic  cone,  its  sudden  ap- 
pearance, 122. 

Jukes,  Mr.,  his  description  of  the 
rolling  of  the  billows  along  the 
great  Australian  barrier-reef,  148. 

Jura,  elevation  of,  51. 

KAILAS  Peak,  262. 

Kalmuks,  472. 

Kamichi,  a  gallinaceous  bird,  441. 

Kamtchatka,  flora  of,  336. 

Kangaroo,  468. 

Kangaroo  rat,  468. 

Kelat,  elevation  of,  59. 

Kerguelen  Land,  vegetation  of,  377. 

Keyserling,  Count,  68,  note. 

Khing-han  mountains,  61. 

Kiang,  wild  ass  of  Tibet,  453. 

Kilimanjaro,  the,  89. 

Kingfishers,  433. 

Kinkajou,  the,  462. 

Kirawah,  volcano  of,  153 ;   irruption 

in  1834,  ib. 

Kirghiz,  steppes  of,  76. 
Koko-nor  lake,  262. 
Kombst's  ethnographic  map,  478,  note. 
Kosciusko,  mount,  height  of,  138. 
Kourdistan  mountains,  58. 
Kuenlun  (or  Chinese)  mountains,  61, 

68,  69. 

Kunchinjunga  mountain,  18. 
Kurile  Islands,  volcanic  vents  of,  153. 

LACCADIVE  Archipelago,  147. 

Ladak,  337. 

Ladoga,  lake  of,  258. 

Lagoons  and  Lagoon  Islands,  theories 
of  their  formation,  149,  150,  and 
note.  See  Atolls. 

Land,  dry,  its  area,  38;  its  proportion 
to  the  ocean,  ib.;  relative  quantity 
in  the  northern  and  southern  hemi- 
spheres, 39  ;  unexplored,  ib. ;  area 
of,  in  the  various  continents,  ib. ; 
polar  lands,  ib. ;  tendency  of  land 
to  assume  a  peninsular  ibrm,  40; 
changes  in  its  level,  160,  161. 

Languages  varying,  474  ;  number  of, 
ib. ;  derivation  and  comparison  of, 
ib.;  affinity,  475,  note;  spoken  in 
Britain,  478. 

La  Paz,  city,  98. 

Lapland,  flora  of,  336. 

Lasistan  mountains,  59. 

[Latent  heat,  277.] 

Latitude,  sine  of,  18,  note. 

Layard,  Mr.,  his  antiquarian  re- 
searches, 237,  note. 


Lead,  diffusion  of,  185,  186;  [in  the 
United  States,  186.] 

Lebanon,  mountains  of,  84. 

Leithart,  Mr.,  172,  note. 

Lemurs,  456,  460. 

Leon  or  Managua,  lake  of,  265. 

Leopard,  455,  460. 

Leslie,  Sir  John,  301,  note. 

Lewy,  Professor,  196,  note;  267,  note. 

Life,  duration  of,  in  different  classes 
of  society,  507. 

Light,  composed  of  different  rays, 
300 ;  its  properties,  ib. ;  absorbed 
by  the  atmosphere,  ib. ;  polarised, 
303,  304 ;  influence  on  vegetation, 
322. 

Lightning,  307. 

Lion,  the,  460. 

Litako,  in  South  Africa,  494. 

Lizards,  424. 

Llama,  464 ;  on  its  naturalization  in 
Europe,  465. 

Llanos  of  the  Orinoco  and  Venezuela, 
109,  110;  area  of,  109;  character, 
{6.;  climate,  110;  floods  and  con- 
flagrations, ib. ;  temperature,  ib. 

Locusts,  flights  of,  402. 

Locks  on  canals,  early  use  of,  229 ; 
their  application  by  Leonardo  da 
Vinci,  ib. 

Lophophorus,  a  bird,  435. 

Lop  lake,  262. 

Lorie,  a  genus  of  parrots,  436. 

London,  Alex.,  Esq.,  account  of  the 
"  Valley  of  Death,"  in  Java,  155, 
156. 

Loxa,  mountain-knot  of,  99. 

Lucerne,  lake  of,  259. 

Lyell,  Sir  Charles,  his  theory  of  me- 
tamprphic  rocks,  21 ;  division  of 
tertiary  strata,  29 ;  on  the  Alle- 
ghany  mountains,  129';  on  the  fos- 
siliferous  rocks  of  northern  Europe, 
132;  on  the  coalfields  of  North 
America,  194,  195 ;  on  mollusca  in 
the  temperate  zones,  407 ;  on  the 
number  of  existing  species  of  ani- 
mals, 469, 

Lynch,  Lieut.,  85,  259. 

Lynx,  the,  451. 

MAcCoRMicK,  Robert,  his  descrip- 
tion of  the  first  view  of  Victoria 
Land,  168. 

Mace-plant,  346. 

Madagascar,  88 ;  fauna  of,  460  ;  inha- 
bitants of,  473. 

Mageroe  Island,  297. 

Maggiore  lake,  259. 

Magnetism,  311. 

Magnetic  poles  of  the  earth,  312. 


564 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Magnetic  intensity,  force  of,  312. 

variation  of  declination,  314. 

needle,  hourly  variation  of, 

314. 

•  storms,  315. 

force,  lines  of  equal,  315, 

316. 

Magnolias,  region  of,  365. 

Maize,  or  Indian  corn,  origin  and  cul- 
ture of,  368,  379. 

Malabar,  extent  and  height  of  its 
mountains,  181. 

Malaguti,  M.,  200,  note. 

Malayan  races  of  man,  472. 

Maldive  Archipelago,  its  dimensions, 
147 ;  size  of  its  atolls,  ib. 

Malurus,  437. 

Mammalia,  division  into  groups,  447, 
448 ;  geographical  distribution,  449 ; 
migration  of,  ib. ;  instinct  of,  ib. 

Man,  division  into  races,  471 ;  his  in- 
fluence on  the  material  world,  486. 

Manasa,  or  Manasarowar,  lakes  of, 
69,  262,  453. 

Manatus,  or  lamantin,  413. 

Manchouria,  79,  342. 

Manfredi  on  the  rate  of  rise  in  the  bed 
of  the  ocean,  34. 

Mango,  a  fruit,  348. 

Manis,  460. 

Mankind,. numbers  of,  470. 

Marabous  crane  or  stork,  438. 

Marine  animals  in  general,  405,  406. 
•mammalia,   classification  of, 


412. 


•  vegetation,  382. 


Marriages,  average  number  of,  annu- 
ally, 489. 

Marsupial  or  pouched  quadrupeds, 
448,  468. 

Martineau,  Miss,  her  '  Journey  to 
Egypt  and  Syria'  quoted,  83,  84. 

[Matto  Grosso,  province  of,  106.] 

Maury,  Lieut.,  136,  note;  281,  note. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  volcanos  of,  154 ; 
its  area,  218;  comparative  tempe- 
rature, 219,  note;  sources  of  supply, 
ib. ;  depth,  ib. ;  tides  and  currents, 
219,  220;  bed,  ib. ;  coasts,  ib. ;  its 
influence  on  European  civilization, 
484. 

Mekram,  desert  of,  82. 

Mendoza,  a  province  of  South  Ame- 
rica, 464. 

Menopoma,  genus  of  reptiles,  419. 

Menura,"  or  lyre-bird,  444. 

Meridian,  terrestrial,  17 ;  arcs  of, 
measured  by  M.  Bessel,  ib. ;  length 
of  a  degree  of,  ib. ;  measurement  of 
an  arc  at  Quito,  99. 

Mermaid,  413. 


Metals,  list  of,  171,  note;  diffusion  of, 
177. 

Metalliferous  deposits,  173-175;  di- 
rection of,  173;  peculiar  to  particu- 
lar rocks,  174. 

Metalloids,  list  of,  171,  note. 

Mexico,  table-land  and  mountains, 
121,  122;  dimensions,  121;  city  of, 
ib. ;  volcanoes,  ib.',  Barancas,  122; 
vegetation,  ib. ;  flora,  367. 

Midas,  a  genus  of  monkeys,  463. 

Middendorf,  M.  32,  68,  note. 

Millet,  its  cultivation,  379. 

Mindanao,  population  of,  472. 

Mines,  mode  of  opening,  174,  175 ; 
drainage,  175 ;  ventilation,  176 ; 
access,  ib. ;  depth,  ib. 

Mineral  produce  of  Europe,  value  of, 
in  1829,  192,  note;  proportion  fur- 
nished by  England,  ib. 

veins,  parallelism  of,  44,  45  ; 

filling  of,  172;  richest  near  the  sur- 
face, 173,  note. 

Miocene  period,  the  globe  and  its  in- 
habitants during,  30. 

Mirage,  302;    [cause  of,  301.] 

Mississippi,  valley  of  the,  its  area, 
124 ;  table-land,  ib. ;  general  cha- 
racter, ib. ;  southern  desert,  125  ; 
marshes,  ib. ;  the  Grand  Saline,  ib. ; 
prairies,  ib. ;  forests,  126 ;  new 
stales,  ib. ;  principal  lakes,  ib. 

Mitchell,  Mr.,  20;  on  the  causes  of 
earthquakes,  quoted,  157. 

Mongol  Tartar  races,  472. 

Mongolia,  its  situation,  61 ;  little 
known,  70. 

Monitor,  genus  of  reptiles,  424  ;  fos- 
sil, ib. 

Monkeys,  American,  463 ;  African, 
4^9. 

Monocotyledonous  plants,  327 ;  "aqua- 
tic, 332,  note. 

Monsoons,  281. 

Mont  Blanc,  its  height,  51 ;  quantity 
of  ice  on,  53. 

Moon,  the,  its  influence  on,  and  dis- 
tance from,  the  earth,  16;  its  per- 
turbations show  the  compression 
at  the  poles,  t'6. ;  inequality  in  its 
motions  produced  by  matter  at  the 
earth's  equator,  18,  note. 

Moorcroft,  Mr.,  337. 

Moose-de^r,  or  elk,  461. 

Moraines,  53. 

Mosasaurus,  424,  note. 

Moscow,  height  of,  74. 

Mosquito,  the,  400. 

Mountains,  forms  of,  42 ;  their  decli- 
vity, 43 ;  contemporaneous  upheaval 
of  parallel  mountain-chains,  44-46 ; 


INDEX. 


565 


interruptions  in,  46 ;  table  of  the 
heights  of  the  principal  mountains 
of  the  globe,  509. 

Mountain-chains  a  barrier  to  insects, 
399. 

Mouflon,  451. 

Mowna  Roa  mountain,  285. 

M'Quhae,  Capt.,  423,  note. 

Murchison,  Sir  Roderick  I.,  on  the 
geology  of  the  Altai  chain,  67,  68 ; 
observations  on  Siberia,  68,  note ; 
researches  in  the  Ural  mountains, 
74  ;  on  the  geology  of  Eastern  Eu- 
rope, 78. 

Museum,  British,  improved  state  of, 
497. 

of  Practical  Geology,  497. 

•  Hunterian,  498. 

Musk-deer,  moschus,  455. 

Musk-ox,  461. 

Musk-rat,  or  musquash,  461. 

Mycetus,  or  Beelzebub  monkey,  463. 

Mysore,   table-land  of,   height,   81 ; 
soil,  ib. 
Myvatr  lake,  400. 

NARWHAL,  or  monoceros,  414. 
Negro  tribes,  473. 
Nejed,  province  of  Arabia,  455. 
Newfoundland,   population  of,    130 ; 

distance  from  Ireland,  ib. 
New  Ireland,  people  of,  472. 

Siberian  Islands,  167. 

Zealand,  flora,  361,  362;  birds, 

444  ;  fauna,  467 ;  inhabitants,  472. 
Nevado  of  Aconcagua,  height  of,  96. 

of  Cayambe,  height  of,  100. 

Ngami,  lake,  263. 

N  mgara  river  and  fall  of,  264. 

Nicaragua,  plain  and  lake,  area  of, 

116;  lake  and  isthmus,  264,  265. 
Niger,  the,  234,  235. 
Nile,  valley  of,  92 ;  river,  231-234. 
Nilgherry  mountains,  height  of,  81. 
Niti  or  Netee  Pass,  63. 
Nitrogen  contained  in  the  air,  321 ; 

in  plants,  322. 

Nitrun,  valley  of,  its  convents,  92. 
Norway,  character  of  its  coast,  71,  72. 
Notornis,  fossil  bird,  445. 
Nova  Zembla,  flora  of,  335. 
Nutmeg,  the  plant,  346. 
N'yassi,  lake,  87. 

[OBLATENESS  of  the  earth,  16,  note.} 

Ocean,  the  proportion  it  bears  to  the 

land,  38 ;  mean  depth  of,  136 ;  its 

bed,  197;  size,   198;    sand-banks, 

199  ;  pressure,  ib. ;  colour,  199, 200  ; 

saltness,  200;  tides,  201-203;  waves, 

204-207;  currents,  208-212;  tem- 

48 


perature,  212-214;  polar  ice,  214- 
217;  inland  seas,  217-220;  agency 
of  the  ocean  in  changing  the  sur 
face  of  the  earth,  221 ;  [communi- 
cation between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  in  the  north  polar  region, 
198;  ocean  currents,  causes  of, 
206.] 

Oitz,  lake  of,  262. 

Okhotsk,  gulf  of,  279. 

Oman,  height  of  its  mountains,  82. 

Onega,  lake,  258. 

Ontario,  lake,  264. 

Opossum,  462,  463. 

Orange  River,  86. 

Orang-outang,  456. 

Oriental  plateau.    See  Tibet. 

Orinoco,  river,  104, 251 ;  its  cataracts, 
104. 

Ornythorhynchus,  469. 

Oscillations  of  the  pendulum.  See 
Pendulum. 

Ostrich,  the  African,  438 ;  the  Ame- 
rican, 441. 

Otter,  the,  451. 

Owen,  Professor,  his  discoveries  as  a 
geologist,  31 ;  on  sea-serpent,  423, 
note;  on  British  fossil  quadrupeds, 
452 ;  comparative  anatomist,  498. 

Owhyee,  its  volcanos,  153. 

Owls,  433. 

Ox,  varieties  of,  454. 

Oxygen,  its  influence  on  vegetation, 
321 ;  [magnetism,  316.] 

PACA,  467. 

Pacaya,  volcano  of,  116. 

Pachydermata,  448,  459. 

Pacific  Ocean,  islands  of,  143 ;  vol- 
canic islands  in,  15]  ;  great  volcanic 
zone  in,  16. ;  areas  of  elevation  and 
subsidence  in  its  bed,  153 ;  its  size, 
198. 

Palapteryx,  fossil  bird,  445. 

Palms,  distribution  of,  349,  350. 

Palte,  lake  of,  262. 

Pamer,  table-land,  261,  454. 

Pampas  of  Buenos  Ayres,  107,  108; 
their  elevation,  108 ;  floods,  ib. ; 
conflagrations,  ib. ;  geology,  114, 
115. 

Pamperos,  hurricanes,  283. 

Panama,  plains  of,  extent,  116. 

Pandanus,  genus  of  plants,  345. 

Pangolin,  or  manis,  456. 

Panicum,  genus  of  Cerealia,  379. 

Panthers,  455,  460. 

Paradise,  birds  of,  436. 

Parima,  mountain  system  of,  104, 105 ; 
Sierra  del  Parima,  104 ;  musical 
rock  in,  ib. 


566 


PHYSICAL    GEOGEAPHY. 


Parry,  Sir  Edward,  498. 

Parry's  Mountains,  169. 

Passages  across  the  Atlantic,  282. 

Patagonia,  desert  of,  106,  107;  cli- 
mate, 107;  geology,  114. 

Peccari,  or  South  American  hog,  462. 

Pelasgic  islands,  description  of,  142. 

Peltier's  experiments  on  the  heat  of 
the  earth,  267. 

Pendulum,  18 ;  its  oscillations  influ- 
enced by  gravitation,  ib. ;  variations 
in,  19 ;  experiments  with,  for  ascer- 
taining compression  at  the  poles, 
18;  affected  by  volcanic  islands,  19. 

Penguins,  southern  (Aptenodytes), 
443. 

Peninsulas,  their  southward  tendency, 
40 ;  form,  ib. 

Pentland,  Mr.,  his  travels  in  Peru 
and  Bolivia  (Introduction) ;  his 
measurements  of  Cordilleras  and 
mountains  of  the  Andes,  98,  note  ; 
and  of  their  passes,  102,  note;  his 
discovery  of  a  volcanic  crater  in  the 
valley  ot  the  Yucay,  110,  note  ;  and 
of  fossil  shells  in  Bolivia  and  Peru, 
113,  note;  on  measurement  of  high- 
est peaks  and  mean  heights  of  se- 
veral mountain-chains,  136,  note; 
on  horary  variation  of  the  barome- 
ter, 278,  279,  note  ;  on  fishes  of 
Lake  of  Titicaca,  410;  on  the  na- 
turalization of  the  llama  tribe,  465, 
note. 

Pepper-tree,  346. 

Perfume  of  flowers,  cause  of,  325. 

Persia,  table-land  of  (Plateau  of  Iran), 
56,  59 ;  extent  of  Persian  moun- 
tains, 58 ;  great  salt  desert,  59 ; 
flora,  340. 

Petra,  appearance  of  its  site,  83,  84. 

Petrel,  stormy,  the,  431. 

— ^—  genus,  or  Procellaria,  431, 432. 

Phacocheere,  or  African  hog,  459. 

Phalanger,  468. 

Pheasants,  different  species  of,  435. 

[Philadelphia,  mean  temperature  of, 
271.] 

Philedon,  genus  of  birds,  436. 

Phocae,  or  seals,  412. 

Photometer,  301,  note. 

Physalia,  411. 

Physeters,  or  cachalots,  414. 

Pichincha,  height  of,  100. 

[Piddington  on  storms,  286.] 

Planets,  catalogue  of,  14,  note  ;  their 
magnitude  relative  to  that  of  the 
earth,  16;  their  influence  on  the 
earth's  motion,  ib. 

Plants,  nourishment  of,  321 ;  ele- 
ments of,  ib. ;  sleep  of,  325  ;  propa- 


gation of,  326 ;  division  of,  327 ; 
geographical  distribution  of,  ib. 

Pliocene  period,  the  earth  and  its  in- 
habitants during,  31,  32;  changes 
during,  32,  33 ;  discoveries  of  per- 
fect animals  buried  in  this  period, 
32. 

Pceppig,  Dr.,  his  '  Travels'  quoted, 
96,  184 ;  on  red  water  of  the  ocean, 
405. 

Pole,  North,  reasons  for  the  existence 
of  sea  at,  214,  215. 

Poles,  compression  at, "ascertained  by 
perturbations  in  the  moon's  mo- 
tions, 16 ;  by  oscillations  of  the 
pendulum,  18. 

Polynesia,  flora  of,  362. 

Polyplectron,  genus  of  birds,  435. 

Pontoppidan,  or  sea-serpent,  422. 

Popocatepetl,  mountain,  121. 

[Population  of  the  globe,  470 ;  of 
Europe,  477,  note;  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland,  478,  note;  of  the  United 
States,  493,  note.} 

Porcupine,  451. 

Porpoise,  genus  of,  413. 

Porter,  G.  R.,  Esq.,  his  '  Progress  of 
the  Nation,'  quoted,  193,  note. 

Porto  Rico,  dimensions  and  climate, 
118. 

Portugal,  flora  of,  339,  340. 

Potato,  country  of,  372. 

Potosi,  the,  height  of,  97,  note  ;  city 
of,  its  elevation,  98 ;  its  mines,  184. 

Prairie  dog,  a  marmot,  461. 

wolf,  461. 

Prangos,  337. 

Prongbuck  antelope,  461. 

Proteus  anguinus,  419. 

Puma,  or  American  lion,  462,  464. 

Punjab,  81,  82. 

Pyrenees,  48,  49 ;  flora  of,  339. 

Python,  genus  of  snakea,  422. 

QUADRUMANA,  or  monkeys,  447. 
Quadrupeds,  European,  450;  Asiatic, 

452;  African,  457;  American,  460; 
•'     Australian,  467. 
Quagga,  species  of  horse,  4591 
Quarterly  Review  referred  to,   178 

note;  458,  note. 
Quebec,  summer  of,  274. 
Quicksilver,  diffusion  of,   186,   187; 

[in  California,  187.] 
Quito,  valley  of,  its  dimensions,  100 , 

city  of  Quito,  ib. ;  monuments  of 

the  Incas  in,  ib. 
Quotlamba  mountains,  88. 

RACES  of  mankind,  471 ;  inhabiting 
Europe,  476. 


INDEX. 


567 


Radii  of  the  earth  measured  by  M. 

Bessel,  17. 

Raikas-tal  lake,  262,  453. 
[Railways  of  the  United  States,  194, 

note.] 

Rain,  cause  of,  and  distribution,  293. 
Rains,  periodical,  293,  294 ;  countries 
without,  296 ;  in  the  Trades,  294, 
note.] 

Rainbows,  303. 
Ramayana,  the,  474,  note. 
Rattle-snakes,  421. 
Realejo  Bay,  265. 
Rebman,  M.,  89. 
Redfield,  W.  C.,  on  storms,  286. 
Reich,  M.,  mean  density  of  the  earth 
as  ascertained  by  the  torsion  ba- 
lance, 20,  note. 

Reid,  Colonel,  on  storms,  286. 
Reindeer  lake,  264. 
Reptiles,  classification  of,  417 ;  geo- 
graphical distribution  of,  419. 
Rhinoceros  of  Asia,  455 ;   of  Java, 

456 ;  of  Africa,  459. 
Rice,  cultivation  of,  379. 
Richardson,  Dr.  Sir  J.,  his  account 
of  the  fauna  of  North  America, 
quoted,  132,  498. 

Rivers,  origin  of,  223 ;  course  of,  224 ; 
velocity,  224,  225;  junction  of  ri- 
vers, 225 ;  influence  of  wind  and 
frost,  ib. ;  deltas,  ib. ;  tides,  ib. ; 
floods,  226,  227 ;  inundations,  226  ; 
heads  of  rivers,  227.' 
Rocks,  their  division  into  four  classes, 
20 ;  I.  plutonic  rocks,  20 ;  II.  vol- 
canic rocks,  21 ;  HI.  metamorphic 
rocks,  21 ;  IV.  aqueous  rocks,  22 ; 
rocks  pierced  by  lava,  21 ;  Sir 
Charles  LyelFs  theory  concerning, 
ib.  \  forms  of,  43 ;  height  of  calca- 
reous rocks  in  the  Alps,  55. 
Rocky  Mountains,  123. 
Rodentia,  or  gnawers,  448;  Ameri- 
can, 462. 

Rogers,  H.  D.,  his   'Physical   Geo- 
graphy of  North  America'  quoted, 
131. 
[Roman   Catholics,  number   in   the 

world,  470.] 

Rorqual,  a  species  of  whale,  415. 
Ross,  Sir  James,  his  account  of  a  gale, 

216,  217,  498. 
Ruminating  animals,  448. 
Russell,  J.  Scott,  Esq.,  his  '  Theory 

of  Waves'  quoted,  203,  note,  204. 
Rye,  cultivation  of,  379. 
Rynchops,  a  genus  of  birds,  442. 

SABINE,    Colonel,   experiments  with 
the  pendulum,  18,  note,  19;  mean 


height  of  the   Himalaya,   62;   on 
terrestrial  magnetism,  314,  498. 
Saquis,  bush-tailed  monkeys,  463. 
Bahama,  trachytic  dome  of,  its  height, 

111. 

Sahara  desert,  91,  92. 
Salamanders,  419. 
Salt,  diffusion  of,  195. 
Samojedes.  477. 
Sandal-wood,  348. 
Sandwich  Land,  vegetation,  374. 
Santa  Martha,  group  of,  102. 
Saratov,  260. 
Saurians,  order  of,  423. 
Saussure,    Necker,   on  direction  of 

stratified  masses,  315. 
Sayansk  chain,  453. 
Scandinavian  mountain  system,  71, 
72 ;  extent  and  elevation,  71 ;  part 
of  the   same  system  as  those  of 
Feroe,  Britain,  Ireland,  and  north- 
eastern Iceland,  72. 
Schoenbein,  Professor,  267,  note. 
Schomburgk,  Sir  Robert,  on  water 
communication  in  South  America, 
255,  256. 

Schools,  ragged,  507. 
Scink,  a  species  of  lizard,  425. 
Sclavonian  races,  476. 
Scoresby,  Dr.,  204,  note. 
Scorpions,  401,  402. 
Scotland,  its  mountains,  72 ;  direction 
of,  t'6. ;  table-land,  height  of,  ib. ; 
lakes,  il>. ;  earthquakes,  156 ;  coal- 
measures,  192. 

Scythrops,  genus  of  birds,  444. 
Sea,  its  mean  depth,  18 ;  rise  and  fall 
of,  after  an  earthquake,  157. 

Alps  of   North  America,  -123, 

124. 

serpents,  pretended,  422. 

— -  snakes,  422. 
Secretary-bird,  the,  437. 
Sedgwick,  Mr.,  mountains  of  West- 
moreland, 45. 

Seed,  mode  of  development,  321. 
Serpents,  or  ophidians,  420;  venom- 
ous, ib. ;  innocuous,  421 ;  tree,  16. 
Serra  do  Mar,  105. 

dos  Vertentes,  105,  106. 

Frio,  105. 

Mad  re,  122. 

Pareicis,  105. 

Shahee  lake   260. 
Shooting  stars,  16,  note. 
Siberia,  its  area,  76  ;  mineral  riches, 
t'6.;   soil,  t'6.;    climate,  77;   flora, 
334,  335. 

Sicily,  plants  of,  339,  340. 
Silk-worms,  401. 
Silvasof  the  Amazon,  108, 109,  dense 


568 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


vegetation,  108 ;  area  of  woodland, 
ib. ;  Humbold's  description  of,  108, 
109. 

Silver,  diffusion  of,  184,  185 ;  in  sea- 
water,  201,  note;  [in  the  United 
States,  185.] 

Simayang,  a  species  of  ape,  456. 
Sinai,  group  of,  83. 
Sine  of  the  latitude,  18,  note. 
Sir-i-Kol,  lake  of,  70,  261. 
Skaptar  Jockul,  eruption  of,  in  1783, 

164. 

Skua  gull,  431. 
Slave-lake,  264. 

Slave-trade,  its  evil  effects,  494. 
Sleet,  nature  of,  298. 
Smyth,   Captain,   R.  N.,    report    of 

soundings,  47,  note. 
Snae  Braen,  area  of,  71. 
Snow,  how  produced,  297 ;  form  of 

its  crystals,  ib. 

Snow-line,  its  height  on  mountains  in 
different  latitudes,  297 ;   [snow  at 
Canton,  298,  note.] 
Solar  system,  14,  15,  note. 
Soudan,  263. 

[Soundings  in  the  Atlantic,  137.] 
South  magnetic  pole,   its  situation, 

169. 

Senegambia,  90. 
South  Shetland,  vegetation,  374. 

Wales,  New,  character  of  the 

country,  138  ;  structure,  139. 
Spain,  its  mountains,  48,  49 ;  table- 
land, area  of,  49 ;  plants  of,  339. 
Spiders,  numbers  of,  339,  340. 
Spitsbergen,  162,  163. 
Springs,  their  origin,  221 ;  intermit- 
tejit,   222 ;    temperature,   ib. ;    hot 
springs,    223 ;    medicinal    springs, 
ib. ;  saline  springs,  ib. 
Squalls,  arched,  287. 
Squirrels,  flying,  456. 
Steam  power,  amount  of,  in  Great 

Britain  in  1833,  175,  note. 
St.  Elias,  mount,  height  of,  123.     . 
Stelvio,  pass  of,  its  height,  51. 
Steppes  of  Eastern  Europe,  75,  76 ; 
great  extent  of,  75 ;  climate,  ib. ; 
soil,  76 ;  atmosphere,  ib. 
St.  Lawrence,  river,  264. 
Stonefield  slate,  27. 
Storms,  rotatory,  284 ;  waves,  286, 

287. 

Strata,  primary  fossiliferous,  22;  I. 
Cambrian,  ib. ;  II.  lower  Silurian, 
ib. ;  III.  upper  Silurian,  ib. ',  se- 
condary fossiliferous,  23  ;  Devonian, 
Hi. ;  carboniferous,  24 ;  mountain 
limestone,  ib. ;  magnesian  lime- 
stone, 25 ;  new  red  sandstone,  ib. ; 


oolite,  26,  27;  cretaceous  strata, 
27,  28 ;  tertiary  strata,  divided  by 
Sir  Charles  Lyell  into  Eocene, 
Miocene,  and  Pliocene,  29 ;  boulder 
formation,  33  ;  parallel  direction  of 
contemporary  strata,  44,  45. 

Strata,  tertiary,  of  the  Alps,  height 
of,  55. 

Strachey,  Lieut.,  journeys,  18;  ele- 
vation of  the  sacred  lakes  of  Mana- 
sarowar,  69. 

Sturt,  Captain,  268. 

Sudetes,  the,  50. 

Suez,  projected  canal  of,  495. 

[Sugar,  quantity  produced,  368.] 

Sulphur,  diffusion  of,  195. 

Sumatra,  character  of  the  island,  152. 

Sumbawa,  population  of,  472. 

Summa  Paz,  Sierra  de  la,  101. 

Sun,  his  mass,  16;  heating  power, 
268. 

Superior,  Lake,  264. 

Symonds,  Lieut.  A.,  on  the  depres- 
sion of  the  Dead  Sea,  85,  note; 
513,  note. 

Syren,  genus  of  reptiles,  419. 

Syria,  its  soil,  84  ;  deterioration  of 
the  country,  85 ;  shrinking  of  the 
strata,  ib. 

Swamps,  area  of,  in  Denmark,  75. 

TABLE-LANDS,  their  soil  and  climate, 
47. 

Mountain   (Cape  Town),    its 


height,  87. 

Tahiti,  149. 

Tangaras,  American  birds,  440. 

Tapir,  American,  449 ;  Indian  or  Ma- 
layan, 453,  456. 

Targatabai,  volcanic  range  of,  1 55. 

Tartary,  flora  of,  341,  342. 

Taurus  mountains,  316. 

Taylor,  Mr.,  description  of  an  ice- 
storm  in  Canada,  128. 

Taylor,  John,  Esq.,  on  the  Cornish 
mines,  192,  note. 

Tchad,  river  and  lake,  263; 

Tea,  cultivation  and  varieties  of,  342 ; 
[production  of,  in  Brazil,  343;  note.] 

Tehuantepec,  isthmus  of,  116,  264 ; 
bay,  ib. 

Temperature  of  the  ocean,  213,  214 ; 
stratum  of  constant  temperature, 
213 ;  line  of  maximum  temperature, 
ib. ;  comparative,  of  ocean  and  in- 
land seas,  219,  note. 

of  the  earth,  267;  mean 

at  any  place,  270;  daily  and  an- 
nual, 271,  note;  highest  observed, 
273 ;  [mean  at  Philadelphia,  271.] 

Teneriffe,  Peak  of,  285. 


INDEX. 


569 


Terra  del  Fuego,  account  of,  95, 106  ; 
geology,  113;  flora,  375. 

Terror,  Mount,  169. 

Teutonic  races,  477. 

Thean-Tchan,  volcanic  chain  of,  154. 

Thian-shan,  or  Celestial  mountains, 
61,  69. 

Thorn,  Dr.,  on  storms,  286. 

Thomas,  St.,  island  of,  285. 

Thunder-storms,  309 ;  causes  of,  16. 

Tiberias,  Lake,  259. 

Tibet,  table-land  of  (Oriental  Pla- 
teau), its  area  and  altitude,  5£;  its 
form  and  situation,  60-70 ;  its  width, 
61 ;  mean  height,  135 ;  flora  of, 
337. 

Tides,  influence  of  the  sun  and  moon 
upon,  201 ;  spring-tides,  ib. ;  neap- 
tides,  ib. ;  frequency  of  tides,  76. ; 
their  succession,  ib. ;  marginal  tide, 
t'6.;  heights  of  tides,  202;  variation 
in,  ib. ;  velocity,  ib.,  203 ;  stream,  ib. 

Tiger,  royal,  455,  456. 

Tin,  diffusion  of,  190. 

Tinamou,  an  American  bird,  441. 

Titicaca,  lake  of,  98 ;  area  and  height, 
265. 

Toads,  418. 

[Tobacco,  crop  of  the  United  States, 
366,  note.] 

Tobolsk,  elevation  of,  135. 

Tomboro,  volcanic  eruption  of,  in 
1815,  152. 

Toozla  Lake,  260. 

Tortoises,  425,  426. 

Trade-winds,  280. 

Tragopan,  an  East  Indian  bird,  435. 

Trees,  growth  of,  380 ;  age  of,  ib. 

Trigonocephalus,  or  yellow  viper, 
421. 

Trionyx,  426. 

Tripe  de  roche,  334. 

Tristan  d'Acunha,  island,  423,  note. 

Trogan,  435. 

Troupials,  440. 

Triib,  lake  of,  259. 

Tui,  a  New  Zealand  bird,  443,  446. 

Tungut,  or  Chinese  Tartary,  its  geo- 
graphical position,  61. 

Turks,  477. 

Turtles,  426. 

Tuscany,  earthquakes  in,  156. 

Tussack  grass,  376. 

Twilight,  duration  of,  301,  note. 

[UcuYALi  river,  253.] 

Uleaborg,  293. 

Unau  sloth,  the,  463. 

United  States  territory,  area  of,  131, 

[493,  note.] 

Ural  Mountains,  73,  74;  extent,  73; 
48* 


height,  t'6. ;  mineral  riches,  ib. ;  geo- 
logy, 74. 
Urmiah  Lake,  260. 

"VALLEY  of  Death,"  155. 

Valmiki,  author  of  the   Ilamayana, 

474. 

Vampire-bats,  464. 
Van,  lake,  58,  260. 
Van  Diemen's  Land,  area  of,  140; 

mountains,  ib. ;  soil,  ib. ;  structure, 

ib. :  flora,  360,  361. 
Vanessa  cardui,  a  butterfly,  398. 
Vanilla  epidendron,  367. 
[Vaporization,  277.] 
Variables,  the,  280. 
Vegetation,  mode  of,  319 ;  effects  of, 

on  the  atmosphere,  320. 
Veragua,    Cordillera  of,   its   height, 

116. 

Verneuil,  M.  de,  68,  note. 
Vermejo  river,  371. 
Victoria   Land,    167-169 ;    ice  cliffs, 

167,  168 ;  mountains,  169 ;  its  ap 

pearance  described,  168 ;  [discovery 

of,  by  Commander  Wilkes,  169.] 
Vicuna,  464  ;  its  naturalization,  465. 
Villarica,  volcano  of,  111,  note. 
Ville,  M.  de,  267,  note;  322,  note. 
Vipers,  421. 
Vultures,  European,  432 ;  American, 

439. 
Volcanic  eruption,  frequency  of,  155. 

islands,  151-153. 

Volcanos,   eruptions   of,   21 ;    active 

volcanos,  154-156. 

WALES,  earthquakes  in,  156 ;  coal- 
field, 192. 

Wapiti  deer,  461. 

Waves,  causes  of,  204 ;  heigh't,  t'6. ; 
ground-swell,  205 ;  billows',  t6. ; 
surf,  ib. ;  force  of  waves,  205,  206. 

Wealden  clay,  28. 

Weddell,  Dr.  (see  Introduction),  111; 
on  cinchona,  370;  on  breed  of  al- 
paca and  vicuna,  466. 

Werner,  law  of  parallelism  of  mine- 
ral veins,  44. 

Western  Asia,  its  table-lands  and 
mountains,  56-59. 

West  Indian  Islands,  1 17-1 19 ;  Lessei 
Antilles  (group),  117;  Greater  An- 
tilles, 118,  119;  Bahamas,  119; 
structure,  t'6.,  120;  [Wilkes,  Com- 
mander, discovered  the  Antarctic 
continent,  169.] 

Whales,  414-416. 

Wheat,  varieties  and  cultivation,  378, 

Whirlwinds,  288. 

Winds,  theory  of,  279 ;  trade,  280. 


570 


PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY. 


Winnipeg  Lake,  264. 

Wombat,  468. 

Wrangel,  Admiral,  on  the  climate  of 

Siberia,  77;  his  attempt  to  reach 

the  North  Pole,  77,  note. 
Writing,  most  ancient  forms  of,  502, 

note. 
Wuler,  lake  of,  261. 

XARAYOS  Lake,  265. 

YABLONNOI  Khrebet,  67. 

•      mountains,  316. 


Yakutsk,  "the  coldest  town  on  the 

earth,"  78,  274. 
Ybera,  swamp,  its  area,  108. 
Yenessei,  flora  of,  336. 

ZAMBEZE,  lake,  Africa,  263. 
Zealand,  New,  its  mountains,   143; 

coast,  ib. ;  general  character,  ib. 
Zebra,  459. 

Zones,  their  breadth,  17. 
Zungary,  or  Mongolia,  61,  70. 
Zurrah,  lake,  260. 


THE   END. 


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be  considered  as  the  foundation. 


DE   LA   BECHE'S    GEOLOGY. 

THE  GEOLOGICAL  OBSERVER.  By  SIR  HENRT  T.  DE  LA  BECHE,  F.R.S., 
<kc.  In  one  large  and  handsome  octavo  volume,  with  over  300  illustrations. 

ABEL  AND  BLOXAM'S  CHEMISTRY.    (Now  Ready.) 

A    HAND-BOOK    OF    CHEMISTRY,  THEORETICAL,    PRACTICAL,    AND 
TECHNICAL.     By  F.  A.  ABKL  and  C.  L.  BLOXAM.     In  one  large  and  hand- 
some octavo  volume,  of  over  650  pages,  with  numerous  illustrations. 
The  department  of  theoretical  chemistry  has  been  amply  elucidated  in  many 
Late  publications,  but  a  want  has  been  felt  of  a  work  which  should  afford  a  guide 
to  the  practical  student  in  the  numerous  and  complicated  processes  required  in 
the  laboratory,  while  the  operative  chemist  has  had  no  recent  manual  detailing 
the  new  and  valuable  improvements  which  are  daily  being  made.     It  has  been 
the  aim  of  the  authors  to  supply  this  vacancy,  and  the  applause  which  their  labours 
have  received  from  competent  judges  is  a  sufficient  evidence  of  their  success. 

PRINCIPLES  OF  PHYSICS  AND  METEOROLOGY. 

By  PROFESSOR  J.  MULLER.  Revised,  and  illustrated  with  over  five  hundred 
engravings  on  wood,  and  two  handsome  coloured  plates.  In  one  large  and 
beautiful  octavo  volume  of  nearly  650  pages. 


BLANCHARD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.) 

"~\ 

Now  COMPLETE. 

HANDBOOKS  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY  AND  ASTRONOMY. 

BY  DIONYSIUS  LARDNER,  D.C.L., 
Formerly  Professor  of  Natural  Philosophy  and  Astronomy  in  University  College,  London. 

This  valuable  Series  is  now  complete,  consisting  of  three  Courses,  as  follows : — 
FIRST     COURSE, 

MECHANICS,  HYDROSTATICS,  HYDRAULICS,  PNEUMATICS,  SOUND,  &  OPTICS, 

In  one  large  royal  12mo.  volume,  of  750  pages,  with  424  Illustrations. 
SECOND     COURSE, 

HEAT,  MAGNETISM,  COMMON  ELECTRICITY,  AND  VOLTAIC  ELECTRICITY, 

In  one  royal  12mo.  volume,  of  450  pages,  with  244  Illustrations. 
THIRD     COURSE, 

ASTRONOMY  AND  METEOROLOGY. 

In  one  very  large  royal  12mo.  volume,  of  nearly  800  pages,  with  37  Plates,  and 
over  200  Illustrations. 

These  volumes  can  be  had  either  separately  or  in  uniform  sets,  containing  about 
2000  pages,  and  nearly  1000  Illustrations  on  steel  and  wood. 

To  accommodate  those  who  desire  separate  treatises  on  the  leading  departments 
of  Natural  Philosophy,  the  First  Course  may  also  be  had,  divided  in  three  por- 
tions, viz : 

Parti.  MECHANICS.— Part  II.  HYDROSTATICS,  HYDRAULICS,  PNEUMATICS, 
and  SOUND.  —  Part  III.  OPTICS. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  this  work  furnishes  either  a  complete  course  of  instruc- 
tion on  these  subjects,  or  separate  treatises  on  all  the  different  branches  of  Physical 
Science.  The  object  of  the  author  has  been  to  prepare  a  work  suited  equally  for 
the  collegiate,  academical,  and  private  student,  who  may  desire  to  acquaint  him- 
self with  the  present  state  of  science,  in  its  most  advanced  condition,  without  pur- 
suing it  through  its  mathematical  consequences  and  details.  Great  industry  has 
been  manifested  throughout  the  work  to  elucidate  the  principles  advanced  by  their 
practical  applications  to  the  wants  and  purposes  of  civilized  life,  a  task  to  which 
Dr.  Lardner's  immense  and  varied  knowledge,  and  his  singular  felicity  and  clear- 
ness of  illustration  render  him  admirably  fitted.  This  peculiarity  of  the  work 
recommends  it  especially  as  the  text-book  for  a  practical  age  and  country  such  as 
ours,  as  it  interests  the  student's  mind,  by  showing  him  the  utility  of  his  studies, 
while  it  directs  his  attention  to  the  further  extension  of  that  utility  by  the  fulness 
of  its  examples.  Its  extensive  adoption  in  many  of  our  most  distinguished  col- 
leges and  seminaries  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  skill  with  which  the  author's  inten- 
tions have  been  carried  out. 


BIRD'S    NATURAL    PHILOSOPHY. 

ELEMENTS  OF  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY;  BEING  AN  EXPERIMENTAL  INTRO- 
DUCTION TO  THE  PHYSICAL  SCIENCES.  Illustrated  with  over  300  wood-cuts.  By 
GOLDING  BIRD,  M.D.,  Assistant  Physician  to  Guy's  Hospital.  From  the  Third 
London  edition.  In  one  neat  volume,  royal  12mo. 

Wo  are  astonished  to  find  that  there  is  room  in  so  small  a  book  for  even  the  bare  recital 
of  so  many  subjects.  Where  everything  is  treated  succinctly,  great  judgment  and  much 
time  are  needed  in  making  a  selection  and  winnowing  the  wheat  from  the  chaff.  Dr.  Bird 
has  no  need  to  plead  the  peculiarity  of  his  position  as  a  shield  against  criticism,  so  long  as 
his  book  continues  to  be  the  best  epitome  in  the  English  language  of  this  wide  range  of 
physical  subjects. — Iforth  American  Review. 

For  those  desiring  as  extensive  a  work,  I  think  it  decidedly  superior  to  anything  of  the 
kind  with  which  I  am  acquainted. — Prof.  John  Joluiston,  WesUyan  Univ.,  Middlelown,  C't. 

ABNOT'S  ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSICS. 

ELEMENTS  OF  PHYSICS;  or,  NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY,  GENERAL  AND  MEDICAL, 
written  for  Universal  Use  in  Plain  or  Non-technical  Language.  By  NEIL 
ARNOT,  M.D.  In  one  octavo  volnme,  with  about  two  hundred  Illustrations. 


BLANCHARD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.)  f 

A    COMPLETE    COURSE    OF    NATURAL    SCIENCE.     (Just  issued.) 

THE    BOOK    OP    NATURE 

An  Elementary  Introduction  to  the  Sciences  of  Physics,  Astronomy,  Chemistry, 
Mineralogy,  Geology,  Botany,  Zoology,  and  Physiology.  By  FREDERICK 
SCHCEDLER,  PH.  D.,  Professor  of  the  Natural  Sciences  at  Worms.  First  Ame- 
rican Edition,  with  a  Glossary,  and  other  Additions  and  Improvements.  From 
the  Second  English  Edition,  translated  from  the  Sixth  German  Edition,  by 
HENRY  MEDLOCK,  F.C.S.,  Ac.  Illustrated  by  679  engravings  on  wood.  In  one 
handsome  volume,  crown  octavo,  of  about  700  large  pages,  extra  cloth. 
To  accommodate  those  who  desire  to  use  the  separate  portions  of  this  work,  the 

publishers  have  prepared   an   edition  in  parts,  as  follows,  which   may  be  had 

singly,  by  mail  or  otherwise,  neatly  done  up  in  flexible  cloth. 

NATURAL  PHILOSOPHY 114  pages,  with  149  Illustrations. 

ASTRONOMY 64  "  51 

CHEMISTRY 110  "  48 

MINERALOGY  AND  GEOLOGY 104  "  167 

BOTANY 98  "  176 

ZOOLOGY  AND  PHYSIOLOGY 106  "  84 

INTRODUCTION,  GLOSSARY,  INDEX,  &o.     96 

As  a  work  for  popular  instruction  in  the  Natural  and  Physical  Sciences,  it  certainly  is 
unrivalled,  so  far  as  my  knowledge  extends.  It  admirably  combines  perspicuity  with  bre- 
vity;  while  an  excellent  judgment  and  a  rare  discrimination  are  manifest  in  the  selection 
and  arrangement  of  topics,  as  well  as  in  the  description  of  objects,  the  illustration  of  phe- 
nomena, and  the  statement  of  principles.  A  more  careful  perusal  of  those  departments  of 
the  work  to  which  my  studies  have  been  particularly  directed  has  been  abundantly  sufficient 
to  satisfy  me  of  its  entire  reliableness  —  that  the  object  of  the  author  was  not  so  much  to 
amuse  as  really  to  instruct. — Prof.  Allen,  Oberlin  Institute,  Ohio. 

I  do  not  know  of  another  book  in  which  so  much  that  is  important  on  these  subjects  can 
be  found  in  the  same  space. — Prof.  Johnston,  Wesleyan  University,  Cunn. 

Though  a  very  comprehensive  book,  it  contains  about  as  much  of  the  details  of  natural 
science  as  general  students  in  this  country  have  time  to  study  in  a  regular  academical 
course;  and  I  am  so  well  pleased  with  it  that  1  shall  recommend  its  use  as  a  text-book  in 
this  institution. —  W.  H.  Allen,  1'resident  of  Girard  CoUege,  Philadelphia. 

I  am  delighted  with  Dr.  Schcedler's  "Book  of  Nature;"  its  tone  of  healthful  piety  and 
reverence  for  God's  word  add  a  charm  to  the  learning  and  deep  research  which  the  volume 
everywhere  manifests.— Prof.  J.  A.  Spencer,  iV.  Y. 


BROWNE'S    CLASSICAL    LITERATURE.     (Now  Complete.) 

A  HISTORY  OF  GREEK  CLASSICAL  LITERATURE. 

BY  THE  REV.  R.  W.  BROWNE,  M.A., 

Professor  of  Classical  Literature  in  King's  College,  London. 
In  one  very  handsome  crown  octavo  volume. 


By  the  same  Author,  to  match.    (Now  ready.) 

A  HISTORY  OF  ROMAN  CLASSICAL  LITERATURE. 

In  one  very  handsome  crown  octavo  volume. 

These  two  volumes  form  a  complete  course  of  Classical  Literature,  designed 
either  for  private  reading  or  for  collegiate  text-books.  Presenting,  in  a  moderate 
compass  and  agreeable  style,  the  results  of  the  most  recent  investigations  of 
English  and  continental  scholars,  it  gives,  in  a  succession  of  literary  biographies 
and  criticisms,  a  body  of  information  necessary  to  all  educated  persons,  and  which 
cannot  elsewhere  be  found  in  BO  condensed  and  attractive  a  shape. 


8  BLANCHAHD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational) 

New  and  mucli  improved  Edition.— (Lately  Issued.) 

PHYSICAL     GEOGRAPHY. 

BY  MARY  SOMERVILLE. 

A  new  American,  from  the  third  and  revised  London  edition. 

"WITH   NOTES    AND    A   GLOSSARY, 

BY  W.  S.  W.  RUSCHENBERGEK,  M.D.,  U.  S.  NAVY. 
In  one  large  royal  12mo.  volume,  of  nearly  six  hundred  pages. 

The  subject  of  Physical  Geography  is  one  of  which  the  acknowledged  import- 
ance is  rapidly  forcing  its  introduction  into  all  systems  of  education  which  pretend 
to  keep  themselves  on  a  level  with  the  improvements  and  requirements  of  the 
age.  It  is  no  longer  considered  sufficient  to  drill  the  scholar  into  a  mechanical 
knowledge  of  the  names  of  rivers  and  mountains,  and  the  territorial  divisions  of 
the  earth  s  surface.  A  want  is  now  felt  of  an  acquaintance  with  the  structure  of 
the  globe,  externally  and  internally,  and  of  the  causes  and  effects  of  the  variations 
of  hind  and  water,  forest  and  desert,  heat  and  cold,  tides,  currents,  rain,  wind, 
and  all  the  other  physical  phenomena  occurring  around  us,  which  have  so  direct 
and  immense  an  influence  upon  the  human  race.  This  is  all  summed  up  in 
"  Physical  Geography,"  which  may  be  regarded  as  the  resume'  of  all  that  is  known 
on  the  natural  history  and  present  state  of  the  earth  and  its  inhabitants  —  the 
practical  application  of  the  principles  which  are  elucidated  by  the  minute  investi- 
gations of  the  scientific  observer.  This  vast  and  interesting  subject  has  been  suc- 
cessfully grappled  by  Mrs.  Somerville,  who  in  the  present  volume  has  set  forth, 
in  a  picturesque  and  vivid  style,  a  popular  yet  condensed  account  of  the  globe,  in 
its  relations  with  the  Solar  System ;  its  geological  forces ;  its  configuration  and 
divisions  into  land  and  water,  mountain,  plain,  river,  and  lake ;  its  meteorology, 
mineral  productions,  vegetation,  and  animal  life ;  estimating  and  analyzing  the 
causes  at  work,  and  their  influence  on  plants,  animals,  and  mankind.  A  study 
such  as  this,  taken  in  conjunction  with  ordinary  political  geography,  lends  to  the 
latter  an  interest  foreign  to  the  mere  catalogue  of  names  and  boundaries,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  vast  amount  of  important  information  imparted,  tends  to  impress 
the  whole  more  strongly  on  the  mind  of  the  student. 

Eulogy  is  unnecessary  with  regard  to  a  work  like  the  present,  which  has  passed 
through  three  editions,  on  each  side  of  the  Atlantic,  within  the  space  of  a  few 
years.  The  publishers  therefore  only  consider  it  necessary  to  state  that  the  last 
London  edition  received  a  thorough  revision  at  the  hands  of  the  author,  who  in- 
troduced whatever  improvements  and  corrections  the  advance  of  science  rendered 
desirable ;  and  that  the  present  issue,  in  addition  to  this,  has  had  a  careful  exami- 
nation on  the  part  of  the  editor,  to  adapt  it  more  especially  to  this  country.  Great 
care  has  been  exercised  in  both  the  text  and  the  glossary  to  obtain  the  accuracy 
so  essential  to  a  work  of  this  nature;  and  in  its  present  improved  and  enlarged 
state,  with  no  corresponding  increase  of  price,  it  is  confidently  presented  ns  in 
every  way  worthy  of  a  continuation  of  the  striking  favor  with  which  it  has  been 
everywhere  received. 

BUTLER'S    ANCIENT   ATLAS. 

AN  ATLAS  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGPvAPHY.  By  SAMUEL  BUTLER,  D.D.,  late 
Lord  Bishop  of  Litchfield.  In  one  handsome  octavo  volume,  containing  twenty- 
one  coloured  quarto  Maps,  and  an  accentuated  Index. 

The  very  low  price  at  which  this  work  is  now  offered,  and  the  authoritative  t 
position  which  it  has  so  long  maintained,  render  it  a  very  desirable  reference 
book  for  all  institutions  where  this  branch  of  study  is  pursued. 

BUTLER'S   ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 

GEOGRAPHIA  CLASSICA ;  or,  THE  APPLICATION  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY  TO 
THE  CLASSICS.  By  SAMUEL  BUTLER,  D.D.,  late  Lord  Bishop  of  Litcbfield. 
Sixth  American,  from  the  last  and  revised  London  edition.  In  one  neat  royal 
12mo.  volume,  half  bound. 


BLANCHARD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.)  9 

Now  COMPLETE. 

SCHMITZ  AND  ZUMPT'S  CLASSICAL  SERIES. 

By  the  completion  of  this  series,  the  classical  student  is  now  in  possession  of  a 
thorough  and  uniforna-course  of  Latin  instruction,  on  a  definite  system.  Besides 
the  advantages  which  these  works  possess  in  their  typographical  accuracy  and 
careful  adaptation  to  educational  purposes,  the  exceedingly  low  price  at  which 
they  are  offered  is  a  powerful  argument  in  favor  of  their  general  introduction,  as 
removing  a  barrier  to  the  general  diffusion  of  classical  education  in  the  size  and 
costliness  of  the  text-books  heretofore  in  use. 

The  series  consists  of  the  •following  volumes,  clearly  and  handsomely  printed, 
on  good  paper,  in  a  uniform  large  ISmo.  size,  strongly  and  neatly  bound,  and 
accompanied  with  notes,  historical  and  critical  introductions,  maps,  and  other 
illustrations. 

SCHMITZ'S  ELEMENTARY  LATIN  GRAMMAR  AND  EXERCISES,  extra  cloth,  price  $0.50 
KALTSCHMIDT'S  SCHOOL  LATIN  DICTIONARY,  in  two  Parts,  Latin-English, 

and  English-Latin,  nearly  900  pages,  strongly  bound  in  leather  $1.30 

Part  I.,  Latin-English,  about  500  pages,       "     '       "  "       90 

Part  II.,  English-Latin,  nearly  400  pages,   "  "  "       75 

SCHMITZ'S  ADVANCED  LATIN  GRAMMAR,  318  pages,  half  bound,      .60 

ADVANCED  LATIN  EXERCISES,  WITH  SELECTIONS  FOR  READING,  extra  cloth,      .50 
CORNELII   NEPOTIS  LIBER  DE  EXCELLENTIBUS  DUCIBUS,  &e.,  extra  cloth,       .50 

CjESARis  DE  BELLO  GALLICO,  LIBRI  IV.,  232  pages,  extra  cloth,       .50 

C.  C.  SALLUSTII  CATILINA  ET  JUGURTHA,  168  pages, extra  cloth,       .50 

EXCERPTA  EX  P.  OVIDII  NAsoNis  CARMiNiBus,  246  pages,  ,  extra  cloth,       .60 

Q.  CURTII  Run  DE  ALEXANDRI  MAGNI  QUJJ  SUPERSUNT,  326  pp.,  ex.  cloth,      .70 

P.  VIRGILII  MARONIS  CARMINA,  438  pages, extra  cloth,       .75 

EcLOGjE  EX  Q.  HORATII  FLACCI  PoEMATiBUS,  312  pages, extra  cloth,       .60 

T.  LIVII  PATAVINI  HISTORIARUM  LIBRI  I.  II.  XXL  XXII.,  350  pp.,  ex.  cloth,       .70 

M.  T.  CICERONIS  ORATIONES  SELECTS  XIL,  300  pages,  extra  cloth,      .60 

Also,  uniform  with  the  Series, 

BAIRD'S  CLASSICAL  MANUAL  OF  ANCIENT  GEOGRAPHY,  ANTI- 
QUITIES, CHRONOLOGY,  £c., extra  cloth,      .50 

The  volumes  in  cloth  can  also  be  had,  strongly  half-bound  in  leather,  with  cloth 
sides,  at  an  extra  charge  of  five  cents  per  volume. 

The  very  numerous  recommendations  of  this  series  from  classical  teachers  of  the 
highest  standing,  and  their  adoption  in  many  of  our  best  academies  and  colleges, 
sufficiently  manifest  that  the  efforts  of  the  editors  and  publishers  have  not  been 
unsuccessful  in  supplying  a  course  of  classical  study  suited  to  the  wants  of  the 
age,  and  adapted  to  the  improved  modern  systems  of  education. 

With  your  Classical  Series  I  am  well  acquainted,  and  have  no  hesitancy  in  recommending 
them  to  all  my  friends.  In  addition  to  your  Virgil,  which  we  use,  we  shall  probably  adopt 
other  books  of  the  series  as  we  may  have  occasion  to  introduce  them. — Prof.  J.  J.  Oioen, 
J\~.  Y.  Free  Academy. 

I  regard  this  series  of  Latin  text-books  as  decidedly  superior  to  any  others  with  which  I 
am  acquainted.  The  Livy  and  Horace  I  shall  immediately  introduce  for  the  use  of  the 
college  classes. — Prof.  A.  Rollins,  Delaware  College. 

Having  examined  several  of  them  with  some  degree  of  care,  we  have  no  hesitation  in  pro- 
nouncing them  among  the  very  best  extant. — Prof.  A.  C.  Knox,  Hanover  College,  Indiana. 

I  can  give  you  no  better  proof  of  the  value  which  I  set  on  them  than  by  making  use  of 
t'lcui  in  my  own  classes,  and  recommending  their  use  in  the  preparatory  department  of  our 
institution.  I  have  read  them  through  carefully,  that  I  might  not  speak  of  them  without 
due  examination  ;  and  I  flatter  myself  that  my  opinion  is  fully  borne  out  by  fact,  when  1 
pronounce  them  to  be  the  most  useful  and  the  most  correct,  as  well  as  the  cheapest  editions 
of  Latin  Classics  ever  introduced  in  this  country.  The  Latin  and  English  Dictionary  con- 
tains as  much  as  the  student  can  want  in  the  earlier  years  of  his  course ;  it  contains  more 
than  I  have  ever  seen  compressed  into  a  book  of  this  kind.  It  ought  to  bo  the  student's 
constant  companion  iu  his  recitations.  It  has  the  extraordinary  recommendation  of  being 
at  once  portable  and  comprehensive. — Prof.  It.  W.  Newell,  Masonic  College,  Tenn. 

That  invaluable  little  work,  the  Classical  Manual,  has  been  used  by  me  for  some  time.  I 
would  not,  on  any  account,  be  without  it.  You  have  not  perhaps  been  informed  that  it  has 
recently  been  introduced  in  the  High  School  of  this  place.  Its  typographical  accuracy  is 
remarkable. — Reginald  It.  Cliase,  Harvard  University. 


10  BLANCHARD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.) 

Shaw's  English  Literature— Lately  Published. 
OUTLINES  OF   ENGLISH  LITERATURE. 

By  THOMAS  B.  SHAW,  Professor  of  English  Literature  in  the  Imperial  Alexander 
Lyceum,  St.  Petersburg,  Second  American  Edition.  With  a  Sketch  of  Ame- 
rican Literature,  by  HENRY  T.  TUCKERMAN,  Esq.  In  one  large  and  handsome 
volume,  royal  12mo.,  of  about  five  hundred  pages. 

The  object  of  this  work  is  to  present  to  the  student,  within  a  moderate  compass, 
a  clear  and  connected  view  of  the  history  and  productions  of  English  Literature. 
To  accomplish  this,  the  author  has  followed  its  course  from  the  earliest  times  to 
the  present  age,  seizing  upon  the  more  prominent  "  Schools  of  Writing,"  tracing 
their  causes  and  effects,  and  selecting  the  more  celebrated  authors  as  subjects  for 
brief  biographical  and  critical  sketches,  Analyzing  their  best  works,  and  thus  pre- 
senting to  the  student  a  definite  view  of  the  development  of  the  language  and 
literature,  with  succinct  descriptions  of  those  books  and  men  of  which  no  educated 
person  should  be  ignorant.  He  has  thus  not  only  supplied  the  acknowledged 
want  of  a  manual  on  this  subject,  but  by  tb-e  liveliness  and  power  of  his  style,  the 
thorough  knowledge  he  displays  of' his  topic,  and  the  variety  of  his  subjects,  he 
has  succeeded  in  producing  a  most  agreeable  reading-book,  which  will  captivate 
the  mind  of  the  scholar,  and  relieve  the  monotony  of  drier  studies. 

Its  merits  I  had  not  now  for  the  first  time  to  learn.  I  have  used  it  fortwo  years  as  a  text- 
hook,  with  the  greatest  satisfaction.  It  was  a  happy  conception,  admirably  executed.  It  la 
all  that  a  textrbook  on  such  a  subject  can  or  need  be,  comprising  a  judicious  selection  of 
materials,  easily  yet  effectively  wrought.  The  author  attempts  just  as  much  as  he  ought  to, 
and  does  well  all  that  he  attempts ;  and  the  best  of  the  book  is  the  genial  spirit,  the  genuine 
love  of  genius  and  its  works  which  thoroughly  pervades  it  and  makes  it  just  what  you  want 
to  put  into  a  pupil's  bauds. — Professor  J.  V.  Raymond,  University  of  Rochester. 

Of  "  Shaw's  English  Literature"  I  can  hardly  say  too  much  in  praise.  I  hope  its  adoption 
and  use  as  a  text-book  will  correspond  to  its  great  merits. — Prof.  J.  C.  Pickard,  Itt.  College. 

BOLMAR'S  COMPLETE  FRENCH  SERIES. 

Blanchard  and  Lea  now  publish  the  whole  of  Bolmar's  Educational  Works,  form- 
ing a  complete  series  for  the  acquisition  of  the  French  language,  as  follows : 

BOLMAR'S  EDITION  OF  LEVIZAC'S  THEORETICAL  AND  PRACTICAL 
GRAMMAR  OF  THE  FRENCH  LANGUAGE.  With  numerous  Corrections 
and  Improvements,  and  the  addition  of  a  complete  Treatise  on  the  Genders  of 
French  Nouns  and  the  Conjugation  of  the  French  Verbs,  Regular  and  Irregu- 
lar. Thirty-fifth  edition.  In  one  12mo.  volume,  leather. 

BOLMAR'S  COLLECTION  OF  COLLOQUIAL  PHRASES,  on  every  topic 
necessary  to  maintain  conversation  ;  arranged  under  different  heads;  witb  nu- 
merous remarks  on  the  peculiar  pronunciation  and  use  of  various  words.  The 
•whole  so  disposed  as  considerably  to  facilitate  the  acquisition  of  a  correct  pro- 
nunciation of  the  French.  In  one  18mo.  volume,  half  bound. 

BOLMAR'S  EDITION  OF  FEXELON'S  AVENTURES  DE  1ELEMAQUE. 
In  one  12mo.  volume,  half  bound. 

BOLMAR'S  KEY  TO  THE  FIRST  EIGHT  BOOKS  OF  TELEMAQUE,  for 
the  literal  and  free  translation  of  French  into  English.  In  one  12mo.  volume, 
half  bound. 

BOLMAR'S  SELECTION  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  OF  PERRIN'S  FABLES, 
accompanied  with  a  Key,  containing  the  text  and  a  literal  and  a  free  transla- 
tion, arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to  point  out  the  difference  between  the 
French  and  the  English  idiom;  also,  a  figured  pronunciation  of  the  French. 
The  whole  preceded  by  a  short  treatise  011  the  Sounds  of  the  French  language 
as  compared  with  those  of  English.  In  one  12mo.  volume,  half  bound. 

BOLMAR'S  BOOK  OF  FRENCH  VERBS',  wherein  the  Model  Verbs,  and  seve- 
ral of  the  most  difficult,  are  conjugated  Affirmatively,  Negatively,  Interroga- 
tively, and  Negatively  and  Interrogatively,  containing  also  numerous  Notes 
and  Directions  on  the  Different  Conjugations,  not  to  be  found  in  any  other  book 
published  for  the  use  of  English  scholars ;  to  which  is'  added  a  complete  list  of 
all  the  Irregular  verbs.  In  one  12mo.  volume,  half  bound. 
The  long  and  extended  sale  with  which  these  works  have  been  favoured,  and 

the  constantly  increasing  demand  which  exists  for  them,  renders  unnecessary  any 

explanation  or  recommendation  of  their  merit*. 


BLANCHARD  A  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.)  11 

HERSCHELL'S     ASTRONOMY. 


OUTLINES    OF    ASTRONOMY. 

BY  SIR  JOHN  F.  W.  HERSCHEL,  BABT.,  F.R.S.,  &c. 

A  New  American,  from  the  Fourth  and  Revised  London  Edition. 

In  one  handsome  crown  octavo  volume,  with  numerous  plates  and  wood-cuts. 

The  present  work  is  reprinted  from  the  last  London  Edition,  which  was  care- 
fully revised  by  the  author,  and  in  which  he  embodies  the  latest  investigations  and 
discoveries.  It  may  therefore  be  regarded  as  fully  on  a  level  with  the  most  ad- 
vanced state  of  the  science,  and  even  better  adapted  than  its  predecessors  as  a 
full  and  reliable  text-book  for  advanced  classes. 

A  few  commendatory  notices  are  subjoined,  from  among  a  large  number  with 
which  the  publishers  have  been  favored. 

A  rich  miuo  of  all  that  is  most  valuable  in  modern  Astronomy.  —  Professor  D.  Olmstead, 
Tale  College. 

As  a  work  of  reference  and  study  for  the  more  advanced  pupils,  who  yet  are  not  prepared 
to  avail  themselves  of  the  higher  mathematics,  1  know  of  no  work  to  be  compared  with 
it. — Prof.  A.  Caswell,  Brawn  University,  R.  I. 

This  treatise  is  too  well  known,  and  too  highly  appreciated  in  the  scientific  world,  to  need 
new  praise.  A  distinguishing  merit  in  this,  as  in  the  other  productions  of  the  author,  is, 
that  the  language  in  which  the  profound  reasonings  of  science  are  conveyed  is  so  perspicuous 
that  the  writer's  meaning  can  never  be  misunderstood.  —  Prof.  Samuel  Jones,  Jefferson 
College,  Pa.  . 

1  know  no  treatise  on  Astronomy  comparable  to  "Herschel's  Outlines."  It  is  admirably 
adapted  to  the  necessities  of  the  student.  "We  have  adopted  it  as  a  text-book  in  our  Col- 
lege.— Prof.  J.  F.  Crocker,  Madison  College,  Pa. 

As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  it  is  the  best  work  of  its  class  in  any  language. — Prof.  Jamet 
Curley,  Georgetown  College. 

It  would  not  become  me  to  speak  of  the  scientific  merits  of  such  a  work  by  such  an  author ; 
but  I  may  be  allowed  to  say,  that  I  most  earnestly  wish  that  it  might  supersede  every  book 
used  as  a  text-book  on  Astronomy  in  all  our  institutions,  except  perhaps  those  where  it  is 
studied  mathematically. — Prof.  N.  Tillinyhast,  Bridgewater,  Mass. 


CHEMICAL    TEXT-BOOK     FOR     STUDENTS.    (Just  Issued.) 


ELEMENTARY    CHEMISTRY, 

THEORETICAL    AND    PRACTICAL. 

BY  GEORGE  FOWNES,  PH.  D.,  Ac. 

With.  Numerous  Illustrations. 

A,  NEW   AMERICAN,    FROM   THE    LAST  AND    RKVISED   LONDON   EDITION.      EDITED, 
WITH    ADDITIONS, 

BY  ROBERT  BRIDGES,  M.D. 

In  one  large  royal  12mo.  volume,  containing  over  550  pages,  clearly  printed  on 
small  type,  with  181  Illustrations  on  Wood. 

We  know  of  no  better  text-book,  especially  in  the  difficult  department  of  Organic  Chemistry, 
upon  which  it  is  particularly  full  and  satisfactory.  We  would  recommend  it  to  preceptors 
as  a  capital  "  office-book"  for  their  students  who  are  beginners  in  Chemistry.  It  is  copiously 
illustrated  with  excellent  wood-cuts,  and  altogether  admirably  "got  up."  —  jV.  J.  Medical 
Reporter. 

A  standard  manual,  which  has  long  enjoyed  the  reputation  of  embodying  much  know- 
ledge in  a  small  space.  The  author  has  achieved  the  difficult  task  of  condensation  with 
masterly  tact.  His  book  is  concise  without  being  dry,  and  brief  without  being  too  dog- 
matical or  general. — Virginia  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal. 

The  work  of  Dr.  Fownes  has  long  been  before  the  public,  and  its  merits  have  been  fully 
appreciated  as  the  best  text-book  on  Chemistry  now  in  existence.  We  do  not,  of  course, 
phiec  it  in  a  rank  superior  to  the  works  of  Brando,  Graham,  Turner,  Gregory,  or  Gmelin, 
but  we  say  that,  as  a  work  for  students,  it  is  preferable  to  any  of  them,— London  Journal  of 
Medicine. 


12  BLANCIIARD  &  LEA'S  PUBLICATIONS.— (Educational.) 

TEXT-BOOK  OF  SCRIPTURE  GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY.    (Just  Issued.) 

OUTLINES  OF  SCRIPTUilE~GEOGRAPHY  AND  HISTORY; 

Illustrating  the  Historical  Portions  of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments. 

DESIGNED  FOR  THE  USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  PRIVATE  READING. 

BY  EDWARD  HUGHES,  F.R.A.S.,  F.G.S., 

Head  Master  of  the  Royal  Naval  Lower  School,  Greenwich,  &c. 

BASED  UPON  COLEMAN'S  HISTORICAL  GEOGRAPHY  OF  THE  BIBLE. 

With  twelve  handsome  Colored  Maps. 
In  one  very  neat  royal  12mo.  volume,  extra  cloth. 

The  intimate  connection  of  Sacred  History  with  the  geography  and  physical 
features  of  the  various  lands  occupied  by  the  Israelites,  renders  a  work  like  tho 
present  an  almost  necessary  companion  to  all  who  desire  to  read  the  Scriptures 
understandingly.  To  the  young,  especially,  a -clear  and  connected  narrative  of 
the  events  recorded  in  the  Bible,  is  exceedingly  desirable,  particularly  when 
illustrated,  as  in  the  present  volume,  with  succinct  but  copious  accounts  of  tho 
neighboring  nations,  and  of  the  topography  and  political  divisions  of  the  countries 
mentioned,  coupled  with  the  results  of  the  late'st  investigations,  by  which  Messrs. 
Layard,  Lynch,  Olin,  Durbin,  Wilson,  Stephens,  and  others,  have  succeeded  in 
throwing  light  on  so  many  obscure  portions  of  the  Scriptures,  verifying  its  accu- 
racy in  minute  particulars.  Few  more  interesting  class-hooks  could  therefore  be 
found  for  schools  where  the  Bible  forms  apart  of  education,  and- none,  perhaps, 
more  likely  to  prove  of -permanent  benefit  to  the  scholar.  The  influence  which 
the  physical  geography,  climate,  and  productions  of  Palestine  had  upon  the  Jewish 
people  will  be  found  fully  set  forth,  while  the  numerous  maps  present  the  various 
regions  connected  with  the  subject  at  their  most  prominent  periods. 

We  have  given  it  considerable  examination,  and  have  been  very  favorably  impressed  with 
it  as  a  work  of  rare  excellence,  and  as  well  calculated  to  answer  a  demand,  which,  so  far  as 
our  knowledge  extends,  has  never  yet  been  fully  accomplished. — Evangelical  Repository. 

We  have  read  it  with  care,  and  can  recommend  it  with  confidence.  Indeed,  we  do  not 
know  of  a  more  convenient  and  reliable  handbook  for  a  pastor,  Sunday-school  teacher,  or  a 
general  student  to  refer  to  for  information  in  regard  to  Palestine,  whether  as  to  its  physical 
features  or  its  geography,  its  climate  or  its  productions,  its  past  history  or  its  present  con- 
dition.— Southern  Presbyterian. 

It  appears  to  contain,  in  a  compressed  form,  a  vast  deal  of  important  and  accurate  geogra- 
phical and  historical  information.  I  hope  the  book  will  have  the  wide  circulation  which  its 
merits  entitle  it  to.  I  shall  not  fail  to  recommend  it  so  far  as  opportunity  offers. — Prof. 
Samuel  H.  Turner,  N.  Y.  Theological  Seminary. 

We  have  long  needed  just  such  a  boofr;  and  as  soon  as  possible  we  shall  make  it  one  of  the 
text-books  of  our  college.  It  should  be  a  text-book  in  all  our  theological  institutions. — Rr.c. 
S'muel  Findley,  President  of  Antrim  College,  Ohio. 

Few  more  interesting  class-books,  where  the  Bible  is  used  in  schools,  can  be  found  than  the 
"  Outlines  of  Scripture  Geography  and  History,"  and  it  will  prove,  in  families  where  tho 
Bible  is  read,  a  valuable  auxiliary  to  the  understanding  of  that  blessed  volume.  It  is  there- 
fore to  be  hoped  that  it  will  receive  that  patronage  which  it  so  richly  deserves. — Rev.  Eli- 
phalet  Nott,  President  of  Union  College,  N.  T. 

I  have  studied  the  greater  portion  of  it  with  care,  and  find  it  PO  useful  as  a  book  of 
reference,  that  I  have  placed  it  on  the  table  with  my  Bible,  as  an  aid  to  my  daily  Scripture 
readings.  It  is  a  book  which  ought  to  be  in  the  hands  of  every  biblical  student,  and  I  can- 
not but  hope  that  it  will  have  a  wide  circulation.  To  such  ns  desire  to  borrow,  I  answer, 
"I  cannot  loan  it,  for  I  am  obliged  to  refer  to  it  daily!" — Prof.  E.  Everett,  New  Orleans. 

It  comprises  the  fullest  and  most  instructive,  ns  well  as  the  most  attractive  course  of 
lessons  on  its  particular  subjects  that  has  hitherto  been  offered  in  the  compass  of  a  single 
volume. —  William  Russell,  JV.  E.  Normal  Institute,  Mass. 

Its  thoroughness  and  comprehensiveness,  combined  with  conciseness  and  portable  size, 
and  especially  its  neat  and  beautiful  maps,  render  it  peculiarly  adapted  to  'Bible-classes 
and  Sabbath-Schools,  and,  indeed,  to  every  religious  family  and  every  reader  of  the  Bible. 
It  is  also  very  valuable  to  the  student  of  Ancient  History,  whether  sabred  or  profane.  I 
have  seen  no  work  of  the  kind  which  pleases  me  so  well.— Prof.  Sturtcvanfi  Illinois  College. 

1  (rQ  **  O 


University  of  California 

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Return  this  material  to  the  library 

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f  /,„„  n.,^ 

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REC'D  ID-US', 
DEC  0  4  1995 


IOOM  1 1/86  Series  9482 


3  1205  00894  1104 


A       f*  *  u  '     li  •i 


